The Project Gutenberg eBook of Cyclopedia of Commerce, Accountancy, Business Administration, V. 5, by Various

Transcriber's Note:

The cover image was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain.

A VIEW IN UNION STOCK YARDS, CHICAGO, ILL.
The Greatest Live Stock Market in the World

A General Reference Work on

ACCOUNTING, AUDITING, BOOKKEEPING, COMMERCIAL LAW, BUSINESS

MANAGEMENT, ADMINISTRATIVE AND INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZATION,

BANKING, ADVERTISING, SELLING, OFFICE AND FACTORY

RECORDS, COST KEEPING, SYSTEMATIZING, ETC.

Prepared by a Corps of

AUDITORS, ACCOUNTANTS, ATTORNEYS, AND SPECIALISTS IN BUSINESS

METHODS AND MANAGEMENT

Illustrated with Over Two Thousand Engravings

TEN VOLUMES

CHICAGO

AMERICAN TECHNICAL SOCIETY

1910

AMERICAN SCHOOL OF CORRESPONDENCE

AMERICAN TECHNICAL SOCIETY

Entered at Stationers' Hall, London

The editors have freely consulted the standard technical and business literature of America and Europe in the preparation of these volumes. They desire to express their indebtedness, particularly, to the following eminent authorities, whose well-known treatises should be in the library of everyone interested in modern business methods.

Grateful acknowledgment is made also of the valuable service rendered by the many manufacturers and specialists in office and factory methods, whose coöperation has made it possible to include in these volumes suitable illustrations of the latest equipment for office use; as well as those financial, mercantile, and manufacturing concerns who have supplied illustrations of offices, factories, shops, and buildings, typical of the commercial and industrial life of America.

GENERAL SALES OFFICES, SWIFT & CO., CHICAGO, ILL.

With the unprecedented increase in our commercial activities has come a demand for better business methods. Methods which were adequate for the business of a less active commercial era, have given way to systems and labor-saving ideas in keeping with the financial and industrial progress of the world.

¶ Out of this progress has risen a new literature—the literature of business. But with the rapid advancement in the science of business, its literature can scarcely be said to have kept pace, at least, not to the same extent as in other sciences and professions. Much excellent material dealing with special phases of business activity has been prepared, but this is so scattered that the student desiring to acquire a comprehensive business library has found himself confronted by serious difficulties. He has been obliged, to a great extent, to make his selections blindly, resulting in many duplications of material without securing needed information on important phases of the subject.

¶ In the belief that a demand exists for a library which shall embrace the best practice in all branches of business—from buying to selling, from simple bookkeeping to the administration of the financial affairs of a great corporation—these volumes have been prepared. Prepared primarily for 9use as instruction books for the American School of Correspondence, the material from which the Cyclopedia has been compiled embraces the latest ideas with explanations of the most approved methods of modern business.

¶ Editors and writers have been selected because of their familiarity with, and experience in handling various subjects pertaining to Commerce, Accountancy, and Business Administration. Writers with practical business experience have received preference over those with theoretical training; practicability has been considered of greater importance than literary excellence.

¶ In addition to covering the entire general field of business, this Cyclopedia contains much specialized information not heretofore published in any form. This specialization is particularly apparent in those sections which treat of accounting and methods of management for Department Stores, Contractors, Publishers and Printers, Insurance, and Real Estate. The value of this information will be recognized by every student of business.

¶ The principal value which is claimed for this Cyclopedia is as a reference work, but, comprising as it does the material used by the School in its correspondence courses, it is offered with the confident expectation that it will prove of great value to the trained man who desires to become conversant with phases of business practice with which he is unfamiliar, and to those holding advanced clerical and managerial positions.

¶ In conclusion, grateful acknowledgment is made to authors and collaborators, to whose hearty coöperation the excellence of this work is due.

1. For professional standing of authors, see list of Authors and Collaborators at front of volume.

OFFICE, FARWELL, OZMUN, KIRK & CO. (WHOLESALE HARDWARE), ST. PAUL, MINN.

WHOLESALE BUSINESS

In this section complete methods of bookkeeping as practiced in wholesale houses are demonstrated. Numerous modern methods that are readily adaptable to other lines of business are illustrated and explained in detail.

DIVIDING THE LEDGER

1. There are many advantages in dividing the ledger into sections. The subdivisions most commonly used are purchase ledger, sales ledger, and general ledger. Such divisions greatly facilitate posting and reduce the chances of error. While it is advisable in most cases to use a separate book for each division, the three ledgers may be combined in one book by setting aside a section for each. This practice is not recommended except where the number of accounts is small, when general and purchase ledgers or purchase and sales ledgers may be combined. The division of the ledger into three sections does not necessitate radical changes, either in form or method of handling, in the other books.

2. Purchase Ledger. The purchase ledger contains only accounts with those from whom we are making purchases. The balances of the accounts in this ledger will be on the credit side and represent a liability. The total balance of the purchase ledger is the amount we owe on open accounts. If, for example, our purchases on account during a stated period amount to $964.50, and the amount paid on account by us is $320.30, we still owe $644.20. If the work is correct the combined balances of all open accounts in the purchase ledger will exactly equal this amount.

123. Sales Ledger. The sales ledger contains only accounts with customers to whom goods are sold on account. The balances of the accounts in the sales ledger will be on the debit side and represent an asset. The total balance of the sales ledger is the amount that our customers owe us on open accounts. Suppose that a business is started with no open accounts receivable—during a stated period the sales on account amount to $1,427.75, and the total payments received on account are $965.50—the amount still outstanding is $462.25, and this amount should exactly equal the combined balances of all the open accounts in the sales ledger.

The sales ledger is sometimes subdivided into two or more parts. The divisions may be City and Country or they may be according to the letters of the alphabet—as A-K, L-Z, etc.

4. Accounts in Both Ledgers. Occasionally one from whom we are purchasing goods will also be a customer. For reasons which will appear later, accounts should, in these cases, be opened in both the purchase ledger and the sales ledger. When settlement of such an account is made, the necessary adjusting entries are made through the journal.

5. General Ledger. The general ledger contains the investment accounts of the proprietor or partners, and all real, representative, and nominal accounts. Accounts with the purchase and sales ledgers are also kept in this ledger. These are controlling accounts which represent at all times the total balances of the purchase and sales ledgers.

When statements of the other ledgers have been made and proved correct, a trial balance of the general ledger is made.

CONTROLLING ACCOUNTS

6. A controlling account is one which exhibits a summary of all of the accounts in a ledger, or of all accounts of the same class.

The sales account, with which the student has been made acquainted, exhibits net sales, while a sales controlling account exhibits a summary of all accounts in the sales ledger. The debits to the sales controlling account represent the total debits to customers' accounts as shown by the sales book or the journal. The credits to the sales controlling account represent the total credits to customers as shown by the cash book and the journal. This account is variously styled 13Sales Ledger Account, Accounts Receivable Account, or Sales Controlling Account.

A purchase controlling account exhibits a summary of all accounts in the purchase ledger. It is called a Purchase Ledger Account, Accounts Payable Account, or Purchase Controlling Account.

These controlling accounts are kept in the general ledger and show at all times the totals of accounts receivable and accounts payable, without the necessity of listing the individual balances. At the end of the month statements of the balances of the accounts in purchase and sales ledgers are made, and the totals of these balances must agree with the balances of the controlling accounts.

The operation of these controlling accounts demonstrates one of the most apparent advantages of the division of the ledger. If an error is made in posting to an account in the sales ledger it is discovered as soon as the statement of the sales ledger is made, and can be located without referring to purchase or general ledger accounts. Without the ledger division and the use of controlling accounts, there would be nothing to assist in locating an error in the trial balance in any particular section of the ledger.

ORDER BLANKS

7. In a wholesale business it is customary to have all orders entered on specially ruled order blanks of a uniform size. These orders are filed in a binder designed for the purpose, which takes the place of the old style order book.

These order blanks are furnished to salesmen who send in their orders on them. When an order is received direct from the customer it, also, is transcribed on one of these blanks so that all order records will be uniform. One very appreciable advantage in the use of this loose sheet system of order blanks is that all unfilled orders are kept in a binder by themselves.

8. Filling Orders. Each day the orders to be filled should be placed in a temporary binder or holder and sent to the warehouse. The packer will check quantities shipped and return the order, together with the shipping receipt from the railroad or express company, to the bookkeeping department.

The amounts are extended, and the invoice is made out from this order blank. The sale is next recorded in the sales book. Instead 14of entering each item in the sales book the totals for each department are entered in the proper column. Each sale is numbered in the sales book as illustrated and the same number is placed on the order. These orders are then filed in the binder for filled orders in exact numerical order, which brings them also in the order of the dates of shipment.

SALES BOOK

9. The sales book used in this set exhibits some features not heretofore shown. At the right are three columns for the distribution of sales. At the left, in addition to columns for number, date, and folio, are two columns headed cash and sales ledger. All cash sales are entered in the cash column, and all sales on account are entered in the sales ledger column. At the end of the week or month the total of the sales ledger column is posted to the debit of the sales ledger account in the general ledger, while the totals of the sales columns at the right are posted to the credit of the sales account in the general ledger.

10. A form of purchase book, which also combines an invoice register, is shown in this set. Unlike the forms of purchase book with which the student has been made familiar, this invoice register gives full particulars as to terms, discount, when due, and when and how paid.

The combined footings of the two department columns must of course agree with the footing of the amount column. At the end of the month the total of the amount column is posted to the credit of purchase ledger account in the general ledger, and the totals of the department columns are posted to the debit of the purchase account in the general ledger.

The details of payment are kept in the invoice register as a memorandum only. This provides a convenient record of unpaid invoices, showing when each is due.

CASH BOOK

11. In this set we introduce a columnar cash book which also serves as a journal for cash transaction and is known as a cash journal. The principal advantage of a columnar book lies in the opportunity to introduce columns with special headings for accounts to which entries are frequent. Not only does this permit of carrying footings to the end of the month with one posting to the ledger account, but it provides a convenient classification of receipts and expenditures with a complete segregation of items of a given class.

In the form illustrated, columns are provided on the debit side for cash, purchase ledger (subdivided for discount and amount), bank deposits, and sundries; on the credit side, cash, sales ledger (subdivided for discount and amount), cash sales, bank withdrawals, and sundries. At first glance it might appear that this form is a departure from the regular form of cash book, but it should be remembered that the cash columns are the only ones having anything to do with the cash account. A cash receipt is entered in the cash debit column, but the amount is credited to its source through the proper credit column; thus a payment received on account is debited to cash and credited through the sales ledger column. A deposit is credited to cash and debited to bank deposits; the payment of a purchase ledger 16account by check is credited to bank withdrawals, and debited to purchase ledger account.

The discount columns are memorandum columns only, the net cash being entered in the amount columns under purchase and sales ledger. These columns are included that the total payment may be posted to personal accounts in purchase or sales ledger. The totals of these columns are to be posted to discount and interest columns at the end of the month.

The total amount to be posted to the debit of the purchase ledger account and to the credit of sales ledger account is made up of the totals of the discount and amount columns.

The sundries columns are provided for all entries for which there are no special columns and are used principally for transactions affecting general ledger accounts. These columns are sometimes used for ordinary journal entries not involving an exchange of cash, but their use for this purpose is strongly advised against. The cash book should be used exclusively for recording cash transactions. When columnar purchase, sales, and cash books are used, the journal is only needed for adjusting and closing entries, and for this purpose it is best to provide an ordinary two-column journal.

SUBDIVISION OF EXPENSE ACCOUNT

12. In every business there are several classes of expense and it is very useful to know the exact amount of each class. When all expenses are charged under one head, it is impossible to determine without considerable checking, whether or not any particular class of expense is more than it should be. It is customary, therefore, to subdivide expense and to open accounts in the ledger for different classes of expense. Some subdivisions in common use are rent (paid), insurance, taxes, interest and discount, in freight, out freight, salaries, labor, fuel, office supplies, telegraph and telephone, postage, general expense, etc. The exact subdivisions used must of necessity be governed by the nature of the business. For instance, the item of telegraph and telephone charges may be of importance in one business, while in another, the number of such charges would be so small that a separate account is not warranted.

13. A form of envelope voucher for petty cash is illustrated. A strong manilla envelope in what is known as size #10 takes the place of the petty cash book. It is ruled for a record of payments, and a receipt for each payment is placed in the envelope. At the bottom is a space for a distribution of the amounts to the proper accounts. When the petty cash fund is depleted—or at stated intervals—a check is drawn for the amount expended and it is charged through the cash book, leaving petty cash intact. The amount of the petty cash fund is considered as cash on hand, and the voucher envelope accounts for any part of the fund not actually in the cash drawer. Petty cash should be used sparingly, as it is intended only for small expense items when it is inconvenient to give a check. When the books are closed, the petty cash expenditures may be charged through the cash book as cash payments, instead of drawing a check.

14. When a note, draft, or check is protested, the bank will charge us with the protest fee in addition to the face of the paper. The total amount must then be charged to the one from whom the paper was received. Suppose the check of Jones & Laughlin for $100.00 goes to protest and is returned to us with a protest fee of $2.50—the entry will be:

SAMPLE TRANSACTIONS

15. D. A. Hall is engaged in the business of a wholesale dealer in men's and boys' clothing. On Feb. 1st. his balance sheet is as follows:

Journal entries are to be made to get the accounts, as shown on Feb. 1st, recorded on the books. The transactions are properly entered in journal, cash book, sales book, and invoice register, and posted to ledger. The accounts in the general ledger are closed into trading, and profit and loss—the net profit is credited to proprietor's account—a trial balance is taken after the ledger is closed, and a balance sheet is made. Statements are prepared from sales and purchase ledgers, which agree with the balances of their controlling accounts. All accounts in the general ledger are properly ruled and balances carried forward.

SCENE IN SOUTH WATER STREET, WHERE THE COMMISSION HOUSES OF CHICAGO'S GREAT PRODUCE MARKETS ARE LOCATED

Statement of Sales and Purchase Ledger

Balance Sheet and Trial Balance of General Ledger

16. The following transactions are recorded on the books of Parker and Hoadley, Omaha, Neb., wholesale dealers in tea and coffee. In recording these transactions use is made of the books and forms illustrated in this section.

A partnership is formed on this date between K. J. Parker and D. C. Hoadley for the purpose of conducting a wholesale tea and coffee business, in the name of Parker & Hoadley, the principal place of business to be Omaha, Neb. Parker invests $3,000.00 cash. Hoadley invests $2,000.00 cash. It is agreed that profits are to be shared on the basis of capital invested, capital to draw interest at 6%, and interest at 6% to be paid on withdrawals. The books are to be closed monthly and the profits divided between the partners. Hoadley is to assume the entire responsibility for the conduct and management of the business, for which he is to receive a salary of $150.00 per month, payable in installments of $75.00 on the 15th and 31st of each month.

Bought from Leggitt & Co., New York, 30 chests Japan tea, 1,455# at .37½, 20 chests Oolong tea, 972# at .40; terms net 30, 2/10, f. o. b. N. Y.

Bought from Laughlin & Co., Chicago, 20 sacks Rio coffee, 1,020# at .22½, 20 sacks Java coffee, 985# at .25; 20 sacks Mocha coffee, 970# at .25; terms net 30, 2/10, f. o. b. Omaha.

Sold to Ames & Johnson, 92 12th St., on account, 3 chests Japan tea, 149# at .48; sack Rio coffee, 50# at .28; 1 sack Java coffee, 52# at .32.

Sold to Landis & Snow, So. Omaha, on account, 2 chests Oolong tea, 101# at .52; 1 sack Mocha coffee, 47# at .32; 2 sacks Rio coffee, 98# at .28.

Sold to J. C. Peters & Son, 267 Roberts St., 3 chests Oolong tea, 146# at .52, 5 sacks Rio coffee, 252# at .48.

39 Bought for cash from Harris & Co., 1 office desk and chair $45.00, gave Ck. No. 3 in payment.

Sold to Wright & Noble, 146 7th St., 2 sacks Java coffee, 99# at .32; 2 sacks Mocha coffee, 101# at .32.

Sold to Winters & James, 92 Hastings St., 4 chests Japan tea, 201# at .48; 3 chests Oolong tea, 138# at .52; 2 sacks Java coffee, 97# at .32.

Sold to Cobb & Willet, 892 Park Av., 2 chests Japan tea, 92# at .48; 1 chest Oolong tea, 47# at .52; 1 sack Rio coffee, 44# at .28; 1 sack Java coffee, 45# at .32; 1 sack Mocha coffee, 43# at .32.

Sold to Young & Criger, 62 Watson St., 5 sacks Mocha coffee, 205# at .32; 3 chests Oolong tea, 127# at .52.

Bought from Japan Importing Co., San Francisco, 60 chests Japan tea, 2,700# at .36, f. o. b. Omaha, net cash; gave our note at 10 days without interest in payment.

Sold for cash 3 sacks Rio coffee, 127# at .28; 2 sacks Mocha coffee, 89# at .32; 3 sacks Japan tea, 131# at .48.

40 Sold to Ames & Johnson, 2 sacks Mocha coffee, 91# at .32; 2 chests Oolong tea, 87# at .52.

Sold to Wright & Noble, 3 chests Japan tea, 129# at .48; 1 chest Oolong tea, 42# at .52.

Bought from Western Grocer Co., Chicago, 50 chests Oolong tea, 418# at .39; 20 sacks Rio coffee, 876# at .22¼; 10 sacks Java coffee, 434# at .25; 15 sacks Mocha coffee, 653# at .25; terms 30 days net, 2/10, f. o. b. Omaha.

Received from Wright & Noble cash in payment of our bill of Jan. 4th, less 2% cash discount.

Received from bank, check of Landis & Snow protested for non-payment, protest fees added 1.90.

Sold to Raymond H. Moss, 182 Spring St., 5 chests Japan tea, 217# at .48; 5 sacks Rio coffee, 214# at .28.

Sold to Wade & Francis 3 sacks Rio coffee, 123# at .28; 2 sacks Mocha coffee, 86# at .32.

5th. Take an inventory of stock on hand. The records show quantities purchased and quantities sold. When the same goods have been purchased at different prices, use the last price paid in figuring inventory.

COMBINED ORDER AND SALES RECORD

17. Instead of keeping separate order and sales books, both records may be combined on one blank. This is accomplished by the use of order blanks provided with columns for the distribution of sales to the different departments. Before the order is filled these blanks are handled in the same manner as those without distribution columns. When filled, the amounts are extended in the proper columns and the invoice made. The orders are then filed in a binder, each day's orders being kept together, and postings made direct to customers' accounts. The footings are carried forward to the end of the month and totals posted to sales accounts. The original orders thus become a loose leaf sales book.

ABSTRACT OF SALES

18. When the order blank is used as a sales record, making a sales book with a record of a single sale to a sheet, it is somewhat inconvenient to determine from the footings the total sales for the day. This information is of considerable value, as a knowledge of what is being done from day to day is of importance to the principals of a business. Such a record is provided for by an abstract of sales on a separate sheet. This abstract should show total sales for each day, both cash and on account, divided by departments.

The blank may be made the same size as the order blanks, and filed in the sales binder at the beginning of the month. Sales are 42recorded daily and footings carried forward to the end of the month, when the totals may be posted direct to the credit of the sales account in the general ledger. The totals of sales on account will be posted to the debit of the sales controlling account in the general ledger.

OUT FREIGHT

19. The proper treatment of freight paid on outgoing shipments is an important question in accounting. When goods are sold at delivered prices, the freight paid is one of the items of expense in selling the goods, and when the books are closed the account will be closed into profit and loss. However, in a wholesale business, freight is sometimes paid as an accommodation to the customer when the goods have been sold at f. o. b. prices. Although the amount should be added to the invoice it should not be credited to the sales account as this would be taking credit for a fictitious trading profit. Such an item should be made a special charge against the customer by means of a journal entry.

THE GENERAL OFFICES OF THE SAMUEL C. TATUM CO., CINCINNATI, OHIO

20. In a wholesale or manufacturing business it is very desirable that the exact cost of selling goods be known. Broadly, this cost is covered under the general head of sales expense, but this is usually divided into several classes of expenditures. The segregation of the various items of sales expense is desirable for the purpose of determining the percentage of each. The items which properly belong in sales expense depend somewhat on the nature of the business. For example, traveling expenses are usually a direct sales expense, but in some businesses they may be chargeable to the cost of purchases. The items entering into sales expense of the average business are: advertising, salaries of salesmen, traveling expenses of salesmen, commissions paid on sales, cost of packing and shipping, out freight.

21. Advertising. This account should be charged with all expenditures for publicity such as newspaper, magazine, street car, and bill board advertising, cost of printing catalogs, booklets, and circulars. Where there is any reason for so doing, the cost of the different classes of advertising can, of course, be kept in separate accounts. The aim and object of advertising being to increase the sale of goods, it is properly considered an item of sales expense.

22. Salaries of Salesmen. This account is charged with all salaries paid to salesmen whether traveling or working in the house. Commissions and bonuses are sometimes included in this account, but it is usually considered best to keep them in separate accounts.

23. Traveling Expenses of Salesmen. This account is charged with all legitimate traveling expenses of salesmen, the specific items included depending largely on the nature of the business. For example, in some businesses a liberal allowance is made for the entertainment of customers, while in others this item is never allowed. In any business the traveling expense account requires careful scrutiny. Salesmen should be required to furnish an itemized statement or voucher of expenses at stated intervals. For convenience, this should be made on a form specially provided for the purpose. One of the most convenient and popular expense vouchers is in the form of a book of a convenient pocket size, with a page for each day of the week and a summary of the week's expenses on the last page.

24. Packing and Shipping. This account is charged with the 45entire cost of packing goods for shipment. It includes such items as wages of shipping clerk and his assistants, crates, lumber, boxes, and all other packing materials.

TRIAL BALANCE BOOK

25. To save rewriting the names of the accounts each month, a trial balance book can be used to good advantage. These books are made to accommodate six trial balances on a double page, and are sometimes made with alternate short leaves so that twelve trial balances may be made with one writing of the names. When the trial balance book is used, care must be exercised in providing space for the addition of new accounts in each section. Where separate sales and purchase ledgers are used, it is best to provide a trial balance book for each ledger.

THE CHECK REGISTER

26. Large check books are cumbersome to handle and necessitating the expenditure of much needless labor. Their use is rapidly giving way in modern offices to the check register. The check register has several distinct advantages. It exhibits, in compact form, a record of all checks issued and can also be arranged to show deposits and balance in the bank. Distribution columns can be provided with headings for the different expenditure accounts, which makes of the check register a cash expenditure book. The form should be varied to suit the business in which it is to be used. A typical form is illustrated on page 37.

27. Checks in Pads. When the check register is used it is the usual custom to have checks put up in pads. After the check is written, it is registered and numbered to correspond to the register number. With the use of padded checks, it is not necessary for the clerk who writes the check to know anything about the bank balance.

Check Register Combined with Cash Expenditure Book

CASH RECEIVED BOOK

28. A cash book specially ruled for a record of cash received is used to supplement the check register or cash expenditure book. Columns are provided for the different classes of receipts, with one credit column. It is assumed that all cash received is deposited, payments being made exclusively by check. This does not refer to petty cash expenditures which should be kept in a petty cash book or on envelope vouchers.

SAMPLE TRANSACTIONS

29. The following transactions illustrate the use of the special blanks and books described.

D. A. Hall employs H. D. Snyder as traveling salesman for the purpose of increasing his business, agreeing to pay him a salary of $150.00 per month and expenses. He commences work on Feb. 11th. The amounts in the ledgers stand as shown in the last model set illustrated and these transactions are recorded:

EXERCISE

1. Prepare a trial balance of the ledger as it would appear after posting these transactions.

2. Assuming that gross trading profits average the same per cent of selling prices as in former transactions of this business house, find approximate inventory at close of business Feb. 16th.

ONE OF THE ELECTRICAL MANUFACTURING PLANTS OF THE FAIRBANKS-MORSE COMPANY

Check Register and Cash Expenditure Book

30. Commission or brokerage is the business of buying and selling goods for another. The commission merchant or broker acts in the capacity of agent, charging a stated per cent or commission for his services.

Certain commodities are sold on the market at the best prices obtainable, the prices depending upon the condition of the market—the supply and demand. Since it would be both inconvenient and unprofitable for each seller to accompany his own wares to market, he avails himself of the services of the commission merchant. The class of goods most largely dealt in by commission merchants is farm produce, shipped to the cities by both producers and country dealers.

The practice of shipping produce to the broker to be sold on commission is gradually falling into disuse. As the business is now conducted, the commission merchant buys the produce outright and takes his own chances of making a profit, and thus his business becomes also that of a wholesaler.

MERCHANDISE BROKER

31. Certain classes of merchandise are marketed through the medium of brokers styling themselves merchandise brokers. Their business is usually transacted on a larger scale than that of the ordinary commission merchant. The merchandise broker sells in large quantities—as salt by the car load.

The distinction between the commission merchant and the broker lies in the fact that the commission merchant has the goods to be sold actually in his possession, while the broker acts as agent for the purchase and sale of goods which he does not actually handle.

MANUFACTURER'S AGENT

32. One distinct class of brokers is the sales agent or manufacturer's agent. He is a broker who sells goods for the manufacturer, usually by sample. As a rule the manufacturer sets the prices and determines the terms of credit. The goods are sold in the name of the manufacturer who carries the accounts on his books, paying the agent a commission for his services. In some cases, however, the manufacturer's agent maintains his own warehouse, issues a warehouse receipt for the goods which are shipped to him, and even 61advances money to the manufacturer. He then becomes virtually a commission merchant. He holds the goods as security for the money advanced, and, when sold, collects the money and remits the balance of the net proceeds the same as the ordinary commission merchant.

SHIPMENTS

33. When a principal sends goods to a commission merchant or broker to be sold on commission, it is called a shipment. As soon as the goods are sent, an account is opened with the shipment, and the shipment is designated by the name of the consignee, a number, or the name of the place—as Shipment to Richard Roe. If more than one shipment is made to a commission merchant an account should be opened for each one in order that the gain or loss can be determined for individual shipments. The separate accounts should be designated by number—as Richard Roe, shipment No. 2.

The shipment, when made, is entered in the same way as a sale, and the items are charged at cost price. The account is also charged with any expense incurred on account of the shipment. When the Account Sales is received, the account is credited with the net proceeds. It now shows either a profit or a loss which is transferred by a journal entry to an account called Profit and Loss on Shipments. This account is, in turn, closed into profit and loss when the books are closed.

If at the time of closing the books there are any outstanding shipments on which Account Sales have not been received, the debit balances represent assets the same as inventory of merchandise on hand.

34. Agents' or Factors' Account. If the Account Sales, when received, is accompanied by a remittance to cover net proceeds, cash is debited and the shipment account credited for the amount. When a remittance is not received with the Account Sales, the shipment account is credited with net proceeds and the amount is charged to a new account opened in the name of the consignee as Agent or Bailee or Factor—as Richard Roe, Agent, or Richard Roe, Bailee, which is treated as a personal account. This does not mean that Richard Roe is a debtor in the ordinary sense of the term, but that he holds funds in trust; and in case of his failure, the shipper could 62recover full value instead of being obliged to accept his pro rata share of the assets.

A CONSIGNMENT

35. When a broker receives a shipment of goods to be sold on commission, it is known as a consignment. He opens a memorandum account by entering a list of the goods, but without extending any amounts. He has not purchased the goods, but simply holds them for sale as agent of the shipper. If there are any charges against the consignment, as freight, cartage, or storage charges, an account is opened in the name of the consignor. The title would be John Doe's Consignment, and if more than one consignment is received from John Doe a separate account is opened for each. This account is debited for all charges, and as sales are made they are credited to the account. When all of the goods have been sold, the broker renders the consignor a statement, known as an Account Sales, showing sales, expenses, and net proceeds.

If, when the books are closed, there are on hand any consignments, or parts of consignments, unsold, the consignment accounts are left open and represent either assets or liabilities. If expenses have been debited and no sales credited, the account will show a debit balance representing an asset. If sales have been credited in excess of the expense charges, the credit balance will represent a liability. When an Account Sales has been rendered, the account will balance, the net proceeds having been either remitted or credited to the consignor.

36. Principal's Account. If the broker remits the net proceeds at the time of rendering the Account Sales, he debits the consignment and credits cash, or bills payable as the case may be. But if he renders an Account Sales without remitting, he opens an account with the consignor, as John Doe, Principal, or John Doe, Bailor, and credits the account with the net proceeds, debiting the consignment account. The title of the account shows that he is not an ordinary debtor to John Doe, but that the amount of the credit represents funds belonging to John Doe and held in trust by the broker. In case of his failure the account of John Doe, Principal, would have to be paid before the claims of ordinary creditors.

6337. Commission Account. All sums received by the broker for services rendered in connection with the sale of goods for a shipper are credited to a commission account. When the books are closed this account is closed into profit and loss.

PRODUCE SHIPPER'S BOOKS

38. The most common branch of the commission business is that of shipping and selling produce. The books used vary somewhat from those used by a manufacturer's agent selling to jobbers, but the principles are the same.

Sometimes the same man conducts both the business of shipper and broker, buying certain goods which he in turn ships to other brokers to be sold for his account. In the produce commission business, however, the shipper is usually a buyer, located in the country, who buys produce from the farmer and ships to a commission merchant in the city.

The books required by the shipper are purchase book, shipment book, shipment ledger, cash book, journal, and general ledger.

39. Purchase Book. This book is of the same form as used in other businesses, with as many columns as may be desired to separate purchases of different classes of produce.

6440. Shipment Book. This is the book of original entry for shipments in which each shipment is recorded in detail, showing each item, with prices (usually at cost) extended. The book can be ruled with columns for segregating shipments of different classes of produce. The total of each shipment is posted to the debit of the individual shipment account in the shipment ledger. The footings of the columns are carried forward to the end of the month when they are posted to the credit of shipment accounts in the general ledger. These general ledger shipment accounts are opened for each class of produce for which a separate record is desired, and correspond to the sale account of a mercantile business.

At the end of the month the total of all shipments is posted to the debit of a controlling account in the general ledger known as shipment ledger account.

If more than one class of produce is shipped to an agent at the same time it is best to make invoices for each, treating them as independent shipments. Each package should bear a number or other mark by which it can be identified as belonging to a particular shipment.

41. Shipment Ledger. An ordinary ledger can be used or a special form prepared. Since the debit side of the account will require much the greater amount of space, special forms are quite desirable. A convenient form is illustrated on page 55.

42. Cash Book. Tabular cash books with special arrangement of the column headings are used. The special features are the column on the credit side headed shipment expense, and the debit column headed shipment ledger. The shipment expense column is for the expenses paid on each shipment. Expenses are posted direct to the debit of the individual shipment accounts, and at the end of the month the total expense is posted to the debit of the shipment ledger controlling account. The shipment ledger column is for net proceeds remitted with account sales. The amounts are posted to the credit of shipment accounts, and the total is posted at the end of the month to the credit of shipment ledger controlling account.

The sundries column is for receipts other than remittances with account sales—as payments by agents who have not remitted with account sales.

Shipment Ledger for Commission Business

6743. Shipment Ledger Account. This is the controlling account of the shipment ledger. It is charged with total shipments through the shipment book; with advance expenses through cash book or journal; credited with net proceeds through cash book or journal. It must also be charged with profits on shipments, or it will not represent the total balance of shipment ledger.

When net proceeds are credited, the individual shipment account should be charged, through the journal, with the net profit, which is credited to Profit and Loss on Shipments. A special credit column is provided in the journal for profits, or if a record of profits on each class of produce is desired, two or more columns are provided. Monthly totals are posted to the credit of profit and loss on shipment account, or to more than one such account—as profit on poultry, profit on butter and eggs, etc. The total of all profit columns, which represents debits to shipment accounts, is charged to shipment ledger account.

It is to be supposed that losses will be few, and when one is incurred the entries should be made through the journal. The amount will be charged to profit and loss on shipment account and credited to both the individual shipment account and shipment ledger account.

44. Journal. As already explained, the journal should be provided with extra columns for profits on each class of shipment.

When an agent transmits an account sales without a cash remittance, the transaction must be journalized to close the shipment account. When proceeds are to be charged to his account, the entry is:

If a note to cover net proceeds is received, the entry is the same except that Bills Receivable is debited instead of Richard Roe, Agt.

45. The shipper may sell a portion of his produce outright, and if a large share of his business is transacted in this manner, sales can be treated exactly the same as though he was not engaged in a commission business, with separate sales book and sales ledger.

Most shippers, however, will not find it necessary to segregate sales to this extent. Sales can be charged to shipment accounts in the shipment ledger, but will of course be charged at a profit, and credited to shipment account in general ledger. Payments on these accounts will be entered in the cash book as net proceeds.

SHIPPER'S TRADING ACCOUNT

46. The trading account of the shipper is made up somewhat differently than for a mercantile business where all sales are supposed to be entered at a profit.

If all his produce is sold through commission merchants, and the inventory of produce in stock exactly equals the difference between purchases and shipments, the account, profit and loss on shipments represents the trading profit. But this state of affairs seldom if ever exists. Either there will have been outright sales or a discrepancy will appear in the inventory. The latter is usually the case in a produce business, for some value will be lost owing to the perishable nature of the goods handled.

The trading account is charged with all purchases and inventory, if any, at beginning of the period, and credited with all shipments and inventory at end of period.

The trading account now exhibits the true trading profits with a complete segregation of profits from actual sales and commission sales. The inventory does not include outstanding shipments, these being treated as a separate item in the balance sheet.

47. The following transactions, taken from the books of John Doe, shipper of poultry and butter and eggs, illustrate the books and accounts used.

Shipper's Purchase and Shipment Ledger

THE ADMINISTRATION BUILDING OF THE MINNEAPOLIS STEEL & MACHINERY CO., MINNEAPOLIS, MINN.

48. On a certain date a trial balance of the ledger of Henry Donnely, shipper of produce, stood as follows:

Prepare trading and profit and loss accounts showing net profits or losses on both apples and potatoes for the entire period represented by the accounts.

DEBITS

Purchases of apples		$1,264.00
Purchases of potatoes		1,500.00
Shipment Ledger Account		736.00
Cash		450.00

CREDITS

Shipment Account—apples		1,200.00
Shipment Account—potatoes		1,200.00
Profit on Shipments—apples		250.00
Profit on Shipments—potatoes		350.00
Accounts Payable		950.00

During a subsequent period, his transactions were as follows:

Cash purchases of apples		1,000.00
Cash purchases of potatoes		1,000.00
Shipments of apples		900.00
Shipments of potatoes		1,100.00
Profits on apples		100.00
Profits on potatoes		200.00
Account Sales for which cash was received		1,800.00
Account sales charged to Agts.		600.00
Shipment Ledger Account decreased		100.00
Sundry expenses paid in cash		50.00

Inventory at end of period
Apples	210.00
Potatoes	190.00	400.00

49. The books required by a produce commission merchant are receiving book, cash book, consignment ledger, sales book, sales ledger, journal, and general ledger. If he buys produce to be sold on his own account, he also requires a purchase book and purchase ledger.

50. The Receiving Book. This is usually a rough blotter with ordinary day book ruling, though some merchants use special forms.

When a consignment is received it is given a lot number and entered in this book in the name of the shipper, but without extending the amounts. If any expenses have been incurred, an account is opened immediately in the consignment ledger in the name of the shipper.

51. The Cash Book. On the credit side of the cash book, under the general heading consignment ledger, are three columns, headed net proceeds, expense, and commission. The commission column is a memorandum column only, the total being posted, at the end of the month, to the credit of commission account in the general ledger.

Net proceeds, expense, and commission on each consignment are posted as separate items to the debit of that particular consignment account. At the end of the month, the total of these three columns is posted to the debit of consignment ledger account in the general ledger.

52. Sales Book. The sales book is provided with special columns for sales and consignment sales. The sales column represents sales of the merchants' own goods, the totals being posted at the end of the month to the credit of sales account in the general ledger and to the debit of the sales ledger account.

The consignment sales are listed by lot number and posted to the credit of the consignment accounts. As the lot numbers run consecutively in the receiving book, this furnishes an index to the consignment accounts. The totals of the consignment sales columns are posted to the credit of consignment ledger account, and the consignment ledger column is posted to the debit of sales ledger account.

53. Consignment Ledger. This ledger contains accounts with every consignment received. The accounts are charged with expenses, net proceeds, and commissions from the cash book, and credited with sales from the sales book. If a remittance is not sent with the Account Sales, the necessary entry is made in the journal, 78charging both consignment account and consignment ledger account and crediting the shipper as principal—or bills payable account when a note is sent.

54. Consignment Ledger Account. This is a controlling account which receives its debits and credits from the same sources as do the consignment accounts. Except in the case of journal entries, totals only are posted at the end of the month.

PURCHASE AND SALE OF OWN GOODS

55. When the commission merchant is also a wholesaler, the purchases and sales are treated on the books exactly as they would be if he was not a commission merchant. The books and accounts required are the same as those of any other wholesale merchant.

SAMPLE TRANSACTION

56. The following transactions include the shipments used in the last model set, but treated from the standpoint of the commission merchant.

Commission Merchant's Receiving Book, Journal and Sales Book

Commission Merchant's Consignment and Sales Ledgers

57. During a certain period a commission merchant transacted the following business:

STORAGE

58. Storage, as here used, is the business of furnishing storage for merchandise on its way to market until such time as it is sold and delivered to the purchaser. The source of supply and customs of the trade in certain classes of merchandise render the question of storage an important one. This is particularly true of the grain trade. Large buyers of grain, located in important distributing centers which have become the principal grain markets owing to their manufacturing or transportation facilities, locate their buyers in the grain producing sections to buy grain from the producers. At these points are located small grain handling plants or elevators, where the grain is received from the farmers and shipped to the distributing centers.

Here, extensive storage facilities must be provided, that these shipments, aggregating enormous quantities of grain, may be held until the condition of the market is favorable for selling. If it were not for this custom of storage it would be necessary to market all of the grain—except the small quantities stored by the farmers—soon after harvest, which would result in lowering prices to all concerned, from the farmer up.

85These conditions have resulted in the organization of warehousing companies to provide storage for the owners. When grain, or other classes of merchandise, is received for storage a warehouse receipt is issued, and the merchandise will not be delivered without the presentation of the receipt. Warehouse receipts are negotiable and since they are evidence of the ownership of certain merchandise stored in a warehouse, bankers will loan money to the owner and accept the warehouse receipt as security.

Manufacturers and jobbers of certain products also find it necessary to store large quantities of their wares at distributing centers that they may promptly supply the trade. Another reason for this practice is a financial one. When a manufacturer exchanges his wares for a warehouse receipt, he can immediately borrow on its security, thus securing capital to carry on his business until the regular selling season for his particular product.

The merchandise broker and manufacturers' agent sometimes have their own warehouses and combine the business of buying and selling with that of storage and, if they possess sufficient capital, advance money to the manufacturer.

Perishable products handled by the produce commission merchant are also stored in cold storage warehouses, both to preserve them and to hold for more favorable market conditions.

STORAGE ACCOUNTS

59. Storage charges are usually based on a 30 day period, though sometimes for shorter periods, and any period less than a full month is charged for at the 30 day rate.

The storage is frequently charged for the exact time that goods are in the warehouse, that is, the amount is figured for each amount withdrawn. The following example demonstrates this, storage being charged on each quantity withdrawn at the rate of 10c per case per month.

Another method is to charge storage for the average time at a given rate per month of 30 days. This method is most commonly used when receipts and deliveries are frequent, and is called average storage. The following example demonstrates the method.

SPECIAL RECORDS REQUIRED

Date	Receipts	Deliveries	Balance	Time	Quantity Stored For One Day
Nov.	15	600 cs.		600 cs.	15 da.	9,000	cs.
Nov.	30	200 "		800 "	10 da.	8,000	"
Dec.	10		100 cs.	700 "	27 da.	17,900	"
Jan.	6		300 "	400 "	39 da.	15,600	"
Feb.	14		200 "	200 "	10 da.	2,000	"
Feb.	24		200 "	000 "
		800	800			30)52,500
Average for 1 mo.	1,750
1,750 cs. @ 10¢ $175.00 (Amt. of charges)

60. One of the most important records required is a storage record showing receipts and deliveries. A special form is necessary and should be adapted to the requirements of the particular class of storage business in which it is to be used.

The form illustrated is typical in that it provides for a record of storage of any class of goods handled in packages. The storage charges are always shown so that a statement of the account can be made at any time. At the end of each month the storage charges extended during the month are debited, through the journal, to the personal accounts of the owners. The total of all such storage charges is credited to a storage account in the general ledger.

When there are frequent receipts and deliveries, the owner should be given a detailed statement showing all changes in quantities and storage charges. Such a statement should be a transcript of the storage record. The form illustrated answers the requirements of simple storage.

BIRD'S-EYE VIEW OF THE PLANT OF SWIFT & COMPANY, CHICAGO, ILL.

SINGLE ENTRY BOOKKEEPING

1. To this point all of the discussions in this work have related to the double entry system of bookkeeping, and all demonstrations have been carried out according to that system. The reason for this is that double entry is the best and the only satisfactory method of bookkeeping; it is the only method that fulfils the important function of bookkeeping by furnishing a true record of the results of all business transactions.

3. Copyright, 1909, by American School of Correspondence.

It might appear that instruction in keeping books by the single entry method has no place in a modern treatise on bookkeeping; and if our purpose were to teach single entry as a method to be used, this would be true.

Single entry bookkeeping is not recommended as a method to be used in any business.

The only reason for introducing single entry is to show the student how to change a set of books from the antiquated single entry to a modern double entry system. Though inadequate, single entry is still used to some extent. It is more commonly found in small retail establishments, but occasionally encountered in the offices of corporations and manufacturing enterprises. The bookkeeper who is called upon to fill a position where this method is used must know how to keep books by single entry, that he may more clearly demonstrate the advantages of the double entry method.

When the advantages of double entry are demonstrated, few employers will object to a change from single entry. In most offices where single entry is still used, the reasons which have prevented a change may be summed up as ignorance of the double entry method, or a fear that double entry will increase the work without a corresponding benefit. This latter idea is a misconception inherited 92from the days of the old time bookkeeper, who considered it necessary to laboriously journalize every transaction. While it may have possessed some merit at that time, it is no longer true. Modern ideas, improved forms of account books, labor saving devices, and short cuts without number have reduced the labor of bookkeeping to a minimum, and if any attempt at a proof of accuracy is made, double entry actually requires less labor than single entry.

2. Distinctive Features of Single Entry. The distinctive feature of single entry is that only personal accounts are kept. When goods are sold or purchased, records are made of the transactions as they affect the persons to whom sold or from whom purchased. The records do not show the increase or decrease of any specific form of assets, like merchandise, for no property accounts are kept. An account is usually kept with cash, but this approaches double entry, for when a person pays money to the business, cash is debited and the person credited; and when money is paid out, cash is credited and the person debited.

Sometimes, in a set of books otherwise kept by single entry, such accounts as merchandise, expense, and real estate are found, but when such accounts are introduced the books begin to take on double entry features.

3. Books Used. The principal books of a single entry set usually consist of day book or journal, cash book, and ledger. Both the day book and cash book are books of original entry, from which transactions are posted direct to the ledger. Auxiliary books used are order book, bill book, and check book.

The day book or journal is the familiar two-column form, the left-hand column being used for debits and right-hand column for credits.

The cash book has two columns on each page, and these columns are used to separate the items affecting personal accounts, which are to be posted, and all other items, none of which are posted. See illustration.

The order book is usually the regular two-column journal form. In retail businesses it is used as a principal book, transactions being posted from it to the ledger. Sometimes the first column is used for prices, the extensions being made only when the order is filled.

The bill book is quite essential in a single entry set for the reason 93that no Bills Receivable and Bills Payable accounts are kept in the ledger.

4. Rules for Debit and Credit. The rules for debit and credit are the same in single entry as in double entry, except that no debits and credits are recorded which do not effect persons or cash—when a cash account is kept. Briefly, these rules applying to single entry are:

5. Posting. There is no difference between posting to a single entry ledger and one kept by the double entry method. However, the only accounts posted are personal accounts, and the ledger shows merely how much money the business owes to persons and how much money persons owe the business. A single entry ledger does not show the amount of our notes outstanding, or the amount of other persons' notes held by us. This information can be found only in the bill book. The ledger does not show the value of merchandise purchased or sold, expenses of the business, nor the amount of our investments in land, buildings, or other forms of property.

6. Proprietor's Account. A proprietor's investment or capital account is kept in single entry just as it is in double entry. This may or may not include withdrawals. They may be recorded in a personal or private account, in which case the proprietor's account will exhibit the net investment in the business.

7. Proving the Work. Since but one side of each journal entry is posted, the two sides of the ledger will not agree as in double entry. Hence a trial balance is, strictly speaking, impossible. The only absolutely sure method of checking the accuracy of a single account in the ledger is to carefully check all postings; this is also true of double entry. But it is possible to prove that the correct totals have been posted in single entry, as it is in double entry. Since 94the ledger is never in balance as in double entry, the proof is not found by comparing the two sides of the ledger, but by comparing the difference between the two sides of the ledger, with the difference between debits and credits in the columns of books of original entry from which postings have been made. If the difference between debits and credits in the ledger agrees with the difference between debits and credits in the books of original entry, the work may be assumed to be correct.

To prove the work, first find the balances of all ledger accounts and enter the amounts in the debit and credit columns on journal paper—as for a trial balance. Foot and find the difference between the two columns. Next foot the order book, day book, cash book, or any other books from which posting is done, and list the totals which should be posted to debit and credit of ledger accounts. Foot and find the difference.

SAMPLE TRANSACTIONS

8. For the first demonstration of single entry bookkeeping, we have selected a small retail business, using transactions which have been used to illustrate a double entry set. This set is kept in the most simple manner possible, the books used being journal, cash book, and ledger.

The business is opened by Wm. Webster on the 21st day of November, 190-. He is to conduct a retail grocery business and has rented a store from Wm. Bristol at a monthly rental of $30.00. His resources consist of cash, $600.00; a stock of groceries, $946.50; personal accounts due him as follows: Henry Norton $25.00, L. B. Jenkins $22.70. His liabilities consist of two accounts, as follows: Brewster & Co., $115.20; Warsaw Milling Co., $64.00. The opening entry recording the above, is made in the journal as in double entry, but only personal items are posted. Cash is transferred to the cash book.

CUTTING OFF DEPARTMENT IN THE PLANT OF THE UNION TWIST DRILL CO., ATHOL, MASS.

At the close of business, Nov. 30, the ledger is proved, in accordance with the rules given in Art. 7. All open accounts in the ledger are listed on ordinary journal ruled paper and the balances extended to the debit and credit columns. These columns are footed, the total of the credit columns being $1,564.02, and of the debit column, $56.08. Subtracting the latter from the former, we find the difference to be $1,507.94. The total postings—debit and credit—from the journal and the cash book are then entered and added, the total debit postings being $296.44, and the total credit postings, $1,804.38. The former deducted from the latter leaves $1,564.02, which agrees with the difference in the ledger balances. This proves the correctness of the postings to the ledger, and takes the place of the trial balance used in the double entry method.

VIEW IN THE GROUNDS OF THE FORE RIVER SHIPBUILDING COMPANY, QUINCY, MASS.
Showing the Facilities for Handling Material in the Plate Yard and a Typical Arrangement of the Shops. The Great Electric Crane Shown has a Span of 175 Feet, and Travels Over 1,000 Feet of Track. It is Said to be One of the Largest of Its Kind in the World.

AUTOMATIC MACHINE TOOL ROOM, FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF PARTS FOR ROCK DRILLS, COAL MINING MACHINES, DIAMOND DRILLS, ETC., IN THE CLAREMONT, N. H., FACTORY OF THE SULLIVAN MACHINERY COMPANY

108

Single Entry Profit and Loss Statement

DETERMINING THE PROFIT

9. Having no nominal accounts, we cannot close through trading account into profit and loss, but must use another method to find the profit or loss for a given period. It will be necessary to first ascertain the present worth of the business. Therefore the first step will be to take an inventory, just as we would if closing a double entry ledger. Our inventory shows merchandise $1,042.77. Next, we will make a statement of assets and liabilities, following the same form as the balance sheet when the books are kept by double entry. This will give us the present worth.

From the present worth, we will deduct the capital investment (or the present worth at the time of making the last statement) which will show the profit for the period. If the present worth is less than the capital investment, the business shows a loss.

It will be noted that while this method shows net profits, it does not show how those profits were made. Having no accounts with purchases and sales, we can have no trading account to show gross 109profits, and without expense accounts there is no data from which to make up a detailed profit and loss statement. Herein is one of the shortcomings of the single entry method of bookkeeping.

CLOSING THE BOOKS

10. To close a single entry ledger, all that is necessary is to credit the proprietor's investment account, or any account representing capital, with the net gain, or debit the account with the net loss. Then rule the personal accounts and bring down the balances.

EXERCISE

At the close of the period in which these transactions were recorded, the inventory of merchandise on hand was $987.75.

First. Open single entry books, entering these transactions in the journal and cash book.

Second. Post to ledger using the terms Debtor and Creditor to represent account of customers and those from whom goods were purchased.

Fifth. Has there been a gain or a loss, and how does it affect the account of the proprietor?

11. How to change the method of keeping a set of books from single to double entry is an important question to the bookkeeper, for he may be called upon any time to do the work. When once understood, the change involves only very simple entries. The routine may be briefly described as follows:

Second. Enter this statement in the journal and post to the ledger, debiting all accounts which represent assets and crediting all accounts which represent liabilities. Credit proprietor's account with the difference, which is the present worth.

If a new ledger is to be opened, new accounts will be opened for each form of asset or liability represented in the entry.

If the old ledger is to be used new accounts are to be opened with assets and liabilities not already represented by accounts in the ledger, and the net gain only will be credited to the proprietor's account. Check personal accounts, but do not post.

Third. Take a trial balance to see if the ledger is in balance, as it should be after posting these entries.

EXERCISE

Following the rules given, change the books of David Henry to double entry using the old ledger.

CHANGING PARTNERSHIP BOOKS TO DOUBLE ENTRY

12. We will suppose that the ledger illustrated in the following model set (pages 23-27) represents the business of Benton, Douglas, and Kemp, and that the books have been kept by single entry.

They wish to adopt the double entry method and call you in to make the necessary changes in their books.

Your first step is to make a statement of the ledger accounts, including all except the capital accounts of the partners. This statement gives you the following information:

111You also balance the cash book and compare the balance with the cash in drawer, and find that the amount shown, $21.60, is correct.

In the meantime an inventory is being taken. When completed, the results shown are:

The next step is to make a statement of assets and liabilities for the purpose of finding the present worth of the business.

The capital accounts of the partners show the original investment to have been $9,000.00, which is more than the present worth. Deducting the latter from the former will give the net loss.

The partnership agreement provides that profits and losses are to be shared equally, but contains no reference to the payment of interest on withdrawals, or allowance of interest on personal credits.

The statement of assets and liabilities is entered in the journal and accounts opened in the ledger with merchandise inventory and furniture and fixtures—the only items not already represented by ledger accounts. To complete the change and balance the ledger the following single entry is made in the journal and posted to partners' personal accounts.

You have followed the routine necessary to change the books of a partnership from single to double entry under the conditions given. A general rule to be followed is to ascertain the present worth, make the partnership adjustment as in double entry, and post as in changing books of a single proprietorship.

EXERCISE

The books of Lancaster, Jenkins, and Stubb have been kept by single entry, but they desire to change to double entry.

The partnership agreement provides that each partner shall share in the profits in proportion to his net investment. Separate accounts are kept with each partner to cover his investment and withdrawals.

The following is a statement of the ledger accounts as they appeared December 31st. The balances of partners' investment accounts are the same as when the last adjustment was made, no additional investments having been made during the present period.

An inventory is taken and shows the value of merchandise in stock to be $1,850.00, fixtures $300.00.

STATEMENT OF LEDGER

Lancaster,	Investment	Credit	Balance	$2,000.00
Jenkins	"	"	"	1,500.00
Stubb	"	"	"	1,500.00
Personal	Accounts	"	"	900.00
"	"	Debit	"	2,200.00
Lancaster,	Withdrawals	"	"	325.00
Jenkins	"	"	"	250.00
Stubb	"	"	"	175.00
Bank	"	"	"	2,150.00
Cash in office			50.00

First. Transfer debit balances of partners' withdrawal accounts to investment accounts.

Second. Show entries to make the partnership adjustment and to change books to double entry.

Third. Indicate by check (√) what accounts are to be posted, the old ledger being used.

13. Corporation books are seldom kept by single entry, but such cases are not impossible to find. In Chicago, there is a manufacturing corporation which has been in business for more than twenty years and is doing a business of a quarter million dollars a year, whose books have been kept by single entry. Not until January 1909 was an accountant called in to change their books to a modern double entry system.

In the case cited a capital stock account was kept, and dividends were paid in cash. The routine followed by the accountant was to first take an inventory of machinery, material, supplies, goods in process, and manufactured goods. Then the land and buildings were appraised at their present value. Accounts had been kept with real estate and machinery, but repairs to buildings had been charged to real estate, thus showing a fictitious increase in value, and no depreciation had been charged against machinery. There was also a merchandise account which had been charged with all purchases and credited with all sales, so that it furnished no information of value.

For these reasons only personal accounts, capital stock, bank account, and cash were taken from the books in making up a statement of assets and liabilities. In making this statement capital stock was included as a liability and the excess of assets over liabilities represented surplus.

The statement was entered in the journal and accounts representing each item were opened in a new ledger. The balance was credited to surplus account and the books were in balance. Subsequently, the different expense accounts were opened as the transactions requiring their use arose.

Had the directors insisted, the accountant would have been obliged to enter real estate and machinery at the values shown in the old accounts, but an inventory of merchandise would have been necessary in any event.

A safe rule in changing the books of a corporation to double entry is to make a statement of assets and liabilities, including capital stock in liabilities. Then open the necessary accounts and credit the difference in the statement to surplus account.

119

Journal Entries to Change to Double Entry

A cost system was desired by the management, consequently in opening new books it was necessary to provide for the needed accounts. The complete entries used to change these books from single to double entry are shown in the model journal illustrated, page 29.

120

Ledger After Changing to Double Entry

121

Ledger After Changing to Double Entry

The books of the Star Coal Company, a corporation with a paid-up capital of $10,000.00, have been kept by single entry. The following facts are gathered from the books:

Make necessary journal entries to change to double entry. Provide a reserve of 5% for uncollectible accounts, 10% for depreciation of horses and wagons, 10% for depreciation of furniture and fixtures. Declare a dividend of 10% and transfer balance of profits to surplus, making all journal entries to record these transactions.

TWO HEMISPHERICAL BOTTOMS FOR 100,000-GALLON ELEVATED TANKS RIVETED TOGETHER, SHOWING CLASS OF WORKMANSHIP NECESSARY ON WORK OF THIS CHARACTER
Chicago Bridge & Iron Works, Chicago, Ill.

14. The construction of comparative statements is one of the most important duties of the bookkeeper. The ability to properly classify the accounts that make up trading and profit and loss statements, and balance sheets is a valuable asset to the bookkeeper who aims to advance to the highest position.

Statements of this kind, unless properly classified, are unintelligible to the average business man. A mere statement of the balances of the ledger accounts arranged without respect to their relationship, one to the other, may show that the ledger is in balance, but does not present information of special value to the manager of a business. What he wants—and expects—is a statement from which he can readily extract desired information; it must emphasize the salient points.

The classification of accounts has already been touched upon, but no harm will be done by placing still greater emphasis on the importance of this feature. For with the right classification of accounts in the ledger, the trial balance itself will supply some very interesting information, instead of being a mere list of balances. The following rules should be observed in the arrangement of accounts in the ledger.

All asset accounts should be assembled in the first section and grouped according to their classification; i. e., active, fixed, and passive or fictitious.

The liabilities should be divided into secured or funded, unsecured or floating, and capital; the latter includes any reserve accounts that may be maintained.

The expense accounts should follow and should be subdivided as to selling, general, and administrative.

The trading accounts should be grouped and divided into purchases, in-freight, and sales.

If a manufacturing business, the manufacturing accounts should be divided as to purchases, labor, and expenses.

The advantages of card and loose leaf ledgers are apparent in connection with the proper arrangement of accounts. They readily lend themselves to any desired classification, and new accounts as needed can be inserted at any point.

124For the purpose of showing some of the possibilities in the classification of accounts, we give a few examples of model trial balances.

TRIAL BALANCE

Assets
Cash	$264.20
Bank	4,728.50
Accounts Receivable	6,270.00
Inventory (Jan. 1)	7,860.00
Real Estate	10,000.00
Furniture and Fixtures	5,000.00

Liabilities
Mortgage Payable		$3,000.00
Bills Payable		5,000.00
Accounts Payable		6,120.00
Capital Stock		20,000.00

Profit and Loss
Advertising	475.00
Salesmen's Salaries	300.00
Traveling Expenses	189.70
General Expense	74.00
Interest and Discount	22.60
Building Maintenance	37.00
Taxes and Insurance	42.00
Salaries	525.00

Trading

Purchases	5,500.00
In-Freight and Cartage	96.20
Sales		7,219.00

	41,361.60	41,361.60

If the accounts in this trial balance were listed without regard to the groups in which they belong, it would merely show that the ledger balances. In its present form, it gives at a glance much valuable information. Total expenses and expenses of each class are readily ascertained, sales are shown, and expenses can be compared with sales. With the exception that it does not show the changes in the 125account of the inventory, this trial balance exhibits the condition of the business.

Supposing that an inventory is taken, the following statements are quickly prepared.

BALANCE SHEET
Assets
Cash	$264.20
Bank	4,728.50
Accounts Receivable	6,270.00
Inventory (Feb. 1)	7,995.00
Real Estate	10,000.00
Furniture and Fixtures	5,000.00

Liabilities
Mortgage Payable		$3,000.00
Bills Payable		5,000.00
Accounts Payable		6,120.00
Capital Stock		20,000.00
Surplus		137.70

	34,257.70	34,257.70

TRADING STATEMENT
Inventory (Jan. 1)	7,860.00
Purchases	5,500.00
In-Freight	96.20

	13,456.20
Less Inventory (Feb. 1)	7,995.00

	5,461.20
Sales		7,219.00
Gross Profit	1,757.80

	7,219.00	7,219.00


PROFIT AND LOSS STATEMENT
Gross Profit		$1,757.80
Advertising	$475.00
Salesmen's Salaries	300.00
Traveling Expenses	189.70
General Expense	74.00
Interest and Discount		22.60
Building Maintenance	37.00
Taxes and Insurance	42.00
Salaries	525.00
Net Profits	137.70

	1,780.40	1,780.40

126The facts that sales were $7,219.00, or that the expense for salesmen's salaries was $300.00 mean nothing in themselves. It is only when compared that they exhibit vital facts. If we find that last month's sales were $8,400.00 and salesmen's salaries the same as this month, we know at once that our present selling cost is proportionately higher than during the preceding period.

The following trial balance should be compared with the preceding and the difference in their values, in respect to the information given, carefully noted. The accounts in this trial balance are arranged in the order in which they were found in the ledger.

TRIAL BALANCE
	Dr.	Cr.
Capital Stock		$30,000.00
Sales		45,411.40
Accounts Receivable	$7,190.00
Accounts Payable		2,720.00
General Expense	727.00
Salesmen's Salaries	3,000.00
Salaries, General	3,600.00
Interest and Discount		126.70
Returns and Allowances	942.20
Inventory	9,687.00
Purchases	26,250.00
In-Freight	$396.40
Bank	6,470.00
Traveling Expense	1,759.00
Taxes and Insurance	236.50
Real Estate	25,000.00
Fixtures	3,000.00
Surplus		10,000.00

	88,258.10	88,258.10

15. A form much used by accountants combines the trial balance with the balance sheet, trading and profit and loss statements. The compilation of the information required for this form is greatly facilitated by a proper classification of accounts in the ledger. The form is known as a working balance sheet.

A working balance sheet is shown in Fig. 15 a. The figures used are taken from the last trial balance shown, and furnish a graphic illustration of the difference between proper and improper classification of accounts. It will be noticed that the first two columns constitute the trial balance. Following this are columns which classify the accounts under the headings of Trading, Profit and Loss, and Balance Sheet. The balance of each account is extended to its proper group.

At the bottom of the form, trading and net profits are extended as a memorandum only. Since no inventory has been taken these figures are not exact, but represent approximate results on the supposition that the inventory would be practically the same as when the last inventory was taken. Of course, if there was a noticeable change in the quantity of merchandise in stock, an estimate would be made and taken into consideration in making this statement of probable profits.

EXERCISE

From the following trial balance, prepare a working balance sheet showing actual gross and net profits.

COMPARATIVE STATEMENTS

129
TRIAL BALANCE
Bank	$8,460.00
Capital Stock		$25,000.00
Sales		11,201.00
Purchases	10,000.00
Returns and Allowances	400.00
Interest and Discount earned		260.00
General Expense	425.00
Salaries	360.00
Rent	300.00
Taxes and Insurance	37.60
Selling Expense	421.00
Inventory (Jan. 1st)	8,864.00
Fixtures	2,500.00
Accounts Receivable	5,680.00
Accounts Payable		1,274.00
Cash in Office	287.40

	37,735.00	37,735.00
Inventory (Feb 1)		9,650.00

16. The trial balances shown in the preceding pages illustrate some of the advantages of properly classified accounts. The information gained can be made of still greater value by the construction of comparative statements; for, as has been stated, the chief value of many of the figures shown lies in the opportunity for comparisons. Statements which permit of comparison of items of a like nature from month to month furnish a valuable survey of the progress of the business.

The following is a trial balance taken from the books of a manufacturing business, and will be used as a basis for the construction of comparative statements.

TRIAL BALANCE

	Dr.	Cr.
Cash in Office	$162.50
Bank	8,500.00
130Accounts Receivable	7,500.00
Bills Receivable	4,500.00
Inventory, Materials (Jan. 1)	9,500.00
Inventory, Manufactured Goods
(Jan. 1)	6,000.00
Real Estate	20,000.00
Machinery and Tools	17,500.00
Furniture and Fixtures	3,500.00
Bills Payable		$7,000.00
Accounts Payable		5,000.00
Capital Stock		50,000.00
Surplus		10,000.00
Undivided Profits		900.00
Advertising	1,200.00
Salesmen's Salaries	1,000.00
Salesmen's Expenses	720.00
General Expense	430.00
Interest and Discount		97.50
Salaries Administrative	900.00
Factory Expense	850.00
Factory Labor	1,750.00
Repairs to Machinery	150.00
Depreciation	175.00
Taxes and Insurance	25.00
Material Purchases	4,600.00
In-Freight and Cartage	126.00
Sales		16,491.00
Returns and Allowances	400.00

	89,488.50	89,488.50

In Fig. 16 a. is shown a working balance sheet in which the accounts as found in the trial balance are segregated in the four groups, Manufacturing, Trading, Profit and Loss, and Balance Sheet. First, the trial balance is entered in the two columns at the left. Next, the manufacturing account is made up by extending the inventory of material at end of preceding period, the manufacturing expense accounts, material purchases and freight on same. This gives the 131total charges to manufacturing account, but not the month's expenditures, for the present inventory of material must be considered. An inventory shows the value of material in stock to be $4,550.00. Deducting this leaves $12,626.00, the total operating cost for the month. To find the cost of goods completed during the month an inventory is taken of work in process, the amount is deducted from the total operating cost and the result, $9,126.00, represents cost of goods manufactured.

The trading account is now made up, this $9,126.00 taking the place of purchases, and the gross profit is carried to profit and loss account.

The manufacturing, trading, and profit and loss accounts are now ready for analysis, which is made on a percentage basis. In the analysis of the manufacturing account, the total operating cost is used as a basis and the different items of manufacturing cost are figured on this basis. We find that the expense items are 23.3% and the material 76.7% of the total which furnishes a tangible basis for a comparison of the same items in other months. Having the percentage of each item, we can note the fluctuations from month to month, and know where to retrench if any item appears to be increasing too rapidly.

The basis of the analysis of the trading and profit and loss accounts is the turnover. Figuring on this basis, we find the total expenses, exclusive of manufacturing costs, to be 41% of the turnover, and the net profit, 20%. The gross profit is 60% of the turnover. Ordinarily the total expense and net profit would equal the gross profit, but in this case there is a capital profit of $97.50 from interest earned.

Sometimes these comparative percentages are figured on the gross sales, but the turnover is considered the proper basis, for it is less subject to marked fluctuations. The sales in one month may show abnormal profits, while in the next these profits may return to normal. If based on sales, the cost percentages would fluctuate accordingly, when in reality they may have remained stationary.

PROOF WITHOUT A TRIAL BALANCE

17. A comparison of the accounts in the last trial balance with the working balance sheet shows them to be arranged in the order in which they would appear in the balance sheet and profit and loss statements.

133

Fig. 16a. Working Balance Sheet for a Manufacturing Business

134It should be remembered that manufacturing and trading accounts are subdivisions of the profit and loss account, and that the profit and loss account is a statement of income and disbursements including differences in inventories.

If it is desired to show the actual condition of the business at the end of each month, the inventory must be added. There may be objections to actually closing the books each month, but the complete statement can be made by adding the current inventories as shown in the working balance sheet illustrated. The amounts of these inventories and the gross and net current profits are, in such cases, memoranda only. The inventories may be arbitrary estimates, and while the results shown may not be exact they will be found of value for purposes of comparison; and care in estimating inventories will greatly increase their value.

Reference to our working balance sheet shows that the profit and loss statements—with current inventories added—agrees with the balance sheet in one respect. The current profit exactly agrees with the difference between assets and liabilities as shown by the balance sheet.

To prove the ledger without the usual trial balance these rules should be followed:

First: Make up trading and profit and loss statements, taking balances direct from the ledger accounts, deducting current inventories.

If the current profit and loss agrees with the difference between assets and liabilities the ledger may be assumed to be in balance. This is, in effect, a sectional trial balance, since the accounts in the trial balance are all represented in the two statements. The reliability of this proof is not affected by the fact that the inventories are arbitrary—and perhaps inaccurate—since the same amounts are used in both the balance sheet and profit and loss statement.

BOOK INVENTORIES

18. To make the foregoing plan still more effective, perpetual inventories should be carried in the ledger. A perpetual or book 135inventory is an account showing the value of merchandise received, sold, and on hand. If an accurate account is kept of merchandise received and sold, the perpetual inventory will show the amount that should be in stock. To prove the accuracy of the account, it is necessary to take an actual inventory of the merchandise in stock, just as it is necessary to count the cash before we can know that the amount on hand agrees with the cash account.

A detailed perpetual inventory should be kept on cards or in a loose leaf book. A card or sheet is used for each article or class of material carried in stock. The sheets or cards should be arranged alphabetically according to the names of the articles. To make the system effective one person should have charge of these records and no goods should be taken from stock without an order or other proper record.

At the end of the month the receipts will be shown by the purchase accounts. The deliveries will be tabulated from the cards, and the necessary adjustments made on the ledger account. Adjustments should be made by journal entry debiting inventory accounts and crediting trading account for increase in inventory, and vice versâ for decrease in inventory.

Fig. 18 a. is a typical form of stock ledger sheet for a loose leaf book. The form should in all cases be made to suit the requirements of the business in which it is to be used.

Fig. 18 b. is a card form of stock ledger which gives more detailed information about the article in stock. On the top line is recorded the name of the article, size or kind, where kept, and date of verification of the record. The second line gives the unit and maximum and minimum limits. The unit represents the unit in which the article is bought—as pounds, tons, dozen, feet, yards, etc. It is customary to establish a minimum limit, below which the stock is not allowed to go before re-ordering, and a maximum limit of a quantity sufficient for the needs of the business. The record of receipts and disbursements includes a detailed record of cost, including freight and cartage, and columns for costs per unit. This makes it possible to calculate the value of the stock in hand without referring elsewhere for prices.

In some lines of business it is possible to ascertain the quantities sold, at the end of each month, from the sales records. This 136applies where an article is sold in but one grade or size, and necessitates keeping sales records which show sales of each article. An example is the coal business. For such a business a card like the one shown in Fig. 18 c. can be used to good advantage. This provides for a monthly record of purchases and sales.

In this illustration the manner of indexing is shown. The cards are first arranged alphabetically under the names of the articles. If there is more than one size, the cards bearing the records of a certain article are filed in the order of their sizes. Indexed in this manner any card that may be desired is quickly found.

137

Fig. 18 c. Stock Ledger Card and Indexes

DEMONSTRATION OF PROOF WITHOUT A TRIAL BALANCE

19. Taking the accounts in the following trial balance, a model ledger is illustrated which demonstrates the manner of proving the ledger without the aid of the conventional trial balance. It is assumed, of course, that a book inventory or stock ledger is kept, and in this demonstration the figures showing the change in inventory are used. Only the ledger is illustrated, it being expected that the student will understand the necessary journal adjusting entries.

On Feb. 1st the inventory shows a decrease of $3,500.00. A reserve of 3% on accounts receivable is to be created to provide for uncollectible accounts. To make these adjustments the following journal entries will be required:

A study of this entry will show that the result is the same if we make up the trading account by using purchases and adding or subtracting the decrease or increase in inventory, or if the preceding inventory is added and present inventory is deducted. The result in either case is the turnover and the above entry makes the necessary adjustment in the inventory account without closing the account through the trading account.

At the end of the next month this account will be adjusted by charging or crediting the amount necessary to maintain the total at the desired percentage of accounts receivable.

TRIAL BALANCE

Cash in Office	$575.00
Bank	8,750.00
Accounts Receivable	8,871.00
Bills Receivable	5,000.00
Inventory (Jan. 1)	12,500.00
Furniture and Fixtures	2,250.00
Bills Payable		$4,000.00
Accounts Payable		3,325.00
138Capital Stock		$25,000.00
Purchases	$6,750.00
Sales		15,000.00
Advertising	960.00
Salesmen's Salaries	450.00
Traveling Expense	190.00
Office Expense	46.50
Office Salaries	225.00
General Expense	34.20
Rent	175.00
Taxes and Insurance	21.30
Discounts Allowed	47.90
Interest Paid	33.10
Interest and Discount Earned		54.00
Administrative Salaries	500.00

UNDERWOOD TYPEWRITERS USED IN MELBOURNE UNIVERSITY COMMERCIAL EXAMINATIONS

REVERSE OR SLIP POSTING

20. To feel absolutely sure that his work is correct is the ambition of every bookkeeper. The fear that an error will throw his books out of balance is always present, and is only dispelled when the ledger is proved at the end of the month.

Accountants, bookkeepers, and mathematicians have long searched for an infallible rule or method of checking which would detect an error as soon as it is made. No system could possibly prevent the making of an error, but if detected, an error is quickly corrected. Numerous formulas and checking systems, designed to detect errors in posting, have been put on the market from time to time. Each has been advertised as the only infallible system. All have been eagerly purchased, tried more or less faithfully, and, as a rule, speedily discarded.

Modern methods of bookkeeping have done more to aid in the detection of errors in posting than all of the checking systems combined. The sectionalization of accounts not only facilitates the detection of errors, but greatly minimizes the chances of their being made. As an illustration take a sales ledger which is subdivided into two or more parts, with special columns in cash book and sales book, and controlling accounts for each section. If the individual balances taken from the sales ledger do not agree with the controlling accounts, it is seen at a glance in which section the error has been made. Instead of a search through all postings to sales ledger accounts, it is only necessary to check postings to that particular section.

145Errors in posting to nominal accounts are minimized by special columns in cash book, sales book, and purchase record, with one posting at the end of the month, in place of a posting for each item entered.

But still, errors are and always will be made in posting, and for the bookkeeper who has a large number of accounts to post and wishes to keep a constant check on his work, the reverse posting or slip posting system will give satisfactory results with little labor.

This system is very simple, and easily operated. It consists of the use of a slip of paper with debit and credit columns in which accounts posted to the ledger are entered. A separate slip is used for each book from which postings are made, and the items are posted to the slip from the ledger. The slip should be placed on the desk on the opposite side of the ledger from the book of entry.

If posting is from the sales book, the ledger should be placed to the right of the sales book and the slip to the right of the ledger. After the item is entered in the ledger it is posted to the slip. When the work is completed the slip is footed and compared with the footing of the sales book. If the footings agree, it is quite evident that the correct amounts have been posted to the ledger, for it is scarcely possible that an incorrect amount has been posted to the ledger and the correct amount entered on the slip.

A further daily proof may be had by inserting a blank slip of paper in the ledger wherever an item is posted. At the end of the day these ledger accounts are referred to, the amounts are drawn off, and total postings compared with the totals of the checking slips from the different books.

146When postings are not checked daily a form should be prepared to which daily totals will be carried. Columns are provided for each book from which posted, and these are footed at the end of the month and compared with the footings of the books. If the ledger does not balance a comparison of this proof slip with the column footings of the books will show in which book the error has been made. The form of the monthly proof slip is illustrated in Fig. 19.

SPECIAL ACCOUNTING FORMS

21. Bookkeeping, if it is to fulfil its mission, must furnish a complete record of the transactions of a business. The record must show, as well, the results of each transaction or class of transactions, with respect to their bearing on the business as a whole, or on specific sections or departments of that business. From a mere record of personal debits and credits, bookkeeping has grown into a detailed history of a business.

The principles of bookkeeping are the same regardless of the nature, size, or condition of a business. But different businesses require different kinds of information; vital facts in one business may be valueless in another. The success or failure of each depends upon certain elements which must be recorded in its history. It is the work of the bookkeeper to record these facts—to write the history of the business in language that will be understood by anyone who may read it.

Laying out the business history is the work of the accountant. He makes an analysis of those elements which bear on the success of the business, and determines what facts, when properly recorded, will furnish the clearest and most understandable history. And when he has determined what facts should be recorded he must plan how they are to be recorded—in what form they will present the most concise history of business transactions. His work should result in a system of bookkeeping that will present the most vitally important information, with a minimum expenditure of labor.

The increasing demand for more intelligible records—for facts—has stimulated the ingenuity of accountants in devising forms that will not only accommodate the records desired but will permit of their being made with the least labor. Special forms exactly suited to 147the records which they are to contain, are now made for every purpose. Labor-saving devices and methods have minimized the drudgery of bookkeeping.

The bookkeeper who would rise above mediocrity requires something besides the ability to record business transactions in the proper columns of books prepared for him. He must know how to devise forms and books, how to adapt correct principles to the building of a system of bookkeeping for any line of business. If certain facts assume importance, he must know how those facts can best be obtained and recorded.

To assist in familiarizing the student with the more modern methods, this section is devoted to illustrations and descriptions of special forms of books for various purposes. The student should devote careful study to these forms, for while they have been in the main devised to meet special conditions, the principles can be adapted to any line of business where similar conditions exist.

SPECIAL LEDGERS

22. Loose Leaf Ledgers. A loose leaf ledger is one in which the leaves are removable. Instead of the sheets being bound in solid book form, each leaf is a separate sheet ruled for one ledger account. The sheets are filed or bound in what is known as the binder, being securely held in place by a mechanical device. The binder can be locked so that only the person holding the key can insert or remove the sheets.

The loose leaf ledger is indexed either numerically or alphabetically. When the numerical method is used the sheets are numbered and placed in the binder in numerical order which gives the same arrangement as a bound book. A separate index is required with the numerical method. The alphabetical method of indexing necessitates the use of sheets on the edges of which are tabs or projections printed with the letters of the alphabet. These index sheets are placed in the binder in alphabetical order and the ledger sheets are placed between them. The alphabetical method is preferred by many as it makes the ledger self-indexing. Another method of indexing is a combination of the alphabetical and numerical. The alphabetical index sheet is used, and under it are filed all accounts of persons whose names begin with that letter. These sheets are numbered 148Account No. 1, No. 2, etc., and the names are written on the index sheet, followed by the account number. This practically divides the ledger into separate numerical ledgers for each letter of the alphabet.

Binders for loose leaf ledgers are made to hold from a few sheets up to one thousand or more. By proper arrangement of the indexes, more than one ledger can be accommodated in one binder. As an illustration, the general, purchase, and sales ledgers, each with its separate index, may all be in the same binder.

One of the chief advantages of the loose leaf ledger is that all "dead" matter can be removed. When a sheet becomes filled, it can be removed to another binder called a transfer binder, and a new sheet put in its place. Or if the account be permanently closed, it is transferred, leaving only live accounts in the ledger. When new accounts are to be opened, it is only necessary to insert additional sheets. There is no transferring of all accounts from one ledger to another as with bound books, for the loose leaf ledger is never filled. If the number of sheets increases beyond the capacity of the binder, the ledger can be divided by transferring a part of the sheets to a new binder.

The ruling of loose leaf ledger sheets is the same as in bound books, the forms usually being made to fit the business. A sheet with a conventional form of ruling is illustrated.

23. Card Ledgers. For certain classes of accounts, the card ledger is very desirable. It is well adapted for a sales ledger in a business having a large number of customers, and especially so if the 149nature of the business is such that the purchases of a customer are infrequent. In many businesses handling a single line of goods known as seasonable, sales are made in the spring and fall so that a customer purchases practically an entire year's supply in two orders.

The card ledger is largely used in banks for keeping accounts with depositors in the savings department. A card 5 inches x 8 inches in size gives room for forty items on each side, and for the average savings account will last more than two years.

First: Dead records are eliminated, as filled cards and closed accounts are transferred to a separate file, leaving only open accounts in the current file.

Second: It can be expanded to any size, which makes it ideal for business with a large number of customers. The opening of a new account, or re-opening of a closed account, is accomplished by merely dropping a card in the right place.

Third: The labor of making trial balances is greatly reduced, as there are no closed accounts to refer to in the current file.

Fourth: Statements can be mailed much earlier as the cards can be distributed among several clerks who can be working on them at the same time.

Fifth: The ledger can be subdivided as desired by the use of proper index cards. When one drawer or tray is filled, a part of the 150cards can be taken out and placed in another tray without disturbing their arrangement.

There are two general plans of indexing the card ledger—alphabetical and numerical. The alphabetical method consists of a set of guide or index cards between which the cards are filed. This index may consist of one index for each letter of the alphabet, a smaller number with two or more letters on one index, or a much larger number subdividing the alphabet into as many parts as may be necessary. In planning an index for a card ledger, a safe rule to follow is to provide one index card for every ten ledger cards.

A subdivision of the alphabetical index is the geographical or territorial. This divides the ledger by states and towns. Guide cards, printed with the names of the states, provide the main division; other guides, printed with names of towns, subdivide the state sections; and where necessary, alphabetical guides subdivide the names in the towns. If desired, the ledger may be divided into territorial sections, as East and West; or each section may include the territory covered by one salesman.

A numerical index divides the cards by tens and hundreds. Guide cards numbered by hundreds—100, 200, etc.—provide the main divisions. Between these are placed guides numbered 10, 20, 30, etc. to subdivide these sections by tens, and the ledger cards are filed in numerical order between these guides. To facilitate locating any number desired, the cards themselves are made with small projections numbered from 0 to 9 to represent the units. Each card bears one tab, and all tabs bearing the same unit are in the same 151relative position on the card; that is—0 is always at the extreme left, while 9 is ten positions to the right. When the cards are placed in numerical sequence, between the guides numbered by 10's, any number can be found instantly. To find number 2,987, we refer first to the main guide number 29, then to the guide numbered 8—in the section between 29 and 30—and then to the number 7 tab next following. As there are never more than one thousand cards in a tray, any number can be found more quickly than in a bound book. If a card is misplaced in filing, the unit tab will greatly assist in locating the missing card. Suppose card No. 964 is missing; a search through the row of No. 4 tabs will locate it, no matter where filed. With this system of filing, a separate index by name is required, and this also is made on cards. For a very large ledger the numerical system is more frequently adopted than the alphabetical.

It is claimed that the numerical tab scheme affords one safeguard not found in an alphabetical system. A missing card is at once detected by the break in the row of tabs, but to make the safeguard of value it is necessary to leave the cards in the file even after accounts are closed.

There is no good reason why an alphabetical card ledger should not be as safe as the numerical. If it is desired to guard against the removal of one card and the substitution of another, the blank cards should be placed in the custody of one man, who will issue them to the bookkeeper as needed, first placing his initials on the card. In any event, the card ledger should be provided with a locking device 152which will prevent the removal of a card, except by the one who has the key.

These suggestions may be of assistance to the bookkeeper who is called upon to use a card ledger.

Never leave ledger cards lying on the desk. When you leave your work, put them back in the file, where they belong.

Before leaving the office, lock the ledger so that no one can remove a card in your absence.

If your superior asks you to see a certain ledger account, do not give him that one card. He may lose it. Give him the entire tray, with the cards securely locked. Should he insist on having that one card, ask him to give you a receipt for it.

Some special forms of ledger cards are illustrated. Fig. 21 a. is a form used by a dental supply house. The special feature of the form is a separate column for each different class of goods purchased by the customer. Fig. 21 b. is used by a publisher for advertising accounts. Fig. 21 c. is a conventional balance ledger form adapted for use in almost any line of business.

24. Tabular Ledger. This is a ledger in which the names are written down the side of the page, with debits, credits, and balances extending across the page. Columns are arranged to group entries during uniform periods, as a month, week, or day. A special feature of this style of ledger is that it can be more quickly balanced and proved than any other style. To prove this ledger add the balances at the end of the preceding period to the debit postings of the current period. This will equal the total of the credit postings added to the new balances, if the balances have been correctly extended. The postings to all of the accounts on a page—30 to 40—can be footed at one operation, saving much time.

Fig. 22 a. is a form of a tabular ledger used by banks, known as the Boston bank ledger. It is specially arranged to exhibit daily balances, as it is necessary that the depositor's ledger be balanced daily. This form can be used in a mercantile business, but as balances are not required daily, the form shown in Fig. 22 b. is better adapted to the purpose. These tabular forms of ledgers are not commonly used except in banks.

25. Balance Ledgers. Three forms of balance ledgers are illustrated, each one of which is specially adapted to some particular class of business.

154The special feature of Fig. 23 a. is two credit columns—one for cash and one for merchandise returns. This form is favored in certain lines of business where merchandise returns are frequent. A special column serves to separate returns of merchandise sent out on approval, which in some businesses is an important item.

Fig. 23 a. Ledger with Special Credit Columns

Fig. 23 b. is provided with two balance columns, for debit and credit balances. This form saves time in taking trial balances, as it is seen at a glance whether the balance is a debit or a credit.

The feature of Fig. 23 c. is several credit columns to one debit column. This form is largely used where sales are made subject to periodical payments. It is well adapted for installment accounts, rent accounts, insurance accounts, and similar classes. The number of credit columns can be extended indefinitely to meet existing conditions.

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Fig. 23 c. Balance Ledger for Installment Accounts

CASH BOOKS

26. Since the almost universal adoption of special forms of sales books, purchase books, and check registers, the journal proper is only used for adjusting entries. The cash journal, which is a combination of cash book and journal, has taken the place of the two books. Some forms of this book have been illustrated earlier in this text, and a typical form is shown in Fig. 24 a. A study of this form will be found instructive as it suggests the many possibilities of segregating distinct classes of receipts and expenditures. Note the segregation of charges to manufacturing, selling, and administrative branches of the business. Under each branch the different kinds of expense might be shown with all their subdivisions by providing additional columns.

In fact, as we have already stated, there is no end to the possibilities of segregating different classes of transactions by means of the columnar principle in designing books of entry. But it may not be out of place to sound a note of warning against increasing the size of the pages of a book beyond a reasonable limit. While the saving of time is the important factor that influences the introduction of columnar books, there has grown up a tendency to go to such extremes that the unwieldy book defeats this very purpose.

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Fig. 24. Cash Journal—Left-Hand Page

While the "sundries" columns in the form shown render possible the making of any kind of adjusting entries in this cash journal, we recommend that it be reserved for cash transactions and that all adjusting entries be made in an ordinary journal. This will segregate cash transactions, just as sales and purchases are segregated, and render much easier an audit of the books. The journal of the ordinary type also affords abundant space for explanations which should be exceptionally complete for adjusting entries. Entries of this kind are frequently used to cover up fraud and they are sure to receive the careful attention of the auditor.

27. In no department of a business are tabulated records of greater value than in the sales department, for only by studying the records of sales of different classes of goods or of different departments can a manager determine which departments of his business are most profitable. A tabular sales book makes it possible to record sales in detail with very little additional labor, resulting in greater economy of time in collecting valuable data.

In certain lines of business a record of quantities of different kinds of merchandise sold is of almost equal value to records of values. Examples are—wholesale coal business, in which records are kept of quantities and values of different grades and sizes or the product of different mines; lumber, in which sales are divided as to lumber, lath, shingles, sash, and doors; wholesale paper, in which some of the divisions are book, flats, bonds, cover, etc. A sales book designed for a business of this class is shown in Fig. 25 a. This is arranged for a record of sales in a coal business, segregating sales of the product of each of three mines.

There are businesses in which returns and allowances are so frequent as to constitute an important item in the record of transactions. Such cases demand special columns in either journal or sales book. Another condition occasionally met with is where purchases are frequently made from customers, resulting in accounts in both ledgers. This requires journal entries to adjust the accounts, but instead of making these in the regular journal, special columns can be provided for the purpose in the sales book. Fig. 25 b. illustrates a sales 158journal with columns for returns and allowances, and columns for purchase adjustments. The total of these adjustment columns are posted to the sales ledger controlling account.

Fig. 25 b. Sales Journal with Adjustment Column

Sales recapitulations are of very great importance in department stores and similar businesses where it is desired to ascertain the total sales of each sales person as well as the result by departments. In Fig. 25 c. is shown a sales recapitulation sheet arranged for daily records of sales of each clerk and of each department. All sales tickets are lettered or numbered to indicate the clerk, and at the end of the day these tickets are tabulated by numbers. One of these recapitulation sheets is used for a month's record, and it can of course be designed to accommodate as many departments and clerks as there are in the establishment. Recapitulation sheets arranged on this plan are found very convenient in many lines other than department stores.

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Fig. 26. Departmental Pay-Roll Record for Piece Work and Day Workers

28. The designing of pay-roll records to meet the special conditions in the great variety of manufacturing industries, offers a wide field for the ingenuity of the bookkeeper or accountant. Where all employes are paid a stated wage and their employment in one department is continuous, the problem is a simple one, resolving itself into a mere record of the number of hours worked each day, the rate, and the amount due. But this condition seldom exists.

In most industries more complex problems are encountered. The same employe may be called upon to work in more than one department during a pay-roll period, or he may do several different kinds of work in the same department. In either case the form for the record must be so constructed as to furnish complete information relative to the cost of the different classes of work. Elaborate systems for gathering records of time on each detail of the work are employed in most modern factories, and the pay-roll record or time book is arranged for a consolidation of these detailed records.

Fig. 26 illustrates a form used in one factory for a distribution of time records where men are employed on different kinds of work in different departments, and on both day wage and piece work plans. In this form provision is made for the record in each department, and each day's record is divided between time and piece work. Several lines are set aside for each employe, so that the record will be complete for each kind of work. At the extreme right, department totals are extended. These are quickly calculated for the reason that while an employe may do different kinds of work and in different departments the same operation is not performed in more than one department. To provide for records of more kinds of work this principle can be carried still farther by allowing more space for each employe, and in some cases a full sheet is assigned for each. In one factory the pay-roll book is loose leaf, one sheet being used for each employe. Each side of the sheet holds the record for two weeks, and by using both sides, it gives a complete record for four pay-roll periods.

29. Combined Pay-Roll and Check Register. Many industries pay their employes by means of checks instead of in currency. Special pay checks are used which merchants willingly cash as an accommodation to their customers. Whenever the check system of payments is adopted it is best to carry a special bank account for the purpose. When 161the amount of the pay-roll is determined, a check should be drawn on the regular bank account and deposited in a special fund against which the pay checks will be drawn.

Fig. 27 shows a form, designed for the use of a concern paying by check, which combines a check register with the pay-roll record. Since all checks drawn against this special fund are pay checks, this register gives a complete record of the special bank account.

Fig. 27. Combined Pay-Roll and Check Register

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A TYPICAL GRAIN ELEVATOR IN CHICAGO HARBOR, WITH A MODERN FREIGHTER READY FOR LOADING

1. From the accounting standpoint, business can be divided into two general classes: (a) Business conducted by the owner or a person appointed by him for the benefit of the owner; (b) Business that is the property of persons incapable of transacting business, necessitating the appointment, by the owners or other authority, of persons to transact business in place of the owner. It is with business of the latter class that we now have to deal.

In this class the owner or proprietor is supplanted by the administrator of the business. The generic term trustee applies to the administrator, who also takes more specific titles, depending upon the nature of the trust—as executor, administrator, assignee, guardian, receiver, etc. He is subject to the powers granted by the source of his appointment, and to the restrictions and requirements imposed by law.

A trustee—by whatever specific name designated—acting in his capacity as substitute for the owner, is the owner of the trust property as against the public. He is accountable to no one but the beneficiaries for whom he is acting as custodian. As owner of the estate, he can sue or be sued and perform many functions pertaining to the ordinary property owner. The beneficiary, by reason of his equity in the estate, can compel the trustee to carry out the provisions of his trust.

EXECUTOR'S ACCOUNTING

2. While an executor may keep his accounts in a manner chosen by himself, his accounting must conform to the legal requirements of the state in which the accounting is made. The form in which the accounting is to be made is not subject to rigid rules, but must conform to certain regulations. While requirements differ according to the jurisdiction, the regulations in general are as follows:

The preliminary accounting consists in filing an inventory of the personal estate of the deceased, showing both the nominal or 164face value of the assets and the amount they are expected to realize as stated by the appraisers. An executor usually files two accounts—an intermediate account, filed at some date prior to the final account, and a final account, showing the property in his hands subject to distribution by judicial decree. The intermediate account may be filed either voluntarily or by order of the court. The account must be accompanied by the following schedules:

1. Statement of property contained in the inventory, which has been sold, with the manner of sale and amounts realized. 2. Statements of debts due the estate as scheduled in the inventory, which have been collected. 3. Statement of all interest and dividends received by the executor.

1. Statement of debts due the estate that have not been collected or are uncollectible, with reasons. 2. Statement of personal property named in inventory that has not been sold, with reasons, and the appraised value of such property. 3. Statement of all property belonging to the estate that is lost through no fault of the executor, with the cause of loss and appraised valuation. 4. Statement that no other property than set forth in the inventory or schedules has come into the possession or the knowledge of the executor. 5. Statement that the increase or decrease in value of all assets of the deceased is allowed for or charged in Schedules A and B.

1. Statement of all amounts expended by the executor for funeral and other necessary expenses, together with the receipts for, and objects of, such expenditures.

2. Statement of the date when the executor caused a notice for claimant to present claims against the estate to be published, together with order, notice, and proof of publication herewith filed, to which the executor refers as a part of his account.

1. Statement of all claims of creditors allowed by executor or disputed by him, for which a judgment or decree has been rendered, with the names of the claimants, nature of claim, amount and date of judgment.

2. Statement of all money paid to creditors of the deceased, with names and time of payment.

1. Statement of all money paid to legatees, widow, or next of kin, of the deceased.

1. Statement of names of all persons entitled—as widow, legatee, and next of kin, of the deceased—to a share of his estate, with place of residence, degree of relationship, and statement as to which are minors, whether they have a general guardian, and if so, the name and place of residence to the best of the executor's knowledge, information, and belief.

1. Statement of all other facts affecting the administration of said estate, executor's rights, and those of others interested.

These schedules provide all the material from which to make the account proper. In his account, the executor charges himself as follows:

FORM OF ACCOUNTS

3. The devising of forms of trust and executory accounts offers a wide scope for the application of accounting knowledge. Many intricate problems arise in the interpretation of details of the trust and in the apportionment of sums received, between capital and revenue. Broadly, these accounts are prepared in one of two forms: (a) An account of charge and discharge; (b) in the form of regular ledger accounts. As has been intimated, legal requirements are complied with by the first form, but the second form is preferable. When ledger accounts are kept on the double entry plan, the fullest information can be obtained about the condition of the trust at any time, and from these accounts, the account of charge and discharge or any form required by the court can be made for each period.

In preparing the accounts the exact relationship of the trustee to the estate (as the property in trust is called) must be kept in mind. As the owner of the property, he is a creditor of the estate (the business) just as the proprietor of the business is the creditor of that business. On the other hand, as custodian, he is a debtor, being in possession of the property of others.

In the ledger, property accounts are opened with the different classes of properties represented in the estate, which accounts are debited for the appraised value of the properties. These are known as custodian accounts.

A contra account representing the estate—sometimes called the capital—is opened under some such caption as Personal Estate Account. This account is credited with the combined values of all properties represented by the custodian accounts.

167When the assets are entered and posted, the ledger accounts will appear as follows:

These asset accounts represent the value of the individual properties, while the personal estate account represents the combined values of all personal property of the estate (No. 1, No. 2, and No. 3). The personal estate is known as the corpus, distinguishing it from the real estate.

If the trustee, as the custodian, is called upon merely to distribute the estate to the beneficiaries, his accounting is a very simple problem. In many cases, however, he is called upon to take care of the income arising from the corpus or the real estate.

When he receives such income in the shape of cash, he debits 168himself as custodian through a cash account, and credits an income account under an appropriate title—as interest account, rent account, dividend account, etc. The account may represent the income from a specific property, or all income of a stated class. For example, rent account may represent the rents received from all properties, or there may be a separate rent account for each.

Distinguished from the income accounts, the trustee sometimes has accounts representing the sale of real estate, which must then be treated as personal property. When real estate is sold, cash is credited and an account, usually called Sale of Real Estate, is credited.

4. Classification of Accounts. A classification of the accounts of the executor naturally divides into: (a) Personal estate account; (b) asset accounts; and (c) distributive accounts. The personal estate account, as we have seen, is a controlling account which represents the total of all assets. It is also referred to as the capital account. It is, as well, a controlling account of the distributive accounts, and in the end exhibits a schedule of transactions in the order in which they occur.

The asset accounts, representing the different classes of properties or assets of the estate, correspond to the asset accounts of an ordinary business.

The distributive accounts may be likened to the revenue accounts of a business enterprise. These accounts are debited with all amounts distributed—as expense of administering the estate—and credited with all income or revenue other than that representing the conversion of the original estate into cash.

5. Executors' Commissions. While the commission allowed administrators and executors varies in different states, the amount specified by law in New York applies as a general rule. The commission allowed is 5% on the first thousand dollars received and disbursed, 2½% on the next ten thousand dollars, and 1% on all amounts above eleven thousand dollars.

If the value of the personal property is $100,000.00, or more, in excess of all debts, each executor is entitled to receive the commissions provided in case of a single executor; except that if there are more than three executors, the amount which the three would receive must be divided in proportion to the services rendered.

In cases where the will provides a specific remuneration, the 169executor is not entitled to a commission. He can, however, decline a legacy and in lieu thereof take the usual commission.

Commissions are not allowed on specific legacies, that is, where specific property, as household effects, automobiles, etc., are named. An annuity is a series of legacies and the commission is not allowed on its payment. However, when a beneficiary is given the use of a fund, the beneficiary is charged with the commission.

In all cases where administrators or trustees are responsible for the investment of the funds of an estate, they are entitled to receive commission on the income. The commission in all of these cases is at the regular rate, that is, 5% on the first thousand dollars received and paid out, etc.

EXAMPLES

1. Two trustees collect in one year an income of $36,000.00 for a beneficiary, the expense being $3,000.00. If each trustee receives an equal share, what commission will be paid to each, and what sum shall be paid to the beneficiary? Ans. Each trustee, $275.00; beneficiary, $3,275.00.

2. Executor X collects of the corpus of an estate $30,000.00, executor Y collects $40,000.00. Together they pay out $55,000.00. Commissions are to be divided in proportion to the amount collected by each. What commission will each receive and what is the net amount to be paid to the residuary legatee? Ans. Commissions: X, $381.43; Y, $508.57. Residuary legatee, $14,110.00.

3. Four trustees collect and pay out of an estate $350,000.00, the total debts of the estate being $135,000.00. What commission will each trustee receive? Ans. $2,767.50.

SAMPLE ACCOUNTS

6. Following are the transactions and accounts of David Brown, executor of the estate of Henry Snow, deceased. For keeping the accounts, the journal, cash book, and ledger are the books used.

A GENERAL VIEW OF THE PLANT OF THE FOX TYPEWRITER COMPANY, GRAND RAPIDS, MICH.

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Executor's Account of Cash Receipts and Disbursements

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Classified Ledger Accounts of an Executor

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Classified Ledger Accounts of an Executor

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Classified Ledger Accounts of an Executor

7. George Williams died on March 5th, bequeathing his entire property, after payment of all debts and funeral expenses, to the following beneficiaries: George Williams, Jr., one-fifth; John Williams, one-fifth; Fred Williams, one-fifth; Mary Williams, three-tenths; and George Robinson, one-tenth.

Make up summary statement of the Executor's Accounts showing the balance due each legatee.

ACCOUNTS WITH TRUST PROVISIONS

8. In the accounts shown in the preceding illustrations the entire estate is distributed by judicial decree. When all of the property has been distributed, the custodian accounts will have been closed into the personal estate account, which in turn is closed by the distribution of the estate. In many cases the will of the deceased provides that certain beneficiaries shall have a life interest in certain of the assets. Quite frequently the widow is given the income on certain investments which will revert to the estate at her death. This is illustrated in the following example of trust accounts:

Edward Brown died on June 15, 1907, leaving a will which elected that after payment of all just and lawful debts the following legacies should be made:

To his widow, that part of the real estate consisting of his residence, the household effects therein, and the income from $50,000.00 to be invested.

To his son and daughter, $20,000.00 each, and an equal share of the above $50,000.00 at his widow's death.

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