*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 69488 ***

                          Practical Forging and
                               Art Smithing

                            THOMAS F. GOOGERTY

                             Milwaukee, Wis.
                       The Bruce Publishing Company

                             Copyright, 1915
                       The Bruce Publishing Company




INTRODUCTION


The present demand for school instruction in the industrial arts has
made it necessary for the teachers of industries to have that knowledge
of materials and methods which can only result from long and careful
experience with the materials of industry.

This book is the result of a life of such experience by a man who is now
recognized as a master craftsman in wrought metal.

The author’s work in wrought iron is comparable in design and finish to
the best work that has been produced in that material.

Some pieces of the best German work are before me as I make this
statement and tho more intricate they are no better in execution and far
less suitable to the material in design than the pieces illustrated in
this book which I have seen in process of execution and in the finished
form.

The author has moreover been a teacher of wrought metal work for many
years.

This experience is reflected in the sequence of difficulty presented by
the exercises and the clear, simple statement of the text.

With such clear and exact statement and with such profuse illustration
it is evident that the metal worker can gather much of the author’s long
experience from this book and take many a short cut to success in an
accomplishment to which there can be no royal road.

But the effectiveness of an applied art is measured best by its
expression of purpose within the limitations of the material used.

The artistic success of this book lies in the evident fact that the work
represented appears “Hand wrought and fashioned to beauty and use.”

I predict for it increasing usefulness in setting right the practice of
forging in school shops and as an inspiration to teachers, craftsmen and
tradesmen.

                                                           EDWARD J. LAKE.




TABLE OF CONTENTS


                                                                     Page

                               CHAPTER I.

    The Forge—Forge Tools—The Anvil—Anvil Tools—Making the
      Fire—Cleaning the Fire—Welding—Flux and Its Uses                   7

                               CHAPTER II.

    Electric Welding—Oxy-acetylene Gas Welding—The Fagot Weld—The
      Separate Heat Weld—Scarfing—Upsetting—Making the Weld—Lap
      Welding without Scarfing—Jump Welding—Butt Weld—Split
      Welding—Corner Weld—T-Weld                                        22

                              CHAPTER III.

    Corner Weld—Brazing—Fagot Weld—Fuming a Loose Eye—Hammock
      Hook—Finishing Wrought Iron—S-Link—Welded Eye Pin                 36

                               CHAPTER IV.

    Staples—Open Links—Welded Chain Lines—Punching—A Grab Hook          46

                               CHAPTER V.

    Bolts—Cupping Tool—Gate Hook—Hay Hook—Welded Ring—Expansion
      of Heated Iron                                                    54

                               CHAPTER VI.

    Making Tongs—Pig Iron—Puddling—The Bessemer Process—The Open
      Hearth Process—Crucible Steel—The Cementation Process—Tempering   60

                              CHAPTER VII.

    Making a Flat Cold Chisel—Spring Tempering—Welding Steel—Case
      Hardening—Coloring Steel—Annealing—Making a Scratch Awl—Making
      a Center Punch—Making a Hand Punch—High Speed Steel—Annealing
      High Speed Steel                                                  70

                              ART SMITHING

                              CHAPTER VIII.

    Wrought Iron Work—Making a Wrought Iron Leaf—Making a Volute
      Scroll—Grilles                                                    83

                               CHAPTER IX.

    Twisting—Braiding—Making a Fire Shovel                              93

                               CHAPTER X.

    Making a Door Latch—Making a Hinge—Making a Candle Stick            99

                               CHAPTER XI.

    Making a Drawer Pull—Chasing—Making a Door
      Knocker—Repousse—Perforated Decoration                           107

                              CHAPTER XII.

    Making a Hat and Coat Hook—A Fuller—Jump Welding—Making a
      Wall Hook                                                        117

                              CHAPTER XIII.

    Making a Toasting Fork—Inlaying                                    124

                              CHAPTER XIV.

    Making a Lantern—Making a Wall Lamp                                130

                               CHAPTER XV.

    Making a Portable Lamp                                             139




PRACTICAL FORGING




CHAPTER I.

    The Forge—Forge Tools—The Anvil—Anvil Tools—Making the
    Fire—Cleaning the Fire—Welding—Flux and Its Uses.


One of the most essential things in the school forge shop is a good
forge and fire; half the work is then mastered. A few years ago nearly
all of the small commercial shops running from one to six or more fires
were equipped with brick or iron forges. The blast was furnished either
with a bellows or fan which had to be turned by hand. This method was a
great drawback, which resulted in much loss of time. It was impossible
to do much work without the aid of a helper. Work that required two men
in those days is being done now by one. Modern invention has played an
important part in simplifying the labors of the workers in iron and
steel. At the present time there are various kinds of forges in use that
lessen the work of the smith. The most successful factories are now
equipped with modern forges and appliances in order that they may be able
to do work quickly.

In our manual training schools, where the pupils have such short periods
in which to do work, it is necessary that the shops be equipped with
modern tools so that they can produce work quickly. This will give the
individual pupil more practice in a shorter length of time, which simply
means more knowledge. Our schools should not be hampered by using forges
that have been out-of-date for years.

The best forge for manual training and trade schools is the down draft
with power driven fans, thus eliminating all pipes overhead and doing
away with the dust and dirt. A boy, working at this kind of a forge, can
use both hands in the handling of the work being heated in the fire; this
is a great advantage over the old way of turning a crank. Another good
feature of the mechanical draft forge is that it teaches a boy early
how to avoid over-heating or burning his iron. This is the first thing
one must learn in working at forging, as one who cannot heat the metal
properly cannot work it. One must become acquainted with the material,
and the burning heat must be understood.

[Illustration: Fig. 1. A Typical School Forge.]

[Illustration: Fig. 2. Fire Tools.]

Figure 1 shows an illustration of a down draft forge suitable for
schools; it is made of cast iron. A pressure fan furnishes the blast
for the fire and an exhaust fan takes away the gas and smoke thru an
opening at the bottom of the hood, and thru a large pipe which continues
under the floor and out thru a flue. The hood represented at A, can be
moved backward and forward to catch the smoke. The hood is moved with
a crank and worm gear as shown at B. The hearth is shown at C; a hole
in the center is called the tuyere. This is where the fire is built and
is the outlet for the wind. The amount of air needed for the fire is
regulated by a valve that is moved with a rod shown at D. The coal box
is always at the right hand of any forge and is shown at E. The water
box is represented at F. At G is shown the pressure pipe and at H the
exhaust pipe. Notice the large opening under the forge at I. Thru this
opening any nut or screw under the tuyere can be tightened with ease.
Notice the slide-rod at J. This rod, when pulled, dumps the cinders out
of the tuyere, and a bucket may be set under the hearth to catch them.
In school shops these forges are generally set in pairs in order to save
room. Figure 2 shows three fire-tools needed for the forge fire. These
tools consist of a poker made from ⅜-inch round stock, 26 inches long
with a loose eye turned on one end for a handle; a shovel with a flat
blade 4 by 6 by ¹⁄₁₆ inches with a handle riveted to the blade, and a
tool called a scraper. This scraper is made from the same stock as the
poker and is made with an eye at one end and a flat hook at the other. It
is used to scrape the coal and coke onto the fire, and to move pieces of
coke or coal, so that the iron may be seen while heating.

[Illustration: Fig. 3. Anvil.]

The anvil should be of wrought iron with a steel face, weighing about 125
pounds. This is large enough for any work being done in manual training
schools. In the school shop the anvils should all be of the same size and
weight so that any tool used with them will fit into any square hole.
In factories where anvils are made, they are forged from wrought iron
or soft steel, with a carbon steel face welded on; some are cast steel
thruout and others are cast iron with a steel face. The face is generally
three-quarters inch thick, and is hardened to resist heavy blows from
the hammer and sledge. (See drawing Figure 3 of anvil.) The anvil should
be fastened with iron straps, on a 10 by 10-inch block, set into the
ground about 3½ feet. From the top of the anvil to the floor should
measure 26 inches. The proper place to set the anvil in relation to the
forge is shown in the drawing, Figure 4. The smith should stand between
the forge and the anvil, with the horn of the anvil at his left when
facing it. The anvil edge farthest from the smith is called the outer
edge and the one nearest the smith is called the inner edge.

[Illustration: Fig. 4.]

[Illustration: Fig. 5. Hammer. Fig. 6. Sledge.

Fig. 9. Punch. Fig. 7. Hardie.

Fig. 8. Hand Punch.

Fig. 10. Center Punch.]

Every anvil should have two ball hammers weighing about 1½ and 2 lbs.
each. (See drawing of hammer, Figure 5.) The hammers should be numbered
corresponding with a number on the anvil. All the hammers should be kept
in a rack when not in use. When the pupils come into the shop to work,
they should be assigned to a certain forge and held responsible for the
care of tools. A ten-pound sledge hammer should also be included, perhaps
one for every two forges; the handle should be 26 inches long. (See
Figure 6.)

A piece of tool steel fitted into the square hole of the anvil and
sharpened at the top, is called a hardie. It is used in cutting iron. A
piece of iron is set on the sharpened edge of the hardie and struck with
the hammer. The sharpened edge of the hardie cuts into the iron, and in
this manner it is cut deep enough so that it may be broken. (See drawing
of hardie, Figure 7.)

If a piece of steel is pointed on one end, it can be hammered thru a flat
piece of iron. This is one method of punching holes in iron; a steel
punch so made is called a hand punch. Ordinarily hand punches are made
out of ½-inch to ¾-inch hexagonal tool-steel bars about eleven inches
long. (See drawing Figure 8.) For heavy punching, a short, thick punch
with a hole thru it, (called the eye) to receive a wooden handle, is
used. This kind of punch is struck on with a sledge hammer. (See drawing
Figure 9.)

A center punch is used to make depressions in metal so that a drill may
be started in a given place. It is used also to mark places or distances
on the surface of metal when the metal is to be bent at a certain place.
Center punches are made from hexagonal tool steel about 4 by ½-inch,
drawn to a point and ground to a short angle. (See Figure 10.)

[Illustration: Fig. 11. Flat Tongs.

Fig. 12. Hot Chisel. Cold Chisel.

Fig. 13. Flatter. Fig. 14. Set Hammer.]

In heating and handling short pieces of stock, tongs are used (see Figure
11) which are made from Swedish iron or mild steel; they are made in
various sizes and shapes according to use. They are called pick-ups,
flat, round-nose, and bolt tongs according to the shape of the lips.
Tongs should always be made to fit the piece being forged. One cannot
hold a piece of iron properly with tongs that do not fit the piece.
They may be heated and fitted to the stock when occasion demands. One
important reason why tongs should fit the piece being hammered, is that
when turning and striking the piece there is danger of the piece being
knocked out of the tongs in a whirling motion and the flying piece of hot
iron is liable to strike someone; this danger must be closely watched.
Tongs should not be heated red hot and cooled in water; this destroys
them.

Hot and cold chisels are used in cutting stock. The blade of the hot
chisel is made very thin, while the cold chisel is made blunt to stand
the heavy strain in cutting. They are generally made with a hole thru
them, called the eye, to receive a wooden handle. These chisels are
struck on with a sledge hammer. (See Figure 12.)

Iron and steel are sometimes smoothed with a tool called a flatter. This
tool is struck on with a sledge, and should not be used to stretch iron.
Its purpose is only to give the work a smooth finish. Figure 13 shows a
flatter, and Figure 14 a set-hammer. The set-hammer is always used to
smooth and draw stock. All of these tools are made from tool-steel.

A heading tool is made from a flat piece of soft steel with a hole in one
end. Sometimes a carbon steel face is welded on. The heading tool is used
mostly in heading bolts. Heading tools are made with different sized
holes. (See Figure 15.)

[Illustration: Fig. 15. Heading Tool.]

[Illustration: Fig. 16. Top and Bottom Swages.]

Swages and fullers are used to smooth and form iron into various shapes.
The swages generally have half round depressions in them. They are made
in pairs called top and bottom swage. The bottom one fits the square
hole of the anvil; the top one has a hole for a wooden handle. (See
drawing Figure 16.) The fullers are also made in pairs called top and
bottom fullers. They are used to make depressions in metal. (See drawing
Figure 17.) When referring to swages, fullers, and other tools of this
character, blacksmiths speak of anvil tools. Special anvil tools are
used in doing various kinds of forging, and are made when needed. The
anvil tools should be kept in a tool rack next to the anvil. These tools
should be made from tool-steel of about 75-point carbon, or they may be
purchased from a dealer. Some tools, such as swages, that do not require
continuous service, are made of soft steel.

The anvil tool should have a buggy-spoke for a handle. The handle should
stick thru the eye of the hole about one inch and should never be wedged.
If the handle is wedged it is more liable to be broken when the tool
is struck a glancing blow with the sledge hammer. This is very often
the case. The reason the spoke should stick thru the tool is that if it
should begin to work off the handle when struck with the sledge hammer,
the movement can be seen.

[Illustration: Fig. 17. Top and Bottom Fullers.]

Figure 18 shows a wrought vise suitable for school work. A cast iron
machinists’ vise should not be used excepting, perhaps, for bench work.
Figure 19 shows a cast-iron swage block with various sized holes, and
depressions around the edge for forming iron.

The stock used in a forge shop should be kept in a rack built for the
purpose. The different kinds of stock, such as soft and tool-steel,
common and Swedish iron, should be partly painted with a distinguishing
color, so that there will be no trouble finding what is wanted. For
instance, all soft steel should be painted white, tool-steel another
color, and so on. There should also be in the shop a shears to cut iron.
One of the ordinary hand-power shears in use today would be suitable and
may be purchased from a dealer.

[Illustration: Fig. 18. Vise.]

[Illustration: Fig. 19. Cast Iron Swage Block.]

In lighting the fire in the forge all of the cinders are cleaned out
down to the tuyere. This is done by scraping them to the sides of the
fire-place with the shovel. All clinkers should be picked out with the
hands and put under the forge. It is a good plan to pick out some of the
best pieces of coke and set them to one side on the forge, to be used
later on. The slide rod that controls the ash dump at the bottom of the
tuyere, is now pulled to allow the cinders and ashes to drop thru. Do not
allow a boy to pull the valve after the fire is started, as this wastes
the coke and is a bad habit to get into.

When the tuyere is clean, some shavings are lighted in the bottom and
when well burned, the coke is raked back on the fire. A little wind is
then turned on. Wet coal is banked around the sides and back of the fire.
When the fire is well started and loosened up in front with the poker and
most of the smoke burned, it is ready for heating. The coal in the box
should be thoroly mixed with water before putting it on the fire, for the
reason that it cokes better, and packs in around the sides of the fire,
keeping it from breaking thru. The coal box is always at the right of the
worker when he is facing the fire. The box on his left, and between the
down draft forges, is to hold water—not coal. There should be a water cup
of some sort hanging on a hook so that when water is needed for fire or
coal it may be handled with the cup.

A fire, when not properly handled becomes hollow, due to the center
burning out. If iron is heated in this kind of a fire, it will become
oxidized, that is to say, a dirty scale will form over the metal. Iron
cannot be properly heated, and it is impossible to get the welding heat
with a fire in this condition. The reason a fire becomes hollow is that
it may be filled with clinkers, or too much blast may have been used,
and when it comes in contact with the pieces being heated causes them to
cool and oxidize. Sometimes the fire will not be directly over the hole
in the tuyere; which is one cause of poor heating. This is a common fault
with boys working at the forge. Always have the fire over the hole in the
tuyere, and not to one side.

When the fire becomes hollow and dirty, clean it by picking out the
clinkers with the poker or scraper, then move the sides of the fire
towards the center of the tuyere with the shovel, keeping the well-coked
inner sides near the center of the tuyere, and having the center of fire
over the hole in the tuyere. Wet coal is now banked around the outer
sides. Always have a thick bed of coke under the piece being heated and
regulate the blast so as not to burn out the center of the fire at once.
See drawing of fire with piece about on the same plane with bottom of
hearth; notice dotted lines representing the wrong way to put stock in
the fire. (Fig. 20.)

[Illustration: Fig. 20. Section of Forge Fire.]

If two pieces of iron are placed in the fire and heated, they will become
gradually softer until they reach a state where the metal has become
sticky. If touched together the two pieces will stick. This is what is
known as welding heat. If they were taken to the anvil and hammered while
in this condition they would unite and become one piece. This would be
called welding. All metals cannot be welded. Iron, soft steel, low-carbon
tool steel and spring steel can be welded.

A flux is used in welding steel—this excludes the air and forms a pasty
surface on the metal which is squeezed out from between the surfaces of
the metal when hammered. Borax and the many welding compounds are used.
Very seldom is it necessary to use a flux on iron. Clean sand, which is
good, is used by many. Borax or welding compound is sometimes used on
very thin stock. For ordinary welding, such as is being done in school
shops, borax should never be used. It is poor practice, unnecessary, and
a useless waste.

In heating iron, if it is brought beyond the welding heat, it will become
softer and softer until it will finally burn. This may be known by the
great number of little explosive sparks coming from the fire. These
little sparks are particles of iron separating from the bar and burning.
As the heat gradually rises, the metal separates. If the bar were now
placed on the anvil and struck a hard blow with a hammer, it would fly
to pieces. Therefore, judgment must be used in striking the first blow
on any welding heat—it should be light. The succeeding blows should be
made gradually harder. A hard blow at the start might make the metal fly
to pieces, or make the upper piece slip away from the under piece. If
lighter blows were struck, the weld might be made in good shape.

The principal thing in welding is to have a clean fire. All of the
clinkers must be kept out. The fire should be a well burned one, without
much smoke or gas, and never any green coal near the pieces being heated.
Well burned pieces of coke around the metal should always be used in
raising the welding heat. In raising the welding heat very little blast
should be used at first. Heat the pieces slowly so as to get them hot
thruout.




CHAPTER II.

    Electric Welding—Oxy-acetylene Gas Welding—The Fagot Weld—The
    Separate Heat Weld—Scarfing—Upsetting—Making the Weld—Lap
    Welding Without Scarfing—Jump Welding—Butt Weld—Split
    Welding—Corner Weld—T Weld.


A rapid blast on the start, not only heats the outer part of the metal
first and not the center, but it also burns out the fire and makes it
become hollow before the metal has the welding heat. There is a right
and a wrong way of taking a welding heat from the fire to the anvil. The
pieces must be lifted clear up out of the fire, and must not be dragged
thru the dirt and cinders on the inner edge of the fire. Iron will not
unite when dirty. It is very easy to get a clean heat if one will pay
attention to having the fire clean. Do not attempt to get the welding
heat in a dirty fire; this is one thing that must be impressed upon the
mind of one working at the forge. The skillful worker in iron always pays
particular attention to the fire, for he knows by experience that it must
be clean, in order to do good work.

Welding is also done with an electric welding machine. The pieces to be
welded are clamped and held in bronze clamps. The clamps are adjusted so
that the ends of the pieces to be welded touch. They can be moved so as
to bring the pieces into close contact or separate them. When the pieces
are in close contact, the current is turned on. The pieces are then
separated a little so that the current jumps across the space between
them, forming an electric arc. This heats the ends to a welding heat,
and by forcing them together they are welded.

Another form of welding is by the oxy-acetylene gas method. It is
being used extensively at present, and has been found very valuable
and economical in making the lighter welds. It is possible to weld
steel, iron, cast-iron, copper, brass and aluminum by this process. The
apparatus consists of a specially designed blow pipe, an acetylene tank
and an oxygen tank under pressure.

The method of welding is to heat the pieces to be welded with the
blow pipe until they reach the fusion point. For instance, in welding
cast-iron, the pieces are clamped together, a V shape is cut nearly thru
the joint, the metal is heated to the fusion point, and a feeder, which
is a small cast-iron rod, is melted into it. In welding steel, the feeder
is a steel rod; for copper or brass welding, a rod of copper or brass is
used. Nowadays this method is extensively used in automobile work, in
repairing cracked cylinders.

[Illustration: Fig. 21.]

A very simple weld to make by heating in the forge, is what is known as
the fagot weld. In doing this, two or three pieces are welded by simply
laying one piece on top of the other, or a bundle of pieces of iron of
various sizes and shapes are bound together, heated and welded. For
example, if a bar of flat iron is heated and cut half thru in several
places, doubled over and over, one piece on top of the other and then
welded in order to make a large piece of stock this would be called a
fagot weld.

In Figure 21, the pieces are represented ready to make a fagot weld.

The welding of two pieces of stock by scarfing and lapping is known as
a separate-heat-weld, so called because the pieces are detached while
the heat is taken. In making any kind of a weld there is more or less
stock wasted in the raising of the welding heat, therefore the parts to
be lapped and welded are always upset or thickened and then scarfed.
The word “scarfed” means the shaping of the ends of the bars so that
when heated and lapped one on top of the other, they will fit and make a
splice, leaving the stock when hammered about its original size.

The method of upsetting is to heat the ends of the bar, then set the hot
end on the anvil with the bar vertical and hammer on the other end. This
thickens the heated end. If it is a long heavy bar, the worker churns
the bar up and down striking the hot end on the anvil. A bar may also be
heated on the end, then fastened in a vise and the hot part hammered to
thicken it. In upsetting, the bar must be kept straight as hammering will
bend it where heated; if not kept straight, it will not thicken.

[Illustration: Fig. 22. Fig. 23.]

When a piece is upset about one inch in diameter for a three-quarter
inch, round bar, it is scarfed by setting the hot end on and near the
outer edge of the anvil. It is then driven back on a bevel by hammering.
See Figure 22. It is also turned on the side and beveled on both sides to
nearly a point. See Figure 23. The scarf must not be hammered when the
piece is held in the center of the anvil, (Figure 24), for the reason
that the edge of the hammer comes in contact with the anvil, pecking
dents in it or breaking out pieces from the hammer.

[Illustration: Fig. 24. Fig. 25.]

Another method of scarfing is to hammer the end partly back as previously
explained, then set the piece on the inner edge of the anvil and hammer
it as shown in Figure 25. After each blow, it is drawn away from the edge
of the anvil just a little; this tapers it with a series of little steps,
not for the purpose of making notches in the scarfs to fit together and
hold while hammering, but simply because the edge of the anvil leaves it
in this condition when tapered. It is also drawn pointed by hammering on
the outer edge of the anvil.

Theory teaches that the scarf should be made with the beveled part
convexed. However, in practice, it is made to look like the drawing in
Figure 26. Note the raised parts at “D”. This is forced up when the scarf
is first driven back with the hammer as shown at “B”.

The reason that the high part should be on the scarf, is, that when
lapped it gives an additional amount of stock at this part of the laps
to be hammered. If the scarfs are made flat, when hammered, they are
not liable to finish up without having the pieces thin, or the point of
the lap exposed. If the scarfs are made concave, it is claimed by some
workers of iron that dirt will deposit there and result in a poor weld.
This is true to some extent. However, dirt will deposit on any scarf
unless the fire is clear. With a concaved scarf when lapped, there is
not stock enough to be hammered without leaving the pieces thin, or the
lapping too long when welded. Scarfs should not be made concave.

[Illustration: Fig. 26.]

[Illustration: Fig. 27. Fig. 28.]

Notice in Figure 27, the incorrect way of scarfing and in Figure 28, the
correct way.

The scarfs must not be made too long; this is a common fault with all
beginners and one to avoid. The scarfs should be made a little longer
than the thickness of the iron, perhaps 1½ times the thickness.

In raising the welding heat, the pieces must be placed in the fire with
the scarfs, or beveled part, down. The fire must be a clean one. A well
burned fire is best. A new fire is not a good one to raise the welding
heat in, as there is too much smoke and green coal that comes in contact
with the metal. The hammer should be placed on the anvil about over the
square hole, so it will be handy to reach when making the weld. The anvil
should also be clean. A heavy hammer should be used in welding. The
proper way to hold the hand hammer is with the fingers around the handle
and the thumb protruding along the side and near the top. The thumb
should never grip around the handle, but lie along the side to guide and
direct the blows. When using the sledge hammer, stand in front of the
anvil and not at its side, and let the first blow be a light one.

In heating a slow blast is maintained. When the pieces begin to get about
yellow, more blast is used. The pieces can be watched without removing
them from the fire. They should be turned over occasionally, moving them
nearer to the surface of fire to see how the heat is progressing, and
then under the coke again. Care must be taken to get both pieces heated
alike. If one piece should get hotter than the other, it can be moved
over in the fire a little, and the cool one put in its place. Perhaps
the fire is hotter in one spot than another. If one piece is heating
much faster than the other, lift it clear up and out of the fire for a
few seconds to cool and give the other piece a chance to become hotter.
If the points of the scarf are heating too fast for the body, the pieces
must be pushed thru the fire a little farther.

It is a good plan sometimes, when the pieces are about a yellow heat
to shut off the wind for a moment, to let the pieces and fire even up
and give the heat a chance to soak thru them. As the pieces become
nearly white, the blast is increased. Welding heat is about 1900°-2000°
Fahrenheit, and can only be determined by experience. When the
temperature of the pieces reaches the welding heat, they are lifted up
and out of the fire and taken by the smith to the anvil, without the aid
of a helper. The smith raps them against one another or against the anvil
to dislodge any dirt that may be on the scarfs. The piece in the left
hand is set against the inner edge of the anvil. The piece in the right
hand is now moved across the anvil until it comes under the top one. See
Figure 29. The piece in the left hand is then placed on the under one, by
simply raising the hand, teetering the piece on the edge of the anvil,
and holding it firmly by pressing down. This is important. The smith lets
go of the piece in his right hand, and taking the hammer strikes lightly
until the two are stuck, after which he welds them together with solid
blows, first on one side, then on the other and finally on the corners.

[Illustration: Fig. 29.]

It requires some practice to be able to take two pieces from the fire
and place them in position on the anvil to be welded. This should be
practiced by the pupil under the eye of the teacher, perhaps a dozen or
more times, with the cold pieces before he undertakes to get the welding
heat. If one cannot take the pieces out and place them in position, he
cannot make a weld of this kind.

Two boys should not be allowed to work together on this weld. One can do
it much better than two. It is a one-man job. There is nothing difficult
about it, after the method is learned by deliberate and persistent
practice with the cold iron. There is no need of hurrying when taking the
pieces out of the fire to the anvil.

If the scarfs are too long, they will overlap one another too far and
cannot be welded down quickly enough. If too short, they hammer down too
quickly to make a good job, and the weld will be thin.

If the scarfs are the right length and about the same size, which is
important, the weld will finish down in good shape and make a smooth job,
providing the ends are clean. When the pieces being heated, look as tho
they are covered with grease, you may be sure the fire is dirty, or is
too new.


_Lap Welding Without Scarfing._

A lap weld is sometimes made without scarfing the ends. For instance,
pieces of 1″ × ¼″ iron are to be welded by the lap method. They are
brought to a welding heat without upsetting; taken to the anvil as
previously explained for the scarf weld, lapped about ⁵⁄₁₆-inch, as shown
in Figure 30, and welded. This form of welding is used in a hurry-up job
where there is no great amount of strain on the work. It is impossible
to make a strong weld this way. Very thin stock, either iron or steel,
can be welded to advantage in this manner by hammering on the flat sides.
The edges, instead of being hammered, are cut off with a chisel, then
ground or filed smooth. In welding very thin stock, a little flux is
used. Always weld by separate heats, and do not rivet or split the stock
to hold both ends in place. This is not necessary. Try to make the weld
with one heat. All good welds are made in one heat.

[Illustration: Fig. 30.]


_Jump Welding._

[Illustration: Fig. 31. Fig. 32.]

For example, a piece like the one shown in Figure 31, is to be made by
welding. The pieces should be prepared as shown in Figure 32. The square
piece is 1″ by 1″ by 6″, the flat one 1½″ by ½″ by 8″. The square piece
is heated directly on one end. If the heat cannot be taken short enough,
it may be cooled in water so as to upset it with a lip or projection, as
shown. This lip can be worked out afterwards with a fuller, or it may be
driven into a heading tool which has the top corners of the hole rounded.
This will leave the corners of the lip round as shown. The bar at the end
should also be made slightly convex, so that the center part comes in
contact with the flat piece first. The flat piece is also upset in the
center.

In welding, separate heats are taken. With the square bar, handled with
the right hand, the pieces are brought to the anvil by the smith. The
square bar is set on top of the flat one, and a helper strikes the top
piece with the sledge, driving it down into the bottom one. The edge of
the lip is then welded fast with a hand-hammer; or a fuller or set hammer
is used, the helper striking with a sledge.


_Butt Weld._

[Illustration: Fig. 33.]

Iron may be welded by butting the ends together. In doing this, the
bars must be long enough so that they can be handled without tongs. For
instance, two bars of one-inch round stock, one five feet long and the
other shorter are to be welded. This size is about as light as can be
welded with this method. The ends are heated and upset a little making
them a little high in the center so that when they are placed together,
the contact is in the center. A short heat is taken on the end of each
bar. The smith takes out the long bar and the helper the short one,
butting the ends together on the anvil, as shown in Figure 33. The helper
hammers on the end of the short piece with a heavy hammer while the smith
holds the long one firmly, and hammers on the joint, at the same time
turning the bar so as to hammer the joint all around. In welding heavier
stock, a sledge should be used requiring more helpers. This method makes
a good weld, providing the heats are clean.


_Split Welding._

Figure 34 shows a drawing of round stock prepared for a split weld. In
making this weld, one piece is heated on the end, caught in a vise and
split with a thin chisel. See Figure 35.

These prongs are then spread and scarfed on the inside with the ball of
the hammer letting them become fan shape and as wide as possible. See
Figure 36. The other piece is upset and both pieces are caught in the
vise. The scarf is then hammered tight and the ends are cut so as not to
have them too long. See Figure 37. The cutting of the scarf, and partly
into the bar, helps to bind the pieces firmly while the heat is being
taken. See drawing of piece ready to be welded, Figure 38.

[Illustration: Fig. 34. Fig. 35.

Fig. 36. Fig. 37.

Fig. 38. Fig. 39. Fig. 40.]

A heat is now taken, using a little sand or welding flux, if the stock
is very small. In welding, the first blow is struck on the end of the
split piece to drive it down tight and weld it in the center. See Figure
39. The sides are next hammered to weld the laps. It is then finished.
On heavy work, the heats are taken separately and placed on the anvil by
the smith, in the same manner as described for a jump weld. Another form
of split welding is shown in Figure 40. This method is used in welding
heavy iron and steel, such as picks and drills. Notice the little beards
cut with a chisel to help hold the pieces in position when heating. Heavy
tool steel is also welded with this form of splitting. The first blow
struck with the hammer on this weld, is on the end, forcing the pieces
together; then on the flat part.


_Corner Weld._

In Figure 41 is shown an angle made by welding on the corner; this is
called a corner weld. It is generally made by using square or flat stock.
Figure 42 shows the scarfs prepared for a corner weld, using 1″ by ½″
stock. The piece at “A” is scarfed with the ball of the hammer. The one
at B, with the face of the hammer. Separate heats are taken and the
pieces lapped and welded.

[Illustration: Fig. 41. Fig. 42.]


_T-Weld._

The scarfs for T-welds are made in just the same manner as for the corner
weld, excepting that one scarf is in the center of the bar. See Figure 43.

In taking the pieces from the fire to the anvil, the one scarfed in the
center is handled with the tongs in the left hand. The one scarfed on
the end is handled with the right hand, letting it under the other, and
then hammered. Notice how wide the scarf is made on the end piece at “A”.
This is done to cover the other scarf. All flat “T” scarfs are made in
this manner.

[Illustration: Fig. 43.]




CHAPTER III.

    Corner Weld—Brazing—Fagot Weld—Turning a Loose Eye—Hammock
    Hook—Finishing Wrought Iron—S Link—Welded Eye Pin.


A corner weld made by using heavy stock, for example, one and one-fourth
inch square, is to have a square corner by welding. See Figure 44. With
the dimensions six inches from one end, the bar is heated and cut about
half thru from one side with a hot chisel. The bar is then heated and
bent to about a right angle, as shown in Figure 45. A piece of ¾-in.
square stock is cut on four sides as shown in Figure 46. This piece is
welded into the corner as shown in Figure 47. The heat is separate, and
the smith takes both pieces to the anvil when hot. He places them in
position as shown in the drawing, the helper doing the welding. The long
part of the bar is then broken off, another heat is taken and the corner
is finished up by the smith.

[Illustration: Fig. 44-45.]


_Brazing._

Iron and steel can be fastened together by brazing. In doing this, the
ends are tapered or dove-tailed together and bound with wire or a rivet
to hold them in position. They are then placed in the fire and brought
to a red heat. Some borax and spelter are put on and the heat is raised
until the brass flows. The work is then taken out of the fire and let
cool; then it is finished with a file, or by grinding. Spelter is an
alloy of copper and zinc, and may be purchased from dealers. Brass wire
may also be used in brazing, and sometimes copper.

[Illustration: Fig. 46-47.]

In teaching boys forging, the writer feels that it is a waste of time
to give a beginner little pieces to make, such as staples, hooks, etc.
A boy cannot learn to handle his hammer, or to heat a piece of stock by
making small things. What the beginner in forging needs is some work that
he can swing a hammer on without danger of spoiling it. Very few boys
on entering a shop can handle a hammer, and they certainly do not learn
about heating metal in a forge, by working at staples, etc. The first
exercise should be a fagot weld.


_Exercise No. 1.—Fagot Weld._

In doing this, two pieces of iron ½ in. square and 6 in. long are used.
The instructor demonstrates the welding of these two pieces before the
class. In making the weld, one piece is laid on top of the other and
both are caught at one end with a pair of tongs. The tongs should fit
the pieces nicely; a ring is placed over the ends of handles to bind the
jaws firmly on to the pieces. A heat is then taken on about one-half of
the length of the stock; the pieces are welded and at the same time drawn
to ½ in. square. The pieces are now turned around in the tongs and the
balance is heated and welded. While drawing stock always have the bar at
right angles with the long side of the anvil. If the bar is not so held,
it will twist on the slightly rounded face of the anvil.

[Illustration: Fig. 48.]

There will be more or less iron burned by the boys in making this fagot
weld; but this is necessary, for a boy can never learn how to work iron
until he can heat it properly. He must over-heat and burn iron in order
to understand the heat limitations of the metal.

After the weld is made and the bar is drawn to the original size, the
ends must be squared by upsetting them. The bar when finished should be
½ in. square thruout its length, and straight with the ends squared.

[Illustration: Fig. 49.]

It is then formed into a loose ring by hammering it over the horn of the
anvil and not on a ring mandrel. In forming the ring, the ends are upset
on an angle, so that when bent into ring form, they will fit together
nicely. See Figure 48.


_Exercise No. 2._

This exercise will be made in the same manner as number one, excepting
that the bar is finished to ⁷⁄₁₆ in. square, and a ring is turned on each
end. See Figure 49.

[Illustration: Fig. 50.]

The eye is formed by heating and hammering it over the horn of the anvil,
giving it the shape as shown at B. It is then reheated, set on the horn
of the anvil and hammered close to the eye as shown at C, which bends it
central with the shank as shown at D.

In turning loose eyes of any size stock or dimensions, on the end of a
bar, the ring is first turned into a circle of the desired size. It is
then sprung central with the shank. With this method, no figuring of
stock is required.


_Exercise No. 3._

[Illustration: Fig. 51. Fig. 52.]

[Illustration: Fig. 53. Fig. 54.]

In making a hammock hook, the stock should be soft steel, which may be
purchased for about the same price as iron. It will stand the bending
strains better than iron. The size of the stock is 7½ in. by ⅜ in. round.
The end is heated and a loose eye formed. The other end is drawn to a
taper with ¼ in. of the end turned up as shown. See drawing of hook,
Figure 50, and the different steps in forming the eye at A, B and C. The
hook is formed over the horn of the anvil as shown in Figure 51. Figure
52 shows the finished hook with a dotted line drawn thru the center,
indicating where the pull should come. In Figure 53 is shown a common
fault when turning a loose ring at the end of a bar, in not bending the
extreme end first. Notice Figure 54, where the end is bent as it should
be.

The expert worker in iron is very careful not to hammer mark and destroy
the section of a bar. One should remember that bending a ring or iron
hook is simply holding the bar on the horn of the anvil and striking the
part that protrudes past it. Never strike the bar when it is directly
over the horn. This does not bend it, but makes a dent in the stock.


_Finishing._

To finish wrought iron, all of the scale and dirt should be scraped off
with an old file while the piece is hot. When the iron is cooled, linseed
or machine oil is rubbed on. If the work is held over the smoke of the
fire and then oiled, it will take on a darker color. Never paint iron
work. This destroys the texture of the metal. Do not file work bright. It
should be dark—filing is not forging.


_Exercise No. 4.—S-Link._

[Illustration: Fig. 55. Fig. 56.]

Figure 55 shows a drawing of an S-Link, which is used to splice broken
chains. In Figure 56 is shown he length and size of the stock. The ends
are drawn to a short point and the center of the bar is marked with a
center punch. One-half of the link is then formed, bringing the point at
the center punch mark and using one-half of the bar. This is a simple
link to make. The only thing to be careful about is to not destroy the
section of the bar with hammer marks. This may be avoided if one does not
strike the hook directly over the horn of the anvil, but to one side of
the horn. See in Figure 57, the correct blow.

[Illustration: Fig. 57.]


_Exercise No. 5._

Figure 58 shows a drawing for a welded Eye Pin. The eye may be made any
size for practice. In making the ring, the bar is heated in the center
and hammered over the outer edge of the anvil, as shown in Figure 59. The
piece is now turned end for end, and jogged down again with the ball of
the hammer. See Figure 60. The piece should now look like the drawing in
Figure 61. The center of the piece is heated and hammered over the horn
of the anvil to make the ring round and to bring the shanks together. See
Figure 62.

[Illustration: Fig. 58.]

[Illustration: Fig. 59 (above). Fig. 60 (below).

Fig. 61 (above). Fig. 62 (right). Fig. 63 (left, below).]

In welding, the piece is caught by the ring with a flat pair of tongs.
See Figure 63. It is now placed in the fire so as to get the heat close
to the ring. The tongs are then removed, until the piece reaches a white
heat; the piece is again caught with the tongs, and the heat is raised.
It is taken out and set on the edge of the anvil and hammered as shown in
Figure 64. The first blow struck is close to the ring in order to weld
that part first. If it cannot be all welded in one heat, it should be
reheated at once. Do not hammer unless the heat is a welding heat, as
the stock will become too thin before it is welded. Do not heat the tongs
red as this destroys them and the piece cannot be held with hot tongs.
When the ring is welded, the end is drawn to a square point. See Figure
65.

[Illustration: Fig. 64. Fig. 65.]

[Illustration]




CHAPTER IV.

    Staples—Open Links—Welded Chain Links—Punching—A Grab Hook.


_Exercise No. 6._

Staples are used for hasps, gate hooks, and for various other purposes.
They are made from all sizes of stock, depending on the use to which they
are put. On account of its pliability, soft steel is the best stock to
use in making staples.

[Illustration: Fig. 66.]

The length to cut stock is shown in the drawing of the staple in Figure
66. The stock is caught at one end with a pair of light tongs. The piece
is then heated and drawn out to a point; it is reversed in the tongs and
the other end is drawn out. The center of the piece is then reheated and
bent into shape over the horn of the anvil.

In drawing any piece of stock to a tapered point, the taper should not be
hammered on one side continuously and, when turned over, hammered back
again. To have a taper on all four sides alike, the bar must be raised
the proper distance and not laid flat on the anvil. Figure 67 illustrates
the wrong way and Figure 68, the correct way.

[Illustration: Fig. 67. Fig. 68.]


_Exercise No. 7._

[Illustration: Fig. 69.]

[Illustration: Fig. 70. Fig. 71.]

In Figure 69 is shown a drawing of an open link. Open links are used in
the splicing of broken chains. In splicing a chain, the link is opened by
driving a chisel between the laps, or it is opened when made. These laps
are hooked into links of broken chain and then driven together. In making
the link, one end is drawn to a flat point and a hook is hammered on it.
See Figure 70. The other end is heated and drawn out as in Figure 71. The
center of the piece is now heated and bent over the horn of the anvil to
the desired shape. See Figure 72. Notice in the drawing that the hooks
at the open end of the link are not very long. They should not be made
longer than shown.

[Illustration: Fig. 72.]


_Exercise No. 8.—Welding a Chain Link._

The form and length of the stock for this exercise is shown in Figure 73.
The link may be made from iron or soft steel. After the stock is cut,
it is heated in the center and bent over the horn of the anvil into a
“U” shape. See Figure 74. The ends are now heated and scarfed by setting
them on the anvil as shown in Figure 75. The iron is then struck on top
with the hand hammer. After each blow, it is moved away from the anvil
just a little, giving the end a bevel, so that, when finished, the scarf
consists of a series of slanting notches.

[Illustration: Fig. 73. Fig. 74.]

In scarfing, both ends of the links are set on the anvil. The end of the
one on the right hand side must not be moved when scarfing the other.
After each blow of the hammer, the piece is moved just a little. If it
is moved too far and the other end of the link is fixed it will describe
an arc. See Figure 76. This is the method used in scarfing links.
Sometimes they are welded without scarfing, but it is not good practice.

[Illustration: Fig. 75. Fig. 76.]

Figure 77 shows the link scarfed, lapped and ready to be welded. In
welding, the heat is taken directly on the end of the lap and not on
the sides, so as not to burn the stock above the laps. When the link
has the welding heat, it is taken to the anvil and hammered on the flat
sides, then set on the horn of the anvil, and hammered on the corners.
See Figure 78. The shape of the link at the weld should be just a little
pointed for a strong link.

[Illustration: Fig. 77.]

In making chains, do not weld two single links and then one between them.
Weld a link on the end of the chain and keep repeating until finished.


_Exercise No. 9._

[Illustration: Fig. 78.]

Punching holes thru hot iron is not a difficult exercise. For instance: A
⅜-in. hole is to be punched thru a flat piece of iron or steel. The piece
is heated, taken to the anvil and a punch set on the spot to be punched.
The punch is struck three or four blows with the hand hammer driving it
into the metal as shown in Figure 79. The piece is then turned over and
the punch is set over the dark spot which is caused by the former blows,
and is driven thru. See Figure 80. Square and other shaped holes are
punched in the same manner. Thin stock is punched cold. In doing this,
the piece to be punched is set on the punch block and the punch driven
thru the metal into the hole of the block. A punch-block is a round or
square block of steel with one or more tapered holes thru it. See Figure
81.

[Illustration: Fig. 80. Left. Fig. 79. Center. Fig. 81. Right.]

Figure 82 shows some holes that could be punched while the metal is hot.
A hole like the one shown at A, is made with a punch of that shape; the
next hole is made with the same punch. Afterwards the hole is upset or
shortened by heating and cooling each side of the hole. The bar is then
hammered on the end. This shortens and spreads the metal. The hole is
made true by driving a round punch thru it. The stock used for this
exercise should be soft steel.

[Illustration: Fig. 82.]


_Exercise No. 10.—A Grab Hook for a Log Chain._

[Illustration: Fig. 83.]

[Illustration: Fig. 84. Fig. 85.]

Figure 83 shows a drawing of the hook with size of stock to be used. The
stock should be mild steel, 6½ by ¾ by ⅜ inches. To form the eye one
end is heated and shouldered back one inch from the end, by hammering
it on the anvil as shown in Figure 84. The eye is then rounded with the
hammer and the hole punched with a hand punch. The hole is countersunk by
hammering it on the horn as shown in Figure 85. The point is next drawn
out and then the hook is heated in the center. It is cooled each side of
the center and hammered over the horn to bend, then on the anvil as shown
at Figure 86. A piece of ⅜-in. flat iron is set on the inside of the hook
and the hook hammered to fit the iron. This leaves the opening of the
hook uniform and just the size required. See Figure 87.

[Illustration: Fig. 86.]

[Illustration: Fig. 87.]




CHAPTER V.

    Bolts—Capping Tool—Gate Hook—Hay Hook—Welded Ring—Expansion of
    Heated Iron.


_Exercise No. 11._

Bolts may be made in one piece by upsetting the end of a bar, then
squaring the head by driving the piece into a heading tool. A bolt may
also be made by welding a collar around the end of a bar after which the
head is squared.

[Illustration: Fig. 88.]

Figure 88 shows a welded bolt head. After the stock is cut to proper
length, the collar for the head is made. It is heated and hammered over
the horn of the anvil to make it round. The end of the collar is now
cut off on the hardie, cutting clear thru from one side and giving it
a bevel. The other end is cut from the opposite side giving it a bevel
also. See drawing at A. The collar is driven on the end of the bar while
the collar is cold and the bar is hot. When the collar is hammered on the
end of the bar, there should be about ⅛-in. crack. See drawing at B. The
reason is that, in welding, the collar is lengthened. Hammering stretches
the metal, and it must have end room. When the collar is ready the bar
is heated on the end and upset just a little. A heat is then taken, and
the collar is welded by striking it on four sides, letting the opening
form one of the corners. The bolt is then inserted into a ½-in. hole in a
heading tool to smooth the end of the head with a hammer. A cupping tool
is next set on to the head and given a few good blows with the hammer.
This bevels the top corners of the square head. A cupping tool is a piece
of tool steel with a half round depression in one end. See Figure 89.

[Illustration: Fig. 89.]

[Illustration: Fig. 90.]

The heads of bolts can be beveled with the hammer, instead of with a
cupping tool. Figure 90 shows a tool to be used in the vise to make heads
on light rods. The rod is heated and inserted into the hole; then the
vise is tightened after which the ends are hammered down.


_Exercise No. 12.—Forging a Gate Hook._

Figure 91 shows the length and size of stock which should be of soft
steel. One and one-half inches from each end of the bar is marked with a
center punch. One end is drawn round to a point. The other is hammered
round for the eye. See Figure 92. In the drawing Figure 93, the eye and
the hook are shown turned. The center part of the hook is square and is
to be twisted. This is done by heating the square part to a uniform heat
and cooling each end. The hook is then twisted with two pairs of tongs,
or it may be caught in a vise and twisted with one pair of tongs. See
drawing of the finished hook, Figure 94.

[Illustration: Fig. 91 (above). Fig. 92 (below).]

[Illustration: Fig. 93. Fig. 94.]

[Illustration: Fig. 95. Horn.]

Figure 95 shows a tool called a horn; it fits into the square hole of
the anvil. It is used to turn very small eyes at the end of a bar. A
piece of 1½-in. round soft steel is used in making it, by drawing the end
square to fit the hole in the anvil. It is afterwards bent over and the
taper drawn as shown.


_Exercise No. 13—Making a Hay Hook._

Figure 96 shows the stock which should be soft steel, to be used in
making a Hay Hook. The eye is first turned, using 11 inches of the bar.
The end is then heated and drawn to a point after which it is bent as
shown in the drawing.

[Illustration: Fig. 96. Hay Hook.]


_Exercise No. 14—Welding Ring._

[Illustration: Fig. 97.]

Figure 97 shows a drawing for a ring to be made from ½-in. round stock
cut 10 inches long. The whole is heated red at one time and then formed
into shape by hammering it over the horn as shown in Figure 98. The ends
are now heated and scarfed in the same manner as described for the welded
link. When they are lapped and ready for welding, they should look like
Figure 99. Notice that the ring is made egg shape so that a heat may be
taken directly on the ends of the scarfs and not at the sides. The ring
when welded is formed round.

Another method of welding rings is to upset the ends and then form the
rings. It is scarfed as explained above. This is seldom done in practical
work because it is too slow, and the other method is about as strong.

[Illustration: Fig. 98. Fig. 99.]

In welding the ring, it is handled in the same manner as in welding
links. To find the amount of stock for rings, the inside diameter plus
the thickness of stock is multiplied by 3.1416 or 3⅐. To this is added
enough stock for the lap of the weld. For example a ring is required of
one-inch stock. The inside measure is 10 inches. Solution: (10 + 1) × 3⅐
= 11 × 3⅐ = 34⁴⁄₇ + ½ inch for welding.

In heating a piece of iron to be formed into a ring, it should never be
heated to the welding heat. A welding heat on any piece of work that is
not to be hammered destroys the texture of the metal. Any piece of work
to be formed, should be heated evenly and not too hot.

Iron when heated expands. For example, if a piece of stock 12 by 1 by
⁵⁄₁₉ in. is heated red its entire length and then measured, it will be
about 12¼ in. long. When the piece is cooled it will go back to its
original length of twelve inches.

In making bands or tires for wagons, they are made a little short, then
heated and put on, letting them shrink to their original size, which
makes them tight.

[Illustration: Wrought Iron Lantern.]




CHAPTER VI.

    Marking Tongs—Pig Iron—Puddling—The Bessemer Process—The Open
    Hearth Process—Crucible Steel—The Cementation Process—Tempering.


_Exercise No. 16._

In forging tongs, stock ⅞-in. square of Norway or Swedish iron may be
used, as it is much easier for a beginner in welding the handle on to the
jaws. Soft steel may be used later on if desired. Figure 100 shows the
drawing of a finished pair of flat tongs. Figure 101 shows the size of
stock used and the dimensions of the rough forgings. It is not intended
that the dimensions given are to be accurately followed, but they are
given as an idea of what may be forged from this size of stock. In
forging the jaws, no helper is required to handle a sledge hammer after
the piece is cut from the bar for the reason that it is time lost for the
one who handles it, besides one man can do it.

[Illustration: Fig. 100. Blacksmith’s Tongs.]

[Illustration: Fig. 101.]

[Illustration: Fig. 102. Fig. 103.]

In forging the jaws a heavy hand hammer is used, and the bar is heated to
the welding heat, or near it. One and one-eighth inch of the bar is set
on the inner edge of the anvil and the lip is hammered as shown in Figure
102. The lip must not be turned and hammered on its edge. Let it get as
wide as it will, and do not hammer it too thin. After the shoulder has
been started for the length of the lip, it must not be moved. A common
fault is to start the shoulder and then to find that the lip is not long
enough and proceed to make another shoulder. The result of the second
shoulder is that when nearly finished a crack will be discovered. The
reason that second shoulder starts a crack is that the metal stretched
over the first shoulder. This is called a cold shut. See Figure 103.
Another common fault is to lower the bar when making the lip. This pulls
the lip on an angle with the bar and when it is straightened, another
crack is formed in the corner. See Figure 104. The bar must be on the
same plane with the anvil face at all times. When the lip is made, the
bar is turned to the left, setting it on the outer edge of the anvil and
hammering to form the shoulder for the eye. See Figure 105. It is then
turned again to the left hand and hammered down for the last shoulder.

[Illustration: Fig. 104. Fig. 105.]

At this time the stock required for the eye is beyond the outer edge of
the anvil. See Figure 106.

[Illustration: Fig. 106. Fig. 107.]

The rough forging should always be made a little larger than the finished
tongs; finishing it to size when the handle is welded on. When both jaws
are forged, they are cut in the center and the handles are welded on.
When the handles are well upset and scarfed, the shanks of the jaws are
drawn to equal size. Care must be taken in having the scarfed ends equal
in size or a poor weld will result. The handles at the weld are drawn
square with the corners tapered off. The jaws are now drawn and fitted
to size. Notice that the lip tapers on the edge, also on the flat part.
A small flute is fullered lengthways on the inside of the lip so that
round as well as flat iron may be held. The hole is next punched thru the
eye with a hand punch. A piece of ⅜-in. rod of soft steel is cut to the
proper length and used for a rivet. It is heated and inserted into the
holes in the jaws and hammered on both sides with hard blows. The jaws
of the tongs are now heated red and worked back and forth to loosen the
rivet in the eye. The jaws are fitted to the size of the stock they are
to handle as in Figure 107. The regular stock rivets should not be used
in tongs. The ⅜-in. round piece headed from both sides fits the holes
thru the eye best.

[Illustration: Fig. 108.]

In making tongs to hold a larger piece of stock, the square bar should
have an offset. The jaws should then be forged as in Figure 108. Notice
where the hammer strikes the bar to offset it.

In forging tongs, the handles should be welded to the jaws to give
practice in welding.


_Pig Iron._

Pig iron is made by smelting the iron ore in a blast furnace. The ore is
charged in a furnace mixed with lime stone as a flux, and melted by using
coke or coal as fuel. The resulting metal is called pig iron. It contains
from three to five per cent of carbon, two to four per cent of silicon
and various small amounts of sulphur, phosphorus and manganese.


_Puddling._

Wrought iron is made by melting the pig iron in a puddling furnace; about
one-half ton is charged at a time. After it is softened, it is stirred
with large iron hooks by the puddler and his helper. It is kept kneaded
to expose every part to the action of the flame, so as to burn out all of
the carbon. All the other impurities separate from the iron and form what
is known as the puddle clinker.

Pig iron melts at about 2100° F., steel at 2500° F., and wrought iron
at 2800° F., so the temperature of the puddling furnace is kept high
enough to melt pig iron but not hot enough to keep wrought iron in a
liquid state. Consequently, as soon as the iron becomes pure it forms a
spongy mass. This mass of sponge is divided into lumps of about 100 or
150 pounds which are taken to a squeezer and formed into blocks. In the
operation of squeezing the greater proportion of impurities left in the
iron after the puddling, are removed. While these blocks are still hot
they are rolled into flat musk bars. The bars are now cut and heated
to white heat in a furnace, taken to the rolls, welded and rolled into
merchant bars. In the welding and rolling the cinder coated globules of
iron are forced close together as the iron is welded. This gives the
iron a fibrous structure increasing its strength.


_Bessemer Process._

In making steel by the Bessemer process, the pig iron is put into a large
pear shaped vessel called the converter. The bottom is double; the inner
casing is perforated with holes called tuyeres, to admit air forced
under pressure. From ten to fifteen tons of molten iron at one time are
poured into the converter while it is lying on its side. The compressed
air is now turned into the double bottom as the converter rises to a
vertical position. The air has sufficient pressure to prevent the metal
from entering the tuyeres, and it passes up and thru the metal, burning
out the carbon. After the blast which lasts about ten minutes, the metal
is practically liquid wrought iron. The converter is now laid on its
side and the blast is shut off. A certain amount of molten spiegeleisen
(white cast iron containing much carbon or ferromanganese) is added so
as to give the steel the proper amount of carbon and manganese to make
it suitable for its purpose. The steel is then poured into ingots and
rolled into rails, girders, etc. Carbon is pure charcoal; manganese is a
chemical element very difficult to fuse, but easily oxidized.


_Open Hearth Process._

The open hearth process of steel manufacturing is similar to the puddling
process. The carbon is removed by the action of an oxidizing flame of
burning gas. The furnace has a capacity of forty or fifty tons and is
heated with gas or oil. The gas and air needed for its combustion are
heated to a temperature of over 1000° F. before entering the combustion
chamber, by passing thru so-called regenerative chambers. Owing to the
preheating of the gas and air a very high temperature can be maintained
in the furnace so as to keep the iron liquid after it has parted with
the carbon. The stirring up of the metal is not done with hooks as in
puddling furnace but by adding certain proportions of iron scales or
other oxides the chemical reaction of which keeps the metal in a state
of agitation. With the open hearth process the metal can be tested from
time to time. When it contains the proper amount of carbon it is drawn
off thru the tapping hole at the bottom of the hearth, leaving the slag
at the top. As steel is produced in a liquid form, from which impurities
have been removed in the form of slag that rises and floats at the top,
the metal is homogeneous and practically without grain. Wrought iron will
outlast steel when exposed to the weather.

Crucible steel, or tool steel, also called cast steel, is made by
using high grade, Swedish, wrought iron and adding carbon which is low
in phosphorus content. The oldest method is called the “Cementation
Process.” The iron bars were packed in air-tight retorts with powdered
charcoal between them. They were put in a cementation furnace, heated
red and kept at this temperature for several days. The bars, in this
way, absorbed the carbon from the charcoal. The carbonized bars (called
“blister steel”) were then cut into small pieces, remelted in a crucible,
poured in ingots and rolled into bars.

The newer method is to melt small pieces of Norway or Swedish iron base
with charcoal in a graphite or clay crucible. It is then poured into
moulds and made into ingots, after which it is forged or rolled into
bars.

The crucible process enables the manufacture of steel to almost exact
analysis and insures a clean and pure material. It also absorbs the
carbon much faster than steel made the old way.

In the school forge shop, the tool steel used should be of an inexpensive
kind. High priced steel should not be used as more or less is wasted by
the pupils in working. A carbon steel should be used for all forge shop
tools. About 75 to 95 point is suitable. High-speed tool steel should be
used only to give the pupils instruction in its handling and use, and to
familiarize them with the different kinds of steel and their treatment.

To the steel maker, temper means the percentage of carbon in the steel.
The word point means one-hundredth of one per cent, thus 10 point carbon
means ten one-hundredths of one per cent. One hundred and fifty point
carbon contains one and one-half per cent. This is about as high as is
generally made. One hundred and fifty point is known as high temper; low
temper is about 40 point. Steel containing less than 40 point does not
harden to advantage and is classed with machinery steel. There is a range
of tempers between high and low point which are used for different kinds
of tools.

In the forge shop the term _temper_ means the degree of hardness given
to a piece of tool steel. As an example, a piece of steel is heated to
a dark red color and cooled in water or oil. This is called hardening.
If this piece is too hard for the purpose intended, it is then tempered
to reduce some of its hardness, and to give the steel elasticity and
strength. In doing this, it is subjected to heat, (the more heat the
softer the piece becomes). In the forge shop, in tempering steel, the
metal is polished bright after hardening. If it is a small piece, it is
then held on or near a piece of hot iron. As the piece becomes heated,
the steel heated in the air assumes colors; at first a very faint yellow
and gradually darker, until all of the color has disappeared leaving the
steel without any trace of hardness.

These different colors as they appear on the surface of hardened steel
represent different degrees of hardness. The following simple list of
colors applies to the different tools and carbon to use:

Light straw—430° F. Lathe tools—130 point carbon.

Dark straw—470° F. Taps and dies—120 point carbon.

Purple gray—530° F. Chisels and blacksmiths’ tools, 75 to 95 point carbon.

Of course there are other colors than these. As the heat advances every
few degrees the color keeps changing to a darker which indicates the tool
is becoming softer.

The hardening heat is about 1300 to 1400 degrees Fahrenheit, or a cherry
red. About 400 degrees Fahrenheit relieves the strain in a hardened piece
of steel; 600 degrees leaves a trace of hardness and is about right for
springs.

In order to know the results of heating and cooling steel one should
take a small bar and cut nicks in it with a chisel every half inch. The
bar is then heated from a white heat at the end to a very dark red some
inches back. It is then cooled in water, the pieces broken and the grain
noted. The heat that leaves the steel file hard and a very fine grain is
the hardening heat of that steel. The hardening heat is a dark red. The
hotter it was when cooled the coarser the grain shows on the end of the
broken pieces.

In further demonstrating hardening and tempering of tool steel, the
making of a flat cold chisel will be considered. The principles involved
are about the same in all hardening and tempering.

[Illustration]




CHAPTER VII.

    Making a Flat Cold Chisel—Spring Tempering—Welding Steel—Case
    Hardening—Coloring Steel—Annealing—Making a Scratch Awl—Making
    a Center Punch—Making a Hand Punch—High Speed Steel—Annealing
    High Speed Steel.


_Exercise No. 17.—Flat Cold Chisel._

[Illustration: Fig. 109.]

A good cold chisel is an indispensable tool in a shop, and one that is
very much abused. Therefore, it should be made with the greatest care.
In the forging of a good chisel a piece of ⅝-in. octagonal tool steel,
from 75 to 95 point carbon, is used. The piece is cut six inches long. In
doing this the bar may be nicked with a chisel. The nicked part is then
set over the outer edge of the anvil. A chisel with a handle is set on
the nicks and given a good blow with a sledge hammer, shearing the piece
from the bar. See Figure 109. This method of cutting is quite dangerous,
so care must be taken. Perhaps, a less dangerous method, tho not so
practical, is to heat the bar red and cut the piece off with a hot chisel
and sledge, or on the hardie, if one has no helper. The end is then
hammered. See Figure No. 110.

[Illustration: Fig. 110.]

When cut off and hammered round on one end, the piece is caught with a
fluted-lip pair of tongs that will hold it firmly and a ring is placed
on the ends of the reins to bind them. The end is now heated in a well
burned fire, letting the heat soak in slowly, and not forcing it with too
much blast. If the fire is lively hardly any blast is used on the start.
The piece is brought to a heat somewhat beyond what is commonly called
cherry heat. It is then taken to the anvil and drawn out square with hard
blows of the hammer, to a long taper, and nearly to a point. This taper
should be about 1¾ inches long. See Figure No. 111.

[Illustration: Fig. 111.]

Hammering must cease before the red heat has left the steel. It is again
heated and hammered on two sides; in drawing the chisel bends edgewise.
Do not strike it on the edge; it will fracture the grain of the steel.
To straighten the blade, it should be hammered on the _flat_ side _near
the concave edge_. See Figure No. 112. This stretches the metal and
straightens the blade. Care must be taken in hammering not to make the
chisel wider in one place than in another.

[Illustration: Fig. 112. Fig. 113.]

When finishing the chisel, it is hammered lightly until the red is nearly
but not quite gone. This hammering packs the grain and makes it fine.
The end of the chisel is set on a hardie and cut half thru, so that when
it is hardened and tempered it may be broken to note its grain and also
require less grinding in sharpening. See Figure No. 113. The chisel
is now heated very slowly to a dark red and set in a dry place on the
forge to anneal. This annealing relieves the strain in the tool due to
hammering.

When the chisel is cold it is reheated to harden and temper. Over-heating
does not make the tool harder when cooled in water, but increases its
brittleness, so care must be taken when heating. The heating must be very
slow, and to a dark red, 2½ inches long. The chisel should be cooled as
the heat is going up. A common practice of heating the steel more than
a cherry red and holding it out of the forge until the heat goes down,
before dipping, is wrong. When properly heated the chisel is held in
a vertical position and dipped about 1½ inches into 16 gallons of salt
and water, heated from 60° to 70° F. See Figure 114. The tool is kept in
motion when dipped. When cooled it is removed, and the hardened part is
rubbed bright with an emery stick or sand paper. This is done so that the
temper colors may be seen. Tempering increases the tool’s elasticity and
strength, and reduces the brittleness. The temper color will show just a
faint yellow against the edge of the remaining heat that was left in the
tool after hardening.

[Illustration: Fig. 114.]

In hardening the tool, it is heated 2½ inches of its length and 1½ inches
is cooled in water to harden. The remaining heat gradually runs thruout
the whole chisel and may be noted by the faint yellow color on the bright
part of the tool traveling towards the cutting end. This faint yellow
temper color, due to the heat and air, is followed with darker colors;
if let run too much all of the hardness would be taken out of the tool.
Four hundred and thirty degrees Fahrenheit would be about a light straw
color, leaving the steel very hard. About 600° F. would be the darkest
color, nearly black. This is as hot as steel can be made and still leave
a trace of hardness. This temper is too soft for a chisel but about right
for springs; therefore when the very dark purple temper color covers the
whole bright part of the chisel the point is dipped in water. The chisel
is then set in a dry place on the forge to cool slowly. The temper color
must run to the end of the chisel very slowly. The reason for this is
that if the temper color comes slow, the chisel is tempered farther back
from the point. The temper colors on the surface of the bright steel are
obtained by different degrees of heat, as it travels from the remaining
heat left in the tool when the piece was hardened. The less heat allowed
to travel toward the end of chisel, the paler the temper color and the
harder the chisel; therefore, the faint yellow color indicates that the
steel is very hard. The darker the temper color becomes the softer the
tool.

The best chisels are those that are file proof. If, after hardening and
tempering a chisel, it cannot be cut with a file, it is too hard and the
temper must be run out more. If the grain of steel is very fine when
broken the chisel had the proper heat when quenched, but if it looks
coarse the tool was too hot when cooled and must be annealed, rehardened
and tempered. A little judgment will enable one to determine the proper
hardness for all tools of this character by noting these temper colors.
The above explanation in a general way applies to the working of all
carbon steel tools.


_Spring Tempering._

There are many kinds of springs that are hardened and tempered. The
methods of handling are about the same with all. As an example, a piece
of spring steel 5 by 1 by ¹⁄₁₆ inches is to be tempered. In doing this,
the piece is caught at one end with a pair of light tongs. The steel is
heated to a dark red and dipped into a can of sperm oil, or equal parts
of lard and tallow. When cool it is held over the fire until the surplus
oil takes fire and blazes off. It is redipped in the oil, and the oil is
burned three times in all. It is then partly cooled in the oil and set
on the forge until cool, when it is ready for use. Steel is manufactured
especially for springs. It is called spring steel. It is made in a
different way from tool steel, by the open hearth process. It differs in
quality and cannot be absolutely guaranteed. The steel is never free from
all foreign elements which might be detrimental to its quality.


_Tempering Thin Pieces of Steel._

In hardening thin pieces of steel such as knives, very thin milling
cutters, etc., there is always difficulty in preventing warping after
hardening. Two heavy surface plates, planed on one side, are used. On one
of these plates equal parts of tallow and lard are spread ¼ inch thick.
The knife is heated in a steam pipe with one end plugged and having fire
under and over it. When an even red heat is reached, the knife is brought
out and set on the oil and at the same time the top plate is set onto the
knife until cool. This hardens the blade and keeps it from springing.
The knife is brightened and the temper is drawn to a dark straw color by
holding it on a hot iron.

Very small pieces of steel are packed into an iron pipe or box surrounded
with charcoal. The whole is then heated red and the pieces are dumped out
and cooled in water. To draw temper, they are put in an iron ladle filled
with lard oil that is heated on the fire.


_Welding Steel._

All small pieces of tool and spring steel should be welded with separate
heats. A little practice and a clean fire, with some good welding
compound, are necessary. In separate heat welding of flat steel, the flat
sides of the scarfs are put together instead of the beveled ones. The
scarfs are shown in Figure No. 115. The method of riveting and splitting
small pieces of flat steel to hold them together while taking the heat is
not to be recommended because after they are put together in this manner
the lap is double thick, and in raising the heat there is always danger
of over-heating each side of the lap. Separate heats and a clean fire is
the best method to use to make a good weld, unless the steel is heavy. In
this case, it is split and forked as previously explained.

[Illustration: Fig. 115. Welding Thin Steel.]


_Case Hardening._

The difference between wrought iron and tool steel lies in the absence
of carbon in the iron. Tool steel can be hardened because it contains
carbon, and when heated and suddenly cooled becomes hard thruout. The
surface of wrought iron or mild steel can be carbonized and then made
very hard. This is called _case hardening_ because about ¹⁄₁₆ inch or
less of the outside of the bar is made hard while the center is soft.
There are several methods. One is to place the articles in a tight cast
iron box and surrounded with ground bone before placing in a furnace. The
box is then brought to a high heat of about 1700 degrees Fahrenheit. It
is held at this heat for several hours and then let cool. When cool, the
pieces are reheated and dipped in salt water to harden them or they may
be cooled with the first heating. By another method the pieces are placed
in an iron ladle with cyanide of potassium and heated. Iron may be heated
red and rolled in the cyanide, then reheated and plunged into water. Care
must be taken in handling cyanide as even the fumes are poisonous.


_Coloring Steel._

Very bright pieces of soft steel can be case hardened and colored at the
same time. In doing this, cyanide is heated in an iron box, and the steel
articles are put into it. When heated they are removed and dipped into
a solution of water and salt peter to cool and harden them. This gives
them a mottled effect with many colors. A pint of salt peter to about
four gallons of water makes a solution strong enough. This bath becomes
poisoned from the cyanide. It should be kept clean and labeled “_Poison_.”


_Annealing._

A piece of metal of any kind is said to be “annealed” when made very
soft. Steel should be annealed before it is filed, drilled, or machined,
as it is a very hard metal to work when cold. The method of annealing
is first to heat the piece to a red heat. It is then covered with warm,
slacked lime so that the air will not come in contact with it until
cool. A simple way to anneal, when in a hurry, is to heat the steel red,
setting it in a dry place on the forge until black. It is then plunged
into water quickly and brought out. This operation is repeated until
the piece is cool. Steel is also annealed by heating the piece red and
setting it on the forge until cool. The slower steel is cooled, the
softer it becomes. Wrought iron and mild steel forgings should always be
annealed when used in work where there is danger of breaking them.

[Illustration: Fig. 116 (above). Fig. 117 (below).]

[Illustration: Fig. 118. Scratch Awl.]


_Exercise No. 18.—Scratch-Awl._

This tool is used to scratch holes on the surface of metal, and also
to lay out shapes on metal. Figure 116 shows the dimensions of stock.
The piece should be carbon steel. One and one-half inches from one end,
the bar is drawn out until it measures 2¼ inches in length, as shown in
Figure 117. It is then bent on an angle as shown in Figure 118. This part
is now heated and hammered over the horn of the anvil to form the eye or
ring. It is then twisted by catching one end in the vise and twisting to
the right. The point is next drawn out as shown in Figure 119. The point
is then ground or filed and the awl tempered hard.

[Illustration: Fig. 119. Scratch Awl Complete.]


_Exercise No. 19—Center-Punch._

Figure 120 shows the size of stock and Figure 121 shows the center-punch
completed. The top part is first made, then the bottom is drawn out to
a taper. In doing this, it is first drawn square, then eight sided and
finally rounded. The point is ground and the punch is tempered to a
purple color. For heavy centering a larger size steel should be used.

[Illustration: Fig. 120 (above). Center Punch. Fig. 121 (below).]


_Exercise No. 20—Hand-Punch._

Hand-punches are made of various sizes of stock, ⅝ in., ¾ in. and ⅞ in.,
and are used for hot punching. Figure 122 shows the size of stock for
a punch that will be useful in the school shop, and Figure 123 shows
the completed punch. It is made in the same manner as described for the
center-punch. This punch must not be tempered. For punching square holes
the punch is drawn square, and the ends of all hand-punches are made
smaller than the hole to be punched.

[Illustration: Fig. 122. Stock for Punch. Fig. 123. Completed Punch.]

High speed steels, due to their hardness and durability, retain their
edge when cutting at extremely high speeds.

It has only been of recent years that high speed steels came into use.
Before this time self-hardening steels were made by Jessop and Mushet
which were in general use. They were tempered by heating to a dark red
and left to cool in the air. The high speed steels of today are heated to
2,000° or 2,200° Fahr., or a white heat bordering on a welding heat.

The chemical composition of these new steels are only known by their
makers. However, it is said that they contain carbon, tungsten, chromium,
manganese and other elements.

The great advantage in using high speed steel, is that a machine can be
run three times as fast as one using carbon steel, without destroying
the edge of the tool. The output is therefore greater. Of course, in
order to force this steel to do a great amount of work the machine tools
should be constructed to stand heavy strains. All kinds of tools are now
being made from high speed steel.

For light lathe work, high speed steel is used in the adjustable tool
holder. The most common tool for doing heavy work is the round nose which
is made from various size steel.

High speed tool steel is sold under many brands. The method of handling
is about the same for all. However each manufacturer will give the method
which is best for his particular make of steel. In forging high speed
lathe tools, a furnace or clean fire with plenty of coke is used. The
steel is heated to a bright red heat, holding the steel at this heat
as nearly as possible when hammering. Forging at a low heat is liable
to cause the steel to burst. When the tool is forged, it is laid in a
dry place on the forge to cool. When hardening, the point of the tool
is brought to a white welding heat, about 2,100° Fahr., and this is
noticeable by the appearance of melted borax, forming on the nose. The
tool is now held in a compressed air blast, or dipped into sperm, linseed
or lard oil until cool.


_Annealing High Speed Steel._

The process is the same as the one used for carbon steel, heating to a
red heat and covering the piece with slacked lime until cold.

In cutting high speed tool steel, the bar may be nicked with the emery
wheel, then broken.

In working tool steel or iron of any weight the blows of the hammer must
be heavy. Light blows stretch the outer part of the metal and not the
center. This is liable to fracture it. The blow must be heavy so as to
penetrate thru the bar. A trip hammer of ordinary size run by a belt is
a very economical tool for the school shop. It is inexpensive and can be
used to advantage in drawing out large pieces of stock, especially tool
steel.

Every pupil should have more or less practice in the handling of a trip
or steam hammer.

[Illustration]




II—ART SMITHING




CHAPTER VIII.

    Wrought Iron Work—Making a Wrought Iron Leaf—Making a Volute
    Scroll—Grilles.


At the present time great interest is being taken in the teaching of art
work in our public schools. Every school of importance is doing something
in the way of giving the pupils a knowledge of art. One working in the
school crafts should study art. There is no craft work that one can do
well without this training. With art training one can see defects in his
work much quicker than without such training. In fact, it opens up a new
world of possibilities to the workman. The more one is convinced of the
value of thoro acquaintance with the medium in which he is working, the
higher the class of work he produces.

All fine workmen in any craft have more or less ability to draw. This not
only gives them power to transfer their conceptions to paper, but it also
helps them in the execution of the work. The iron-worker in particular
should practice free-hand drawing. It enables him to form his material
into proper shape. As a general thing, forge work is fashioned into shape
by eye.

[Illustration: Fig. 1. Forged Leaf.]

Wrought iron-work is one of the oldest of the handicrafts. It was
extensively practiced by the ancients and carried to a high degree of
excellence, both in execution and design. During the Middle Ages and up
to the seventeenth century some of the finest examples were produced. A
study of the older forms, especially those of Medieval German production,
shows iron fashioned in keeping with its properties and with the spirit
of the craftsman. It is impossible to utilize natural forms in wrought
iron without convention. Realistic iron flowers are inconsistent with the
material in which they are executed. They kill the strength and destroy
the character of the metal. This should be learned early by one working
in iron. When the iron-worker of the past imitated nature too closely
in leaf and flower, he failed as a designer and his work deteriorated.
Iron as a crude metal must be fashioned into shapes that are suitable
and practical for the material. For instance, it readily allows itself
to be worked into graceful curved forms which can be used to advantage
in grille work. It may be surface-decorated by using chasing tools. This
may be done on hot or cold metal, depending upon the depth wanted. Iron
may also be punctured with openings thru the metal which give the play
of light and shadow that is very pleasing. Grotesque figures and an
endless variety of leaf forms may also be worked in iron. These should be
conventionalized. Embossed or repousse work may be done to advantage. In
doing this the metal while hot is hammered on the end grain of elm wood
and on forms made from iron. When cold it is hammered on lead, and steel
tools are used to sharpen up the detail.

[Illustration: Fig. 2.]

[Illustration: Fig. 3. Cutting Tool.]

[Illustration: Fig. 4. Modeling Hammer.]

In Figure 1 is shown a leaf made from Number 16 sheet steel and Figure
2 shows a pattern of the same leaf. In making a leaf of this kind, a
full-size drawing is made just as it should look when modeled. From this
drawing a pattern is developed as the leaf would look when in the flat.
It is impossible to lay it out accurately. The method used is to find the
stretch out of the leaf by measuring along its greatest length. This can
be done by using a pair of dividers. The length found is then laid off
on the metal. The widest parts of the leaf are then measured and laid on
the metal. Having the length and width, the rest can be sketched in. The
leaf is now cut out with a narrow cold chisel that can be made to follow
the curved line. This cutting should be done while the metal is cold. The
leaf shown in the illustration has been fluted with a steel hand-tool.
In doing this a tool as shown in Figure 3 is used. This tool is made
smooth, rounded at the base like an ordinary fuller and then hardened.
The fluting is also done while the metal is cold. Lines are marked on
the metal with a slate pencil and then sunken with the tool and hammer.
In modeling the leaf a hammer like the one shown in Figure 4 is used. It
is called the modeling hammer. This hammer has a ball on one end and a
pein on the other, both of which are made very smooth and without sharp
corners. These hammers are made in various sizes. In modelling the leaf
it is heated and hammered on the back side with the ball of the hammer,
using the elm block to hammer on. The ends of the lobes are then formed
to give the whole a decorative effect. These leaves are generally used in
grille work and are welded into position. In Figure 5 is shown part of a
grille with a similar leaf welded on. In welding leaves to the members of
grille work the bottom part of the leaf is formed around the bar; caught
with a pair of tongs, it is heated, using a flux when hot. It is then
taken to the anvil and welded. A small collar is finally welded in front
of the leaf as shown in the illustration.

[Illustration: Fig. 5. Grille with Leaf.]

The leaves shown in the illustrations are made to cover the grille on
but one side. If a grille is to be seen from both sides when in place,
the leaves are cut out symmetrically and then bent and modeled to fit
over the top and sides of the bars so that they appear finished from both
sides. Figure 6 shows the pattern of such a leaf.

[Illustration: Fig. 6. Pattern of Leaf.]

The following exercises will be of a simple nature to give the beginner
an idea of the tools and processes used in producing this kind of work
by hand. The writer does not claim that the following method is the only
one to be used in doing this work. There are many other ways to execute
these exercises and one should use his own ingenuity in designing and
executing individual pieces. It is hoped that pupils will be encouraged
to originate designs of their own to work out in this interesting metal.

The tools used in making these exercises will be the ordinary forge shop
tools that can be made, and will be described later on, as they are
needed.


_Exercise No. 1._

[Illustration: Fig. 7. Volute Scrolls.]

_Volute Scroll._ This exercise is given in order to familiarize one
with the bending of curved forms and also to train the hand and eye in
doing free-hand work. No metal lends itself more readily to the bending
of curves than wrought iron. The scroll is an important element in the
designing of iron doors, window grilles, etc. In bending, the scroll must
not have kinks or flat places, but a gradual curve. If it is desired
to suggest strength, the scroll is coiled tightly; or if lightness of
effect is desired, it is coiled loosely. In making a scroll to fit some
particular place a drawing is made with chalk on a surface plate. The
scroll is then measured along the line with a string to find its length.
In Figure 7 are shown drawings of typical scrolls. The one at A shows
too much space between the coils. The scroll at B is top-heavy owing to
the coils being equal in size. The one at C has a continuous curve with
unequal coils which balance better. In bending a scroll from a flat piece
of stock, as shown in Figure 8, the end is heated and hammered on the
corners to make it round at one end. It is then bent over the outer edge
of the anvil, as shown in Figure 9 A and B, to form the eye. It is then
heated for a considerable part of its length and rolled up as shown at
C. If any kinks get into the bar they can be rectified by hammering on
the horn. This is the method used in forming a scroll with the hammer. In
heating the bar to be rolled into scroll form, it must not be heated to
a white heat. Scrolls are also bent over forms when a great number are
wanted. Heavy scrolls are formed by bending in a bending fork that fits
into a square hole in the anvil. (See fork in Figure 10.) A monkey wrench
is used to bend the bar when in the fork.

[Illustration: Fig. 8.]

[Illustration: Fig. 9.]

[Illustration: Fig. 10. Bending Fork.]

In Figure 11 and Figure 12 are shown grilles which are made from flat
stock. The scrolls in this case were made after the bars had been welded
in place. They could be made first and then riveted or fastened with iron
bands, but welding of course makes a better job.

[Illustration: Fig. 11. Grille.]

In Figure 13 is shown a drawing for a welded scroll. Notice the dotted
line at A. This is where the weld is made. At B, the pieces are shown
in position to be welded by the separate heat method. In doing this the
length is measured on the drawing with a string, and the three pieces
cut. The two short ones are upset; and one is laid on top of the other;
then heated and welded at the same time they are scarfed. The long piece
is upset and welded to the short one. They are then formed.

[Illustration: Fig. 13.]

[Illustration: Fig. 12. Grille.]




CHAPTER IX.

    Twisting—Braiding—Making a Fire Shovel.


_Exercise No. 2._

[Illustration: Fig. 14.]

_Twisting._ A piece of one-half inch square stock, nine inches long, is
heated its entire length, one end caught in a vise and with a monkey
wrench or heavy pair of tongs on the other, it is twisted to the right.
If the heat is an even one and not too hot, the spacing of the twist
will be uniform. In case one part twists faster than another, a little
water is used to cool that part. The beauty of twisted work depends on
having the spacing uniform between the turns. (See Figure 14.) Flat stock
can also be twisted in this manner. To straighten twisted work, it is
heated red, set on the end grain of elm wood and hammered with a wooden
mallet. The mallet used in this work should be made from hickory. For
heavy striking a little band of iron can be put on the mallet a half-inch
from one end, so that the mallet will not split. The block on which to
straighten the iron should be about ten inches in diameter and three feet
high. A short block about eight inches wide and twelve inches long may
be set into the coal box, having coal under and around it to hold it in
place. This makes a very handy block on which to bump up light pieces of
metal or to straighten metal.


_Exercise No. 3._

Figure 15 shows the dimensions of stock for a twisted poker-handle. The
four ¼-inch rods are upset on one end until they measure six inches. They
are then welded together on this end. This is done by first twisting a
strong binding wire around the rods to keep them in place while taking
the heat. (See Figure 16.) In welding, they are welded directly on the
ends and scarfed as shown in Figure 15.

[Illustration: Fig. 15.]

[Illustration: Fig. 16.]

[Illustration: Fig. 17. Poker Handles.]

Notice that the scarf is made so that the point of the scarf on the other
piece will come onto a one-quarter inch rod and not between the two. The
scarf must not be hammered farther back from the ends than ⅜-inch. The
⅜-inch bar is now upset on one end and scarfed. The two parts are then
welded, smoothing the weld with the hand hammer. The end of the handle
is welded directly at the ends of the rods. The entire handle is heated
uniformly, caught in a vise and twisted to the right. If any part twists
faster than another, that part is cooled with water dropped from a hole
in the bottom of a tin cup. In twisting the handle, the ⅜ bar is caught
in the vise. A strong pair of tongs are used on the end of the handle to
twist it, or the end of the handle can be caught with a monkey wrench.
The point of the poker is drawn to a square point and then flattened. In
making pokers or shovels, the stock may be either round or square. In
Figure 17 are shown some handles that are suitable for pokers or shovels.
A method of braiding the last handle shown in the illustration is to weld
four ³⁄₁₆-in. rods of either round or square stock to a piece of ½-inch
round stock. Two of the rods are then bent over at right angles to the
one-half inch piece. The others are bent over them, and so on until
finished. The four rods are then welded at the top and a ring turned. The
last illustration shows the method of bending the rods.

[Illustration: Fig. 18. Shovel.]

[Illustration: Fig. 19. Shovel Handle.]


_Exercise No. 4._

_Shovel._—Figure 18 shows the dimensions and form of the exercise. In
making the handle, ⅜-in. square stock is used. The piece is cut 25 inches
long. On one end the piece is upset considerably in order to get a good
sized head. Five inches from the end of the head a line is cut on four
sides with a chisel. This part is then hammered with a ball hammer while
hot to give it a rough texture as shown in Figure 19. The other end of
the handle is upset a little, bent on an angle and flattened, letting it
get as wide as it will.

[Illustration: Fig. 20.]

The development of the pattern for the shovel blade is shown in Figure
20. At the top is shown a side and end elevation of the shovel. The
dimensions should be drawn full size. The shapes of the sides and of the
ends are found by measuring from the elevation. The pattern should be
made from sheet iron and kept for future use.

In forming the shovel, the sides are first bent up by using the vise and
heel of the anvil. This forming must be done while the metal is cold.
The end of the shovel may be bent by hammering it over a heavy, flat
piece of iron. The corners are hammered around the sides by catching the
shovel in the vise. They are fastened by drilling holes thru both pieces
and riveting them, using a rivet set to finish the rivets. In fastening
the handle to the blade or shovel, three Number 10 round-head rivets
are used. If desired, the handle can be made from larger stock, also
increasing the size and the thickness of the shovel.

[Illustration: Fig. 21. Door Latch.]




CHAPTER X.

    Making a Door-latch—Making a Hinge—Making a Candle-stick.


_Exercise No. 5._

_Door latch._—In Figure 21 is shown a latch for a double door. In Figure
22 are shown the dimensions of the two plates and the bar latch. In
making the plates, a piece of soft steel, 2 in. wide and ⅛-in. thick is
used. The design is sketched on the metal and five ⁹⁄₃₂-in. holes are
drilled in each plate where the square holes come in the design. The
plates are then heated and a square punch is used to drift out the holes.
The outside edges are then cut. The plate is heated and with a square
punch the metal is set down to give it the interlaced effect as shown in
Figure 23.

[Illustration: Fig. 22.]

[Illustration: Fig. 23.]

[Illustration: Fig. 24.]

The plates are now filed to straighten the square holes, and the holes
on the corners for screws are drilled. Figure 24 represents the catch,
which can be made as shown, and the knob which is worked out on the end
of a rod, as shown in Figure 25. It is hammered on the outer edge of the
anvil. After each blow it is turned until finished. Then it is cut off
and the tenon is filed. The guard shown in Figure 26 is cut from a flat
piece as represented. The bar is made from ½ by ³⁄₁₆-in. stock, drilled,
and a slot is sawed for the spring. The spring is about ⅛ by ³⁄₃₂-in. and
can be made from spring steel.

[Illustration: Fig. 25.]

[Illustration: Fig. 26.]

Figure 27 represents a hinge that can be made from ⅛-in. soft steel.
After the design is sketched with a slate pencil on the metal, the open
parts are drilled and cut out. The outside is next cut with a chisel
and the edges are filed smooth. The eye or joint of the hinge is formed
without welding, by hammering it around an eye pin of the desired size.
The prongs or projections to form the knuckle are filed so that they fit
into one another. The interlacing is done with a square end punch in the
same manner as explained for the latch. A great variety of designs of
this kind can be made to advantage in iron. A drawing of a simple strap
hinge is shown in Figure 28. The part of the strap at A on the drawing is
made greater in length than width for appearance. This gives the strap
apparent strength and emphasizes its length.

[Illustration: Fig. 27.]

[Illustration: Fig. 28.]

[Illustration: Fig. 29.]

[Illustration: Fig. 30. Candle-stick.]

The hinge can be made any length desired but should be carefully
proportioned; the eye can be made loose or welded. In welding a hinge-eye
the lap should always be on the back. Note the drawing of the eye ready
for welding in Figure 29. In making hinges, the making of the eye is
always the first operation. A welded eye makes the strongest hinge; but
it can be made with a loose eye if desired. In bending and finishing the
eye, an eye-pin should be used to true the hole. An eye-pin is a piece
of round steel of the desired size drawn tapering on each end so that
it can be driven thru a hole. The projections that form the joint for a
loose eye hinge should be cut out before the eye is made. If the stock
is light, the joint in either a loose or a welded hinge can be filed or
sawed after the eye is turned. In a heavy eye the projections are laid
off and marked on the metal while flat. The bar is then heated and split
lengthwise from one side, starting ½-inch from the end, and cutting long
enough to make the eye. The eye is then formed and welded, and pieces are
cut out leaving alternating projections which can be filed to fit.


_Exercise No. 6._

[Illustration: Fig. 31.]

Exercise No. 6 is a candle-stick. The reproduction, Figure 30, shows the
finished piece. The drawing, Figure 31, at A, gives the dimensions; at B,
is shown the pattern of the bottom in the flat. The bottom is cut from a
sheet of soft steel, using a narrow cold chisel. The edge is then filed
and bent up about one-quarter of an inch. In doing so, it is hammered
over a round block or iron which fits into the square hole of the anvil.
See Figure 32. The handle is formed by heating it, and hammering it over
the horn of the anvil. In making the socket to hold the candle as shown
at C, Figure 31, the piece is cut from number 20 soft steel. At D, is
illustrated the stock cut ready for forming.

[Illustration: Fig. 32.]

In cutting this piece, the shape is sketched with a slate pencil on the
metal. Five holes are now drilled, the center hole, ⁵⁄₃₂ in. in diameter
and four ³⁄₁₆-in. holes at the base of leaves. A narrow cold chisel
is then used which will cut on a curved line. The edges of the pieces
are then filed; the piece is heated and hammered on the elm block to
raise it. In raising the socket, it is heated in the center, set over a
depression in the block and hammered. This brings the wings or leaves up.
They are brought up until they overlap one another, the leaves forming a
square box. The whole piece is then heated, placed on the end of a ¾-in.
round bar, setting the whole into a swage, and the leaves are fitted
around the bar by hammering. The socket is then riveted in place. A rivet
is put in the end of the handle to hold it in place. The candle-stick is
now smoothed with a file and smoked over the fire, then oiled.

[Illustration: Wrought Iron Lantern.]




CHAPTER XI.

    Making a Drawer Pull—Chasing—Making a
    Door-knocker—Repousse—Perforated Decoration.


_Exercise No. 7._

Drawer pulls can be of one part, the handle being fastened directly to
the drawer, or they may be of two parts, the handle and plate. The handle
can be made stationary on the plate or movable. In Figure 33 are shown
some hinges, drawer pulls and key escutcheons. The open work is cut out
while the stock is hot, or if light stock is used, it may be drilled, cut
and filed while the plate is cold.

[Illustration: Fig. 33.]

[Illustration: Fig. 34. Fig. 35.]

[Illustration: Fig. 36. Fig. 37.]

The stock used in making a plate for a pull, somewhat like those
illustrated, is represented in Figure 34. After the plate is cut to size,
which is done cold with a hand chisel, the outside surface is hammered
while hot with a ball hammer, drawing the plate a little thinner near
the edge. This hammering gives the surface a rough texture. The edges
are now ground or filed to shape and the holes are drilled as shown in
the drawing. The round holes are for screws to fasten the pull, and the
square holes are to fasten lugs, on which the handle is to swing. The
lugs are shown in Figure 35. The tenon can be filed, the top rounded,
the holes drilled, and the lugs riveted into the plate. When riveting
the lugs, they are caught in a vise, the plate set on and the tenons are
riveted tight into the holes. The square holes in the plate should be
countersunk a little on the back before the lugs are riveted.

The handle is a movable one, and the drawing is shown in Figure 36. The
different steps in making the handle are represented in Figure 37. When
the stock, which should be soft steel, is cut, the ends are heated and
drawn out tapering to ³⁄₁₆ inch at the end. One-and-a-half inches from
each end of the bar is marked with a center punch. The ends are now bent
over ¼ inch, then the bar is bent at the center marks. When the handle is
formed to fit the plate it is smoothed with a file. If desired, a line
can be chased on the handle and around the edge of plate. In doing this
a short, light chisel is used. After lines are traced on the plate with
a slate pencil the chisel is set on the line and struck with a light
hammer; at the same time it is drawn towards the worker with the lead
corner of the cutting edge directly on and above the line.

[Illustration: Fig. 38.]

The chisel should receive rapid, light blows and be continually moved
toward the workman. The lead corner of the chisel should be guided onto
the line while the other corner is doing the cutting. See Figure 38, a
rather large sized drawing of the cutting edge of the chisel. When the
lines are chased with the chisel, they should be gone over again with
quite hard blows of the hammer, forcing the chisel down to make the lines
quite pronounced.

To put the handle in place on the plate, it is heated and sprung into the
holes of the lugs. The last thing to do in finishing all work of this
kind is to heat it to a dark red. All scale and dirt is then scraped off;
when cool, some oil is put on. For this kind of work, machine oil is
good. The reason it is heated to a dark, even red heat is that when cool
the handle and the plate will have the same color and texture.

[Illustration: Fig. 39.]


_Exercise No. 8._

In Figure 39 are shown some hinges, latches and door knockers. Figure
40 is a drawing of a simple knocker. The plate is cut out and the line
around the edge is chased with a tool. The chasing tool is simply a cold
chisel ground to a short bevel and rounded somewhat like a fuller, as
shown in Figure 41. A short chisel is used for cold work and a longer one
for hot work. The chasing can be done while the metal is cold. If it is
to be very deep or wide the plate is heated and a longer chisel is used.
The lug at Figure 42 is made and riveted into the plate. The top of the
hammer is filed to straddle it. A hole is then drilled and a rivet put
thru. Holes are drilled around the edge of the plate for screws or nails.

[Illustration: Fig. 40.]

[Illustration: Fig. 41. Fig. 42.]

In making the hammer a piece of ¾-inch square, soft steel is used. It
is upset on one end to get the stock large enough for the bottom of the
hammer. The bar is then drawn out on the horn as shown at Figure 43. The
top part is formed as shown at Figure 44. Lines are chased on the front
of hammer as shown in the drawing; this can be done after it is formed.
If the lines are to be very deep it should be done while the piece is
straight and heated.

[Illustration: Fig. 43. Fig. 44.]

There is ample room for design in the making of door knockers, both for
outside and inside doors of dwellings. Knocker plates for doors on the
inside of dwellings can be elaborated by a combination of repousse,
chasing and perforated decoration which give a variety of light and
shadow. Perforated plates can be backed up with colored leather or cloth
which gives a very pleasing contrast to the metal.

[Illustration: Fig. 45.]

In Figure 45 is shown an interior door knocker. It is backed up with
colored leather. The plates are made of ⅛-in. thick, soft steel. After
the plates are cut out, the openings are marked with a slate pencil
and gone over with a short cold chisel to mark them. The plate is then
heated, and the part enclosed by the chisel line is cut out. A very
narrow chisel, 12 in. long, is used to do the cutting. The cutting is all
done from the outside. This gives the edge a slight bevel. The edges of
open places are trued up with a file. The openings must not be filed too
exact and smooth. The most essential thing to look after is form; the
work looks best when it shows handwork and is not mechanical.

[Illustration: Fig. 46.]

Handwork is most in keeping with the design and the material. The lines
on the plate are chased with a narrow chisel and the foliated form bumped
out from the back by hammering on the end grain of the elm block. The
hammer that does the knocking is hinged on the top plate so that the
bottom part moves out and in when knocking. Very thin red leather is
glued on the back of the plate with fish glue. The diameter of the top
plate is 4½-in., the bottom 2½-in., and the hammer is 6¾-in. long.

A good method of working out ideas for pieces of this character is to
make numerous rough sketches on paper with a lead pencil, making one line
over another without erasing. When one gets what he thinks is good it is
redrawn and perfected. It may then be worked in the material.

[Illustration: Fig. 47.]

At Figure 46 is shown a door knocker hinged at the top. The plate is one
piece. At Figure 47 are shown the dimensions of the plate. After the
shape of the plate is sketched on the metal, the lines are traced with a
chisel. The open work is then cut out, and the outside of the plate is
cut and filed. The center leaf at the top of the plate is indicated by
forcing the metal down along the top edge of the leaf with a punch, also
at the bottom to form the interlace. The plate should be hot when this is
done. The hammer shown in Figure 48 should be forged from ¾-in. square,
soft steel. The lug shown on the drawing is to be made and riveted into
the top of the plate. The hammer is then placed over the lug, and the lug
is drilled to conform to the drilled holes in the hammer.

[Illustration: Fig. 48.]

The chasing on the plate and hammer is done with a chisel as previously
explained. A gauge should be made from a piece of steel to scratch the
guide lines on the plate for the chasing as shown in Figure 48. These
lines are then cut with the chisel.




CHAPTER XII.

    Making a Hat and Coat Hook—A Fuller—Jump Welding—Making a Wall
    Hook.


_Exercise No. 9._

[Illustration: Fig. 49. Hat and Coat Hook.]

[Illustration: Fig. 50.]

Figure 49 represents a hat-and-coat hook. In the making of this piece,
the plate should be made from No. 14 soft steel. The dimensions are shown
in Figure 50. The shape of the plate can be drawn on heavy paper, which
is afterward cut out and used as a pattern when making the plate from
metal. After the plate is cut out with a cold chisel, it is ground or
filed on the edges. The holes are next drilled, and the lines are cut
on the surface as shown in the drawing. In cutting the lines, a short,
narrow cold chisel is used for chasing in the same manner as previously
described. The lines on the leaf should be made quite deep. A fuller
is shown in Figure 50, which is used to make the lines still deeper.
The fuller should have the edge smooth, and without sharp corners. The
plate should be clamped on to a surface plate while making the lines.
The fuller is then set on the cut lines and struck with the hand hammer,
chasing the tool to the ends of the lines. This work can, also, be done
to advantage by heating the plate and having a helper hold it on the
anvil while fullering the lines. When all the lines are made, the leaf is
heated, set on the elm block and hammered on the back to raise the end of
the lobes as shown in the illustration.

[Illustration: Fig. 51.]

[Illustration: Fig. 52.]

[Illustration: Fig. 53.]

[Illustration: Fig. 54.]

The hook is made from iron. Figure 51 represents the dimensions of stock
for the hook. The lug is welded on, and the ends of the bar are rounded
ready to be formed. After the stock is cut, it is upset six inches from
one end to enlarge it so that the lug can be welded on. The stock from
which the lug is made is cut 3½ inches long, upset on end, and split
in the vise ½ inch deep as shown at Figure 52. The split end should be
formed as shown. In welding, separate heats are taken, and the lug is
jumped onto the bar as shown in Figure 53. The first blows are struck
directly on the end of the lug, then the lips are welded. Figure 51 shows
the length of the piece before the knobs are formed. In making the knobs
at the end, they should be upset as shown in Figure 54. They are then
hammered as shown, and finally rounded. The lug is next cut the proper
length, and a shoulder is filed at the end. The chased lines are now cut
on the front side. In forming the piece, it is heated and hammered over
the horn of the anvil, starting to bend at the end first, and working
toward the center. In bending anything of this kind, always start at one
end, and finish as you work toward the other end. See the drawing of the
bent hook at Figure 55. The end of the lug is next heated and caught in a
vise, the plate is set on and riveted tightly. The work is smoothed with
a file, heated to darken it, and oiled.

[Illustration: Fig. 55.]

[Illustration: Fig. 56.]

[Illustration: Fig. 57.]


_Exercise No. 10._

[Illustration: Fig. 58.]

A wall hook, suitable to hang a bird cage or fern dish, is shown in
Figure 56. In Figure 57 are shown the length and size of stock, and the
piece ready to form. In making the ball, the piece is shouldered at one
end by hammering it on the outer edge of the anvil as shown in Figure
58. It is then hammered on the corner, to make it round. The other end
is drawn to a square point, and is then flattened as shown in Figure
59, letting it become as wide as it will. This flat end is then veined
suggesting a leaf form. In doing this, a long chisel, made round somewhat
like a fuller, is used. The piece is heated, and a sunken line is made
with the chisel, as shown by the drawing of the leaf end. The piece is
then heated, and the leaf end is formed. The holes should now be drilled.
The balance of the hook is heated and formed by hammering it over the
horn of the anvil.

[Illustration: Fig. 59.]

[Illustration: Hall Lanterns.]




CHAPTER XIII.

    Making a Toasting-fork—Inlaying.


_Exercise No. 11._

[Illustration: Fig. 60. Stock for Toasting Fork.]

A very interesting and useful article to make is a toasting fork. The
stock used can be spring steel. A disadvantage in using this steel is
that it is too hard to work out a design on the handle. If one can weld
quite well, the fork should have the handle made of soft steel and the
balance of carbon steel. In doing this, the weld is the first thing to do
while the stock is straight and full size. If one without much welding
experience is to make the fork, it should be made of soft steel, and when
finished the prongs should be case hardened. In making a fork of this
kind, a piece of soft steel as shown in the drawing in Figure 60 is used.
On one end, the stock is enlarged a little, by upsetting for a distance
of five or six inches. This end is to be used for the handle. The other
end of the bar is then heated, and a hole is punched 1¾-in. from the
end. The piece should then look somewhat like the drawing at A, Figure
61. In drawing out, the shoulder is hammered as shown at B, Figure 61.
The shank (the part between the handle and the shoulder) is next drawn
out. It should be a scant ¼-in. thick so as to finish to the dimensions
given in Figure 60. Care must be taken to avoid getting too much stock
in the shank. It is a very easy matter to get too much stock between the
handle and the shoulder which, when drawn out, is too long. The prongs
are roughly made by cutting the stock out as shown by the dotted lines in
Figure 61. When this is done the prongs are hammered out to the correct
size, allowing for finishing.

[Illustration: Fig. 61.]

In Figure 62 are shown reproductions of similar forks. The line shown
running around the rectangular open parts is inlaid copper. A channel is
sunken and the copper driven into it. In making the handle, the three
oblong holes are punched while hot with a punch about ³⁄₁₆ in. by ⅝
in. at the end, making a series of punchings to cut out the holes. The
holes should be small enough so that they may be finished to size with a
file. Notice that the openings are not of the same size; but two short
ones, with a longer one in the center, give variety. Notice, also, that
the shape of the handle is in keeping with the long, slim shank and the
slender, two-tine fork at the end.

[Illustration: Fig. 62. Toasting Forks, Spoon and Cake Turner.]

[Illustration: Fig. 63.]

After the handle is shaped, and the holes are punched, including the one
at the top to hang the fork by, the line to receive the copper is marked.
(See Figure 63.) The marking should be done with a scratch awl. The line
is then cut with a small chisel. This cutting should be quite deep and
exact. This is important if the work is to be true and straight. All of
the marking should be done while the handle is cold. It is now heated and
taken to the anvil. A small punch, as represented in Figure 63, is then
set onto the cut line and given a blow with the hammer, sinking the punch
about ¹⁄₁₆ of an inch. One-half of the punch is now raised up and out of
the channel. While it is directly on the chased line, it is given another
blow with the hammer and so on until the end is reached. The particular
thing to watch is to have the lead corner of punch directly on the chased
guide line, while the other edge of the punch is in the channel in
order to keep the finished line straight. Keep the punch in good order,
straight and square at the end. The punch should not have much taper and
should not be used after the red heat leaves the metal. After the entire
line has been sunken ¹⁄₁₆ in. deep, the handle is reheated and the line
is sunken perhaps ⅛ in. deep.

A wider punch is now used in the long channel to straighten it and make
it deeper. The wide punch should have no taper and should be a scant ³⁄₃₂
in. thick so that the line will be about ³⁄₃₂ in. wide. If any part of
the channel should be too wide, the handle should be hammered on the edge
with a light hammer to close the channel a little. When the channel is
finished, the handle should be filed flat on the channel side. This will
give one a better view of the straightness of the channel.

[Illustration: Fig. 64. File.]

[Illustration: Fig. 65. Cross Section of Fork Handle.]

In case the channel is not as straight as it should be, a small flat file
is heated and bent at the end and rehardened. (See Figure 64.) This file
is used to straighten up the edges of the channel. A small cold chisel
can also be used for this purpose. The channel must be straight along the
top edge. When the channel is well straightened, strips of copper are
filed to fit the channel, letting them project above the channel about
³⁄₃₂ of an inch and also having each piece a little short in length. When
the pieces are all in place, the handle is set on the anvil and with a
heavy hammer they are driven down forcing the copper to fill the whole of
the channel. The entire handle is filed to the dimensions given in Figure
63.

Notice Figure 65 which shows a sectional drawing of the handle, with the
copper in place and a chased line running along between copper and steel.
A channel without copper is shown at the right of the illustration.

[Illustration: Wrought Iron Lamp.]




CHAPTER XIV.

    Making a Lantern—Making a Wall-lamp.


_Exercise No. 12._

[Illustration: Fig. 66. Lantern.]

[Illustration: Fig. 67.]

[Illustration: Fig. 68.]

The lantern shown in Figure 66 consists of four sides which are fastened
together with angles and rivets. The top is made from four pieces, with
angles also riveted to them. The stock is cut with a pair of snip shears,
No. 06½. (See Figure 67.) The sides must be cut to the same size or
there will be trouble in putting them together. After they are cut, the
open work is marked with a slate pencil. Holes are drilled in the corners
of each opening, and they are cut out with a sharp chisel. The edges are
filed and all holes are drilled for No. 12 rivets. At Figure 68 is a
drawing, with dimensions of one of the sides as it should be in the flat.
Notice the section of the sheet bent at the top for the roof and at the
bottom to hold the glass. The glass is held in position at the top with a
little strip of copper, with a rivet to hold it. The glass is set into
the groove at the bottom, and the copper cleat is bent over the top of
the glass. The copper cleat should be ⅞ by ⅜ in., made from No. 26 soft
copper. The bottom of the sheet is first bent at right angles, then a
flat piece ³⁄₁₆ in. thick is laid on the inside of the sheet, and the
whole is placed on the anvil. The end of the sheet is now hammered over
the ³⁄₁₆-in. piece with a mallet to make the pocket to hold the glass.
All of the holes for rivets to fasten the angles should be countersunk a
little on the inside. The angles are made from one inch wide No. 20 hoop
iron. They are formed by placing them between two pieces of flat iron as
shown in Figure 69, and holding the whole in a vise while hammering with
a wood mallet.

[Illustration: Fig. 69.]

[Illustration: Fig. 70.]

[Illustration: Fig. 71.]

In fastening the angles to the sides, the heads of the rivets are on the
outside, and the inside is smooth. In doing this, the heads of the rivets
are held in a rivet set while hammering on the inside.

[Illustration: Fig. 72.]

[Illustration: Fig. 73.]

The rivet set is caught in a vise as shown in Figure 70. A rivet set is
a piece of steel with the shape of a rivet head sunken into one end. In
making this, a punch is filed the shape of a rivet head and is then
driven into the end of a hot piece of steel. In Figure 71 is shown a
simple method of developing a pattern of one section for the top of a
lantern. A-B of the pattern is first drawn. The length of X-B of the
elevation is the length of C-D of the pattern. Lines are then drawn from
C to A and B. The point of each section at the top is cut off so that
when the four pieces are riveted to the angles there will be a ⁷⁄₁₆-in.
hole thru the top. (See Figure 72.) In this hole is put a piece of ⅛-in.
steam pipe with a lock nut on the top and another on the bottom to hold
it in place. (See Figure 73.) The pipe is for the socket to screw onto
under the top, and also for the wire to come thru. The loop at the top
is to suspend the lantern by. It is made of ⅜ by ⅛-in. stock, 6 inches
long. Two No. 10 rivets are put in each end to fasten it to the roof.
The lamp is to hang by a chain suspended from the ceiling. In doing this
a ceiling cap is necessary. This may be a piece of ½-in. steam pipe
threaded on one end and a hook made on the other. (See drawing, Figure
74.) A cast iron piece is screwed on the end of the pipe and is then
fastened to the ceiling by three screws, which supports the chain and
lamp. The wires go thru the pipe and connect with other wires in the
ceiling. (See drawing of the casting, Figure 75.) When the lamp is wired
and the casting is fastened to the ceiling, it must be covered with
something to hide the wires and its rough appearance. In Figure 76 is
shown a drawing for a cap to cover the casting and wiring. The cap has a
hole in the center for the pipe to pass thru, leaving it movable on the
pipe. A collar of cast iron, with a set screw in the side, is to go under
the cap and the screw tightened when the cap is against the ceiling. (See
drawing of the collar, Figure 77.) In making the cap, it is heated and
hammered over a hole in the swage block. A hammer with a large-sized,
rounded face is used. The disk is driven into the hole until it becomes
bowl-shaped and the right height.

[Illustration: Fig. 74. Fig. 75.

Fig. 76. Fig. 77.]

[Illustration: Fig. 78.]

[Illustration: Fig. 79.]

At Figure 78 is represented a lamp that is to be fastened to the side of
the wall, instead of hanging from the ceiling with a chain. The light is
inverted, the lamp being open at the top and closed at the bottom.

The stock used in the construction of the lamp is very heavy, No. 14 soft
steel being used. The angle plates on the corners are made from No. 20
soft steel. The plate that is on the back of the lamp has a cup-shaped
pocket hammered into it to cover the wiring when the lamp is in place,
and on which the light socket is fastened.

In Figure 79 is shown a cross-section of the back plate, with the
depression and socket in place.

This kind of lamp is very simple to make and can be made in various
shapes and sizes. The back of the lamp can be made of wood instead of
metal, if desired.

[Illustration: Wrought Iron Table Lamps.]




CHAPTER XV.

    Making a Portable Lamp.


[Illustration: Fig. 80.]

In Figure 80 is represented a portable lamp. This kind of lamp can be
made in various sizes with one light. The lamp shown in the illustration,
consists of two parts; the standard, and the shade, which can be removed.
The standard consists of a box-shaped bottom, with a pipe screwed into it
for the upright piece. The arms that the shade rests on, are separate
and are held in position by the lamp socket, which is screwed down on
them. The strips running over the bottom of the base and up the pipe are
riveted in place to support the pipe. This gives the whole standard a
more substantial appearance, and relieves the plain round pipe.

[Illustration: Fig. 81. Fig. 82.]

[Illustration: Fig. 83. Fig. 84.]

[Illustration: Fig. 85.]

In making a very simple lamp of this character, we may eliminate the
strips running up the pipe, and make the bottom with a round pipe screwed
into it. Of course a square standard would be more in keeping with the
square base and shade. In making the box-shaped base, soft steel should
be used. Figure 81 shows the dimensions of the flat stock. The plate is
heated and an inch of the edge is bent over the outer edge of the anvil,
as shown in Figure 82. The outer edges of the plate can be bent over the
end of the anvil as shown in Figure 83. When all the edges are bent the
piece will look somewhat as in Figure 84. The corners are now ground
off, and the bottom is made level. A hole is drilled in the center and
threaded for a ¾-in. steam pipe. Two inches from the center hole, another
hole is drilled and tapped for a ¼-in. or ⅜-in. rubber bushing. In wiring
the lamp, the cord should enter thru the bushing from the outside, and
under and up thru the pipe to the socket. The drawing for the pipe is
shown at Figure 85, also a bushing which is brazed into the top of the
pipe and threaded for a ⅛-in. pipe. The ⅛-in. steam pipe and bushing are
shown in position in the illustration at one end of the pipe. This small
pipe is for the lamp socket to be screwed onto. The other end of the
large pipe is to be threaded and screwed into the base. The pipe should
be screwed into the base far enough, so that the threads will not be
exposed to the outside and the surplus cut off. The pipe when screwed
tight should be brazed to the base. In doing this, the borax and spelter
should be applied to the under side, after the base is well heated, as
the brass will discolor the iron on the top side. When the pipe is brazed
it should be made to stand vertical.

[Illustration: Fig. 86. Fig. 87.]

[Illustration: Fig. 88. Fig. 89.]

In Figure 86 is shown the lamp standard with the shade support in
position. The support has a hole in the center to fit the ⅛-in. steam
pipe at the top of the standard. When the support is in place another
⅛-in. hole is drilled thru it into the pipe. A pin is driven into the
hole so that the support cannot be moved around. The lamp socket when
screwed down makes the support tight. In making the support the center
part is cut from a plate ³⁄₁₆ in. by 4 by 4 in. and ³⁄₁₆ in. round soft
steel bars are welded on for the arms. In Figure 87 is shown the drawing
which does not need explanation. The drawing for the pattern is shown at
Figure 88 and the pattern for one section at Figure 89. In developing the
pattern which is very simple the top drawing, Figure 88, represents the
shade which should be drawn full size. The length from A to B is then
laid off on the center line of the pattern, which in this case measures
7½ in. The top and bottom of shade shows a return of ⅜ in. which should
be added to the length of the pattern. The width of the top and bottom
of the shade is then drawn, also diagonal lines which will complete the
pattern. The edge view of the pattern is shown at C. The ⅜-in. bend
at the top is made so that the cap can be riveted on. The one at the
bottom is to receive the glass. This was explained on a previous page in
describing the making of a hall lantern. In assembling the shade, corner
angles are used to fasten the sections together, which was also explained
for the hall lantern. The top cap is put on last and fastened with rivets.

[Illustration]




INDEX


  Annealing, 77

  Annealing high speed steel, 81

  Anvil, construction of, 10
    how to fasten, 11
    tools, 13

  Awl, scratch, 78


  Ball hammer, 13

  Bessemer process, 65

  Blast, control of, 27

  Bolts, heading, 55
    making of, 54

  Bottom fuller, 17

  Bottom swage, 16

  Braiding, 96

  Brazing, 36

  Butt welding, 31


  Candle-stick, making of, 104

  Case hardening, 76

  Cementation process, 66

  Center punch, use of, 13

  Chain links, welding of, 48

  Chasing, 109

  Chisels, hot and cold, 15
    making of cold, 70

  Coal, method of handling, 19

  Cold Chisel, use of, 15

  Coloring steel, 77

  Crucible steel, making of, 66

  Cupping tool, 55


  Door knocker, making of, 110, 113

  Door latch, making of, 99

  Drawer pull, making of, 107


  Expansion of iron, 59

  Eye-pin, use of, 103
    welding of, 43

  Eyes, welding of hinge, 102


  Fagot welding, 23, 37

  File, used for inlaying, 128

  Fire, making of forge, 18
    cleaning of, 19

  Fire shovel, making of, 97

  Flatter, use of, 15

  Fluting tool, 86

  Flux and its uses, 21

  Forge, the, 7
    tools, 10

  Forging a cold chisel, 70

  Forming a loose eye, 40

  Fuller, 16, 118


  Gate hook, forging of, 55

  Grab hook, making of, 52

  Grilles, making of, 87, 91


  Hammer, ball, 13
    danger of, 25
    modeling, 87
    proper way to hold, 27
    round-faced modeling, 137
    set, 15
    sledge, 13
    sledge, danger, 71

  Hammock hook, making of, 41

  Handle, twisted poker, 94

  Hardening cold chisel, 72

  Hardie, 13

  Hat and coat hook, making of, 117

  Hay hook, making of, 57

  Heading tool, 15

  Heating, method of, 22, 27

  Hinge, making of, 101

  Horn, 56

  Hot chisel, 15


  Inlaying, 125


  Jump welding, 30, 120


  Lamp, portable, making of, 139
    wall, making of, 137

  Lamp ceiling cap, 137

  Lamp shade, making of, 143

  Lantern, assembling, 133
    fittings of, 135
    making of, 130

  Links, open, 47
    S, 42


  Open hearth process, 65


  Perforated decoration, 112

  Pig iron, making of, 64

  Puddling, 64

  Punch block, 51

  Punch, hand, 13, 79
    used for inlaying, 127

  Punching, method of, 50


  Repousse, 112


  Scarf, correct and incorrect, 26
    theory of, 25

  Scarfing, meaning of, 24

  Scraper, 10

  Scroll, volute, 89

  Separate heat weld, the, 24

  Shovel handle, making of, 96

  Shears, kinds of, 18

  Snip shears, 131

  Spring tempering, 74

  Staples, 46

  Steel, annealing of, 77, 81
    Bessemer process, 65
    case hardening, 76
    cementation, 66
    crucible, 66
    high speed, 80

  Steel, making of, 65
    open hearth process, 65
    temper colors of, 68
    tempering of, 67, 75
    welding of, 76

  Stock, storage of, 17

  Swages, 16

  Swage block, 17


  Tempering thin steel, 75

  Toasting fork, making of, 124

  Tongs, danger in handling, 15
    making of, 60

  Tools, anvil, 13
    center punch, 79
    cupping, 55
    eye-pin, 103
    flatter, 15
    forging, 10
    fuller, for deepening lines, 16, 118
    hand punch, for heavy punching, 79
    hardie, 13
    heading, 15
    horn, 56
    punch for inlaying, 127
    punch block, for cutting holes, 51
    round-faced hammer, 137
    scraper, 10
    scratch-awl, 78
    snip shears, 131
    swages, 16

  Top fuller, 16

  Top swage, 16

  Tuyere, 9

  Twisting, 93
    handles, 94


  Upsetting, 24


  Vise, 17

  Volute scroll, making of, 89


  Wall hook, making of, 122

  Welding, bolt heads, 54
    butt, 31
    chain links, 48
    corner, 34, 36
    electric, 22
    eye-pins, 43
    fagot, 23, 37
    heat, determining, 28
    hooks, 41
    jump, 30, 120
    lap, 29
    making the, 27
    method of, 20
    oxy-acetylene gas, 23
    ring, 39, 57
    scarf, 24
    scroll, 91
    separate heat, 24
    split, 32
    steel, 76
    T, 34

  Wrought iron, finish of, 42
    manufacture of, 64

  Wrought iron leaf, making of, 85

  Wrought iron work, 83


[Illustration]

*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 69488 ***