*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 14070 ***

ENGLISH GRAMMAR,

IN

FAMILIAR LECTURES;

ACCOMPANIED BY
A COMPENDIUM
EMBRACING

A NEW SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING
A NEW SYSTEM OF PUNCTUATION,
EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX,

AND

A SYSTEM OF PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR,
IN NOTES:

TO WHICH ARE ADDED,

AN APPENDIX AND A KEY TO THE EXERCISES
DESIGNED
FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND PRIVATE LEARNERS.

BY SAMUEL KIRKHAM.

STEREOTYPE EDITION

NEW YORK
ROBERT B. COLLINS,
254 PEARL STREET.




_Southern District of New-York, ss_.

BE IT REMEMBERED, That on the 22d day of August, A.D. 1829, in the L.
S. 54th year of the Independence of the United States of America, Samuel
Kirkham, of the said district, hath deposited in this office the title
of a book, the right whereof he claims as author, in the words
following, to wit:

"English Grammar in familiar Lectures, accompanied by a Compendium,
embracing a new systematic order of Parsing, a new system of
Punctuation, exercises in false Syntax, and a System of Philosophical
Grammar in notes: to which are added an Appendix, and a Key to the
Exercises: designed for the use of Schools and Private Learners. By
Samuel Kirkham. Eleventh Edition, enlarged and improved." In conformity
to the act of Congress of the United States, entitled "an act for the
encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts, and
books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies, during the time
therein mentioned." And also to an act entitled "an act supplementary to
an act entitled an act for the encouragement of learning, by securing
the copies of maps, charts, and books, to the authors and proprietors of
such copies, during the times therein mentioned, and extending the
benefits thereof to the arts of designing, engraving, and etching
historical and other prints."

FRED. J. BETTS,
_Clerk of the Southern District of New-York._


AN ESSAY ON ELOCUTION,

DESIGNED FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND PRIVATE LEARNERS

BY SAMUEL KIRKHAM.

This work is mainly designed as a Reading-Book for Schools. In the first
part of it, the _principles_ of reading are developed and explained in a
scientific and _practical_ manner, and so familiarly illustrated in
their application to practical examples as to enable even the juvenile
mind very readily to comprehend their nature and character, their design
and use, and thus to acquire that high degree of excellence, both, in
reading and speaking, which all desire, but to which few attain.

The last part of the work, contains _Selections_ from the greatest
master-pieces of rhetorical and poetical composition, both ancient and
modern. Many of these selections are taken from the most elegant and
classical American authors--writers whose noble productions have already
shed an unfading lustre, and stamped immortality upon the literature of
our country.--In the select part of the work, _rhetorical marks_ are
also employed to point out the application of the principles laid down
in the first part.--The very favorable reception of the work by the
public, and its astonishingly rapid introduction into schools, since its
first publication in 1833, excites in the author the most sanguine hopes
in regard to its future success.

NOTICES.

After a careful perusal of this work, we are decidedly of opinion, that
it is the only _successful_ attempt of the kind. The rules are copious,
and the author's explanations and illustrations _are happily adapted to
the comprehension of learners_. No school should be without this book,
and it ought to find a place in the library of every gentleman who
values the attainment of a just and forcible elocution.--_Pittsburgh
Mer. April,_ 1834.

Mr. Kirkham has given rules for inflections and emphasis, and has
followed them by illustrative examples, and these by remarks upon the
inflection which he has adopted, and the reasons for his preference of
one inflection to another--a most admirable plan for such a work.
Copious examples occur in which all the various inflections and the
shades of emphasis are distinguished with great accuracy and clearness.
The catechetical appendages of each chapter, give the work new value in
a school, and the selections made for the exercise of scholars, evince
good taste and judgment. _U.S. Gazette, Philadelphia, Sept_. 17, 1834.

The Essay now before us, needs not depend on any former work of its
author for a borrowed reputation; it has intrinsic merits of its own. It
lays down principles clearly and concisely. It presents the reader with
many new and judicious selections, both in prose and poetry; and
altogether evinces great industry combined with taste and
ingenuity.--_Courier of Upper Canada, York, Oct_. 12, 1833.

Of the talent and judgment of Mr. Kirkham, we have already had occasion
to speak in terms of honest praise. His work on Elocution raises him
still higher in our estimation.--The book would be of great utility in
schools--such a one as has long been wanted; and we are glad to see it
forthcoming.--_Baltimore Visitor, July,_ 1833.

Every facility for teaching Elocution, which I have so often needed, but
never before found, is exactly furnished in this work:--principles are
clearly and concisely laid down, and _are very happily adapted to the
comprehension of the learner_. Thoroughly convinced of its utility, I
shall lose no time in introducing it into my school. _Hartford, Conn.
Aug._. 20, 1534. NATHANIEL WEBB.




RECOMMENDATIONS.

It is well known that the recommendations which generally accompany new
books have very little weight with the public. This is as it should be,
for that work which rests more on its written testimonials, than on its
intrinsic merits for support, asserts no claims to permanent patronage.
But recommendations which analyze the merits of a work, and which, by
exhibiting its prominent features in a striking light, are calculated to
carry conviction to the reader that the system recommended is
meritorious, the author is proud to have it in his power to present in
this volume. The following are _some_ of the numerous testimonials which
he has received, and for which he tenders his grateful acknowledgments
to those literary gentlemen to whose liberality and politeness he is
indebted for them. More than _six hundred_ others presented to the
author, and many of which are equally flattering with these, he has not
room to insert.

       *       *       *       *       *

The following notice of this work is extracted from the "Western
Review." This journal is ably conducted by the Rev. Timothy Flint,
author of "Francis Berrian," "History and Geography of the Miss.
Valley," and many other popular and valuable works.

We had not, at that time, seen Mr. Kirkham's "Grammar in familiar
Lectures," but have since given it a cursory perusal. If we comprehend
the author's design, it is not so much to introduce new principles, as
to render more easy and intelligible those which have been long
established, and to furnish additional facilities to an accurate and
thorough knowledge of our language. In this we think he has been
successful.

It is to be expected that a modest, unassuming writer, on presenting
himself before the public tribunal as an author, will, as far as is
consistent with his plan, avail himself of the authority of such as have
written well on the subject before him. Mr. Kirkham has accordingly
followed Mr. Murray in the old beaten track of English writers on
grammar, in the general principles of his science; endeavoring, at the
same time, to avoid whatever appeared to be erroneous or absurd in the
writings of that author, and adopting an entirely new arrangement. The
most useful matter contained in the treatise of Mr. Murray, is embraced
in this; but in the definitions and rules, it is simplified, and
rendered much more intelligible. Though our author follows Mr. Murray,
in the general principles of his work, he has, in numerous instances,
differed from him, pursuing a course that appears to be his own, and
introducing some valuable improvements.

Among these may be mentioned some additional rules and explanatory notes
in syntax, the arrangement of the parts of speech, the mode of
explaining them, manner of parsing, manner of explaining some of the
pronouns, and the use of a synopsis which presents the essentials of the
science at one view, and is well calculated to afford assistance to
learners.

In his arrangement of the parts of speech, Mr. Kirkham seems to have
endeavored to follow _the order of nature;_ and we are not able to see
how he could have done better. The noun and verb, as being the most
important parts of speech, are first explained, and afterwards those
which are considered in a secondary and subordinate character. By
following this order, he has avoided the absurdity so common among
authors, of defining the minor parts before their principals, of which
they were designed to be the appendages, and has rationally prepared the
way for conducting the learner by easy advances to a correct view of the
science.

In his illustrations of the various subjects contained in his work, our
author appears to have aimed, not at a flowery style, nor at the
appearance of being learned, but at being understood. The clearness and
perspicuity of his remarks, and their application to familiar objects,
are well calculated to arrest the attention, and aid the understanding
of the pupil, and thereby to lessen the labor of the instructor. The
principles of the science _are simplified, and rendered so perfectly
easy of comprehension,_ we should think no ordinary mind, having such
help, could find them difficult. It is in this particular that the work
appears to possess its chief merit, and on this account it cannot fail
of being preferred to many others.

It gives us pleasure to remark, in reference to the success of the
amiable and modest author whose work is before us, that we quote from
the fifth edition.

Cincinnati, Aug. 24, 1827.




The following is from the pen of a gentleman of the Bar, formerly a
distinguished Classical teacher. [Extract from the "National Crisis."]

As a friend to literature, and especially to genuine merit, it is with
peculiar pleasure I allude to a notice in a late paper of this city, in
which Mr. S. Kirkham proposes to deliver a course of Lectures on English
Grammar. To such as feel interested in acquiring a general and practical
knowledge of this useful science an opportunity is now presented which
ought not to be neglected. Having myself witnessed, in several
instances, within the last ten months, the practical results of Mr.
Kirkham's plan, I am enabled to give a decisive opinion of its merits.
The extensive knowledge acquired in one course by his class in
Pittsburgh, and the great proficiency evinced by his classes elsewhere,
are a demonstration of the utility and superiority of his method of
teaching, and a higher encomium on him than I am able to bestow.

The principles on which Mr. Kirkham's "New system of Grammar" is
predicated, are judiciously compiled, and happily and briefly expressed;
but the great merit of his work consists in the lucid illustrations
accompanying the principles, and the simple and gradual manner in which
it conducts the learner along from step to step through the successive
stages of the science. The explanations blended with the theory, are
addressed to the understanding of the pupil in a manner so familiar,
that they cannot fail to excite in him a deep interest; and whatever
system is calculated to bring into requisition the mental powers, must,
I conceive, be productive of good results. In my humble opinion, the
system of teaching introduced into this work, will enable a diligent
pupil to acquire, without any other aid, a practical knowledge of
grammar, _in less than one-fourth_ part of the time usually devoted.

My views of Mr. Kirkham's system are thus publicly given, with the
greater pleasure, on account of the literary empiricisms which have been
so extensively practised in many parts of the western country.

Cincinnati, April 26, 1826.




From Mr. Blood, Principal of the Chambersburgh Academy, Pa.

Mr. Kirkham,--It is now almost twenty years since I became a teacher of
youth, and, during this period, I have not only consulted all, but have
used many of the different systems of English grammar that have fallen
in my way; and, sir, I do assure you, without the least wish to flatter,
that yours far exceeds any I have yet seen.

Your arrangement and systematic order of parsing are most excellent; and
experience has convinced me, (having used it, and it only, for the last
twelve or thirteen months), that a scholar will learn more of the nature
and principles of our language in _one quarter_, from your system, than
in a _whole year_ from any other I had previously used. I do, therefore,
most cheerfully and earnestly recommend it to the public at large, and
especially to those who, anxious to acquire a knowledge of our language,
are destitute of the advantages of an instructer.

Yours, very respectfully, SAMUEL BLOOD.

Chambersburgh Academy, Feb. 12, 1825.





From Mr. N.R. Smith, editor of a valuable literary journal, styled "The
Hesperus."

Mr. Kirkham,

Sir, I have examined your Lectures on English Grammar with that degree
of minuteness which enables me to yield my unqualified approbation of
the work as a grammatical system. The engaging manner in which you have
explained the elements of grammar, and accommodated them to the
capacities of youth, is an ample illustration of the utility of your
plan. In addition to this, the critical attention you have paid to an
_analytical development_ of grammatical principles, while it is
calculated to encourage the perseverance of young students in the march
of improvement, is sufficient, also, to employ the researches of the
literary connoisseur. I trust that your valuable compilation will be
speedily introduced into schools and academies.

With respect, yours, N.R. SMITH, A.M.

Pittsburgh, March 22, 1825.





From Mr. Jungmann, Principal of the Frederick Lutheran
Academy:--Extract.

Having carefully examined Mr. S. Kirkham's new system of "English
Grammar in familiar Lectures," I am satisfied that the pre-eminent
advantages it possesses over our common systems, will soon convince the
public, that it is not one of those feeble efforts of quackery which
have so often obtruded upon our notice. Its decided _superiority over
all other systems_, consists in adapting the subject-matter to the
capacity of the young learner, and the happy mode adopted of
communicating it to his mind in a manner so clear and simple, that he
can easily comprehend the nature and the application of every principle
that comes before him.

In short, all the intricacies of the science are _elucidated so
clearly_, I am confident that even a private learner, of common
docility, can, by perusing this system attentively acquire a better
practical knowledge of this important branch of literature in _three
months_, than is ordinarily obtained in _one year_.

Frederick, Md. Sept 17, 1824. JOHN E. JUNGMANN.





Extract: from De Witt Clinton, late Gov. of New-York.

I consider the Compendium of English Grammar, by Samuel Kirkham, a work
deserving encouragement, and well calculated to facilitate the
acquisition of this useful science. DE WITT CLINTON.

Albany, Sept 25, 1824.





S. Kirkham, Esq.--I have examined your Grammar with attention, and with
a particular view to benefit the Institution under my charge. I am fully
satisfied, that it is the _best form_ in which Murray's principles have
been given to the public. The lectures are ample, and given in so
familiar and easy language, as to be readily understood, even by a
_tyro_ in grammar.

I feel it due to you to say, that I commenced the examination of your
work, under _a strong prejudice against it,_ in consequence of the
numerous "improved systems" with which the public has been inundated, of
late, most of which are by no means improvements on Murray, but the
productions of individuals whom a "_little grammar_ has rendered
grammatically insane." My convictions, therefore, are the result of
_investigation_. I wish you, Sir, success in your publication.

Respectfully, EBER. WHEATON,

Pr. of Mechanics' Society School

With the opinion of Mr. Wheaton respecting Mr. Kirkham's English Grammar,
we heartily concur.                               NATHAN STARK, Pr. Acad.
                                              (Rev.) JOHN JOHNSTON,
Newburgh, Aug. 4, 1829.    (Rev.) WM. S. HEYER,




From the Rev. C.P. McIlvaine, and others.

So far as I have examined the plan of grammatical instruction by Samuel
Kirkham I am well satisfied that _it meets the wants_ of elementary
schools in this branch, and deserves to be patronised. CHARLES P.
McILVAINE.

Brooklyn, L.I. July 9, 1829.

We fully concur in the above,    ANDREW HAGEMAN,
                                                     E.M. JOHNSON.




EXTRACT.

From the partial examination which I have given Mr. S. Kirkham's English
Grammar, I do not hesitate to recommend it to the public as the _best of
the class I have ever seen,_ and as filling up an important and almost
impassable chasm in works on grammatical science. D.L. CARROLL.

Brooklyn, L.I. June 29, 1829.

We fully concur in the foregoing recommendation. B.B. HALLOCK,
                                                 E. KINGSLEY,
                                                 T.S. MAYBON.




From A.W. Dodge, Esq.

New-York, July 15, 1829.

The experience of every one at all acquainted with the business of
instruction, must have taught him that the study of grammar, important
as it is to every class of learners, is almost invariably a dry and
uninteresting study to young beginners, and for the very obvious reason,
that the systems in general use in the schools, are _far beyond_ the
comprehension of youth, and ill adapted to their years. Hence it is,
that their lessons in this department of learning, are considered as
_tasks,_ and if committed at all, committed to _the memory, without
enlightening their understandings;_ so that many a pupil who has _been
through_ the English grammar, is totally unacquainted with the nature
even of the simplest parts of speech.

The work of Mr. Kirkham on grammar, is well calculated to remedy these
evils, and supply a deficiency which has been so long and so seriously
felt in the imperfect education of youth in the elementary knowledge of
their own language. By a simple, familiar, and lucid method of treating
the subject, he has rendered what was before irksome and unprofitable,
pleasing and instructive. In one word, the grammar of Mr. Kirkham
furnishes a _clew_ by which the youthful mind is guided through the
intricate labyrinth of verbs, nouns and pronouns; and the path which has
been heretofore so difficult and uninviting, as to dampen the ardor of
youth, and waste their energies in fruitless attempts to surmount its
obstacles, is cleared of these obstructions by this _pioneer_ to the
youthful mind, and planted, at every turn, with friendly _guide-boards
to direct them in the right road_. The slightest perusal of the work
alluded to, will convince even the most skeptical of the truth of these
remarks, and satisfy every one who is not wedded by prejudice to old
rules and forms, that it will meet the wants of the community.

ALLEN W. DODGE.

Philadelphia, Aug. 10, 1829




Having, for several years, been engaged in lecturing on the science of
grammar and, during this period, having _thoroughly tested_ the merits
of Mr. S. Kirkham's system of "English Grammar in Familiar Lectures" by
using it as a text-book for my classes, I take pleasure in giving this
testimonial of my cordial approbation of the work. Mr. Kirkham has
attempted to improve upon this branch of science, chiefly by unfolding
and explaining the principles of grammar in a manner so clear and
simple, as _to adapt them completely to the understanding_ of the young
learner, and by adopting a new arrangement, which enables the pupil to
commit the principles by a simultaneous application of them to practical
examples. The public may rest assured, that he has been successful in
his attempt _in a pre-eminent degree_. I make this assertion under a
full conviction that it will be corroborated by every candid judge of
the science who becomes acquainted with the practical advantages of this
manual.

The explicit brevity and accuracy of the rules and definitions, the
novel, the striking, the lucid, and critical illustrations accompanying
them, the peculiar and advantageous arrangement of the various parts of
the subject, the facilities proffered by the "systematic mode of
parsing" adopted, the convenient and judicious introduction and
adaptation of the exercises introduced, and the deep researches and
critical investigations displayed in the "Philosophical Notes," render
this system of grammar _so decidedly superior to all others extant_,
that, to receive general patronage, it needs but to be known.

My knowledge of this system from experience in teaching it, and
witnessing its effects in the hands of private learners, warrants me in
saying, that a learner will, by studying this book _four months without
a teacher_, obtain a more clear conception of the nature and proper
construction of words and phrases, than is ordinarily obtained in common
schools and academies, _in five times four months_.

It is highly gratifying to know, that wherever this system has been
circulated, it is very rapidly supplanting those works of dulness which
have so long paralyzed the energies of the youth of our country.

I think the specimens of verbal criticism, additional corrections in
orthography and ortheopy, the leading principles of rhetoric, and the
improvements in the illustrations generally, which Mr. K. is about
introducing into his ELEVENTH EDITION, will render it quite _an
improvement on the former editions of this work_. H. WINCHESTER.

From the Rev. S. Center, Principal of a Classical Academy.





I have examined the last edition of Kirkham's Grammar with peculiar
satisfaction. The improvements which appear in it, do, in my estimation,
give it a decided preference to any other system now in use. To point
out the peculiar qualities which secure to it claims of which no other
system can boast, would be, if required, perfectly easy. At present it
is sufficient to remark, that it imbodies all that is essentially
excellent and useful in other systems, while it is entirely free from
that tediousness of method and prolixity of definition which so much
perplex and embarrass the learner.

The peculiar excellence of Mr. Kirkham's grammar is, _the simplicity of
its method_, and _the plainness of its illustrations_. Being conducted
by familiar lectures, the teacher and pupil are necessarily brought into
agreeable contact by each lesson. Both are improved by the same task,
without the slightest suspicion, on the part of the pupil, that there is
anything hard, difficult, or obscure in the subject: a conviction, this,
which must inevitably precede all efforts, or no proficiency will be
made. In a word, the treatise I am recommending, is a _practical_ one;
and for that reason, if there were no others to be urged, it ought to be
introduced into all our schools and academies. From actual experiment I
can attest to the practicability of the plan which the author has
adopted. Of this fact any one may be convinced who will take the pains
to make the experiment. SAMUEL CENTER.

Albany, July 10, 1829.




From a communication addressed to S. Kirkham, by the Rev. J. Stockton,
author of the "Western Calculator" and "Western Spelling-Book."

Dear Sir,--I am much pleased with both the _plan_ and _execution_ of
your "English Grammar in Familiar Lectures." In giving a _systematic
mode of parsing_, calculated alike to exercise the _understanding_ and
_memory_ of the pupil, and also free the teacher from the _drudgery_ of
continued interrogation, you have made your grammar what every
_elementary_ school book ought to be--_plain, systematic_, and _easy_ to
be understood.

This, with the copious definitions in every part of the work, and other
improvements so judiciously introduced, gives it _a decisive
superiority_ over the imperfect grammar of Murray, now so generally
used. JOSEPH STOCKTON, A.M.

Allegheny-Town, (near Pittsburgh,) March 18, 1825.




TO THE ELEVENTH EDITION.

The author is free to acknowledge, that since this treatise first
ventured on the wave of public opinion, the gales of patronage which
have waited it along, have been far more favorable than he had reason to
anticipate. Had any one, on its first appearance, predicted, that the
demand for it would call forth _twenty-two thousand_ copies during the
past year, the author would have considered the prediction extravagant
and chimerical. In gratitude, therefore, to that public which has smiled
so propitiously on his humble efforts to advance the cause of learning,
he has endeavored, by unremitting attention to the improvement of his
work, to render it as useful and as unexceptionable as his time and
talents would permit.

It is believed that the _tenth_ and _eleventh_ editions have been
greatly improved; but the author is apprehensive that his work is not
yet as accurate and as much simplified as it may be. If, however, the
disadvantages of lingering under a broken constitution, and of being
able to devote to this subject only a small portion of his time,
snatched from the active pursuits of a business life, (_active_ as far
as his imperfect health permits him to be,) are any apology for its
defects, he hopes that the candid will set down the apology to his
credit. This personal allusion is hazarded with the additional hope,
that it will ward off some of the arrows of criticism which may be aimed
at him, and render less pointed and poisonous those that may fall upon
him. Not that he would beg a truce with the gentlemen critics and
reviewers. Any compromise with them would betray a want of
self-confidence and moral courage which he would, by no means, be
willing to avow. It would, moreover, be prejudicial to his interest; for
he is determined, if his life be preserved, to avail himself of the
advantages of any judicious and candid criticisms on his production,
that may appear, and, two or three years hence, _revise_ his work, and
present to the public another and a better edition.

The improvements in the _tenth_ edition, consisted mainly in the
addition of many important principles; in rendering the illustrations
more critical, extensive, accurate, and lucid; in connecting more
closely with the genius and philosophy of our language, the general
principles adopted; and in adding a brief view of philosophical grammar
interspersed in notes. The introduction into the ELEVENTH EDITION, of
many verbal criticisms, of additional corrections in orthography and
orthoepy, of the leading principles of rhetoric, and of general
additions and improvements in various parts of the work, render _this
edition/,_ it is believed, _far preferable_ to any of the former
editions of the work.

Perhaps some will regard the philosophical notes as a useless exhibition
of pedantry. If so, the author's only apology is, that some
investigations of this nature seemed to be called for by a portion of
the community whose minds, of late, appear to be under the influence of
a kind of _philosophical mania;_ and to such these notes are
respectfully submitted for just what _they_ may deem their real value.
The author's own opinion on this point, is, that they proffer no
_material_ advantages to common learners; but that they may profitably
engage the attention of the curious, and perhaps impart a degree of
interest to the literary connoisseur.

New-York, August 22, 1820.




CONTENTS.

Address to the learner
A, an, one
And
Adjectives
Adverbs
Agreement of words
Anomalies
Articles
Because
But, than, as
Case
  Nominative
  Possessive
  Objective
  Nominative case independent
  Nominative case absolute
  Apposition of cases
  Nominative and objective after the verb _to be_
  Active, passive, and neuter nominatives
Conjunctions
Conjugation of regular verbs
Derivation (all the philosophical notes treat of derivation)
Etymology
Exercises in false syntax
  In punctuation
Figures of speech
Gender
Government
Grammar, general division of
  Philosophical
Have
Idioms
Interjections
It
If
Key to the exercises
Letters, sounds of
Like
Manner of meaning of words
Moods
  Signs of
  Subjunctive
Nouns
  Gender of
  Person of
  Number of
  Case of
Orthography
  Rules of
Parsing
Participles
Poetry transposed
Prepositions
Pronouns
  Personal
  Compound personal
  Adjective
  Relative
Pronunciation
Prosody
Provincialisms
Punctuation
Rhetoric
Rules of syntax
Sentences, definitions of simple and compound
  Transposition of
Standard of grammatical accuracy
Syntax
To
Tenses
  Signs of the
The
That
Terminations
Verbs
  Active-transitive
  Active-intransitive
  Passive
  Neuter
  Defective
  Auxiliary
  Regular
  Irregular
  Compound
Versification
Worth
What, which, who
You




PREFACE

There appears to be something assuming in the act of writing, and
thrusting into public notice, a new work on a subject which has already
employed many able pens; for who would presume to do this, unless he
believed his production to be, in some respects, superior to every one
of the kind which had preceded it? Hence, in presenting to the public
this system of English Grammar, the author is aware that an apology will
be looked for, and that the arguments on which that apology is grounded,
must inevitably undergo a rigid scrutiny. Apprehensive, however, that no
explanatory effort, on his part, would shield him from the imputation of
arrogance by such as are blinded by self-interest, or by those who are
wedded to the doctrines mid opinions of his predecessors, with _them_ he
will not attempt a compromise, being, in a great measure, indifferent
either to their praise or their censure. But with the candid, he is
willing to negotiate an amicable treaty, knowing that they are always
ready to enter into it on honorable terms. In this negotiation he asks
nothing more than merely to rest the merits of his work on its practical
utility, believing that, if it prove uncommonly successful in
facilitating the progress of youth in the march of mental improvement,
_that_ will be its best apology.

When we bring into consideration the numerous productions of those
learned philologists who have labored so long, and, as many suppose, so
successfully, in establishing the principles of our language; and, more
especially, when we view the labors of some of our modern compilers, who
have displayed so much ingenuity and acuteness in attempting to arrange
those principles in such a manner as to form a correct and an easy
medium of mental conference; it does, indeed, appear a little like
presumption for a young man to enter upon a subject which has so
frequently engaged the attention and talents of men distinguished for
their erudition. The author ventures forward, however, under the
conviction, that most of his predecessors are very deficient, at least,
in _manner,_ if not in _matter_; and this conviction, he believes, will
be corroborated by a majority of the best judges in community. It is
admitted, that many valuable improvements have been made by some of our
late writers, who have endeavored to simplify and render this subject
intelligible to the young learner, but they have all overlooked what the
author considers a very important object, namely, _a systematic order of
parsing;_ and nearly all have neglected to _develop and explain_ the
principles in such a manner as to enable the learner, without great
difficulty, to comprehend their nature and use.

By some this system will, no doubt, be discarded on account of its
_simplicity_; while to others its simplicity will prove its principal
recommendation. Its design is an humble one. It proffers no great
advantages to the recondite grammarian; it professes not to instruct the
literary connoisseur; it presents no attractive graces of style to
charm, no daring flights to astonish, no deep researches to gratify
him; but in the humblest simplicity of diction, it attempts to
accelerate the march of the juvenile mind in its advances in the path of
science, by dispersing those clouds that so often bewilder it, and
removing those obstacles that generally retard its progress. In this way
it endeavors to render interesting and delightful a study which has
hitherto been considered tedious, dry, and irksome. Its leading object
is to adopt a correct and an easy method, in which pleasure is blended
with the labors of the learner, and which is calculated to excite in him
a spirit of inquiry, that shall call forth into vigorous and useful
exercise, every latent energy of his mind; and thus enable him soon to
become thoroughly acquainted with the nature of the principles, and with
their practical utility and application.

Content to be useful, instead of being brilliant, the writer of these
pages has endeavored to shun the path of those whose aim appears to have
been to dazzle, rather than to instruct. As he has aimed not so much at
originality as utility, he has adopted the thoughts of his predecessors
whose labors have become public stock, whenever he could not, in his
opinion, furnish better and brighter of his own. Aware that there is, in
the public mind, a strong predilection for the doctrines contained in
Mr. Murray's grammar, he has thought proper, not merely from motives of
policy, but from choice, to select his _principles_ chiefly from that
work; and, moreover, to adopt, as far as consistent with his own views,
the language of that eminent philologist. In no instance has he varied
from him, unless he conceived that, in so doing, some practical
advantage would be gained. He hopes, therefore, to escape the censure so
frequently and so justly awarded to those unfortunate innovators who
have not scrupled to alter, mutilate, and torture the text of that able
writer, merely to gratify an itching propensity to figure in the world
as authors, and gain an ephemeral popularity by arrogating to themselves
the credit due to another.

The author is not disposed, however, to disclaim all pretensions to
originality; for, although his principles are chiefly selected, (and who
would presume to make new ones?) the manner of arranging, illustrating,
and applying them, is principally his own. Let no one, therefore, if he
happen to find in other works, ideas and illustrations similar to _some_
contained in the following lectures, too hastily accuse him of
plagiarism. It is well known that similar investigations and pursuits
often elicit corresponding ideas in different minds: and hence it is not
uncommon for the same thought to be strictly _original_ with many
writers. The author is not here attempting to manufacture a garment to
shield him from rebuke, should he unjustly claim the property of
another; but he wishes it to be understood, that a long course of
teaching and investigation, has often produced in his mind ideas and
arguments on the subject of grammar, exactly or nearly corresponding
with those which he afterwards found, had, under similar circumstances,
been produced in the minds of others. He hopes, therefore, to be
pardoned by the critic, even though he should not be willing to reject a
good idea _of his own,_ merely because some one else has, at some time
or other, been blessed with the same thought.

As the plan of this treatise is far more comprehensive than those of
ordinary grammars, the writer could not, without making his work
unreasonably voluminous, treat some topics as extensively as was
desirable. Its design is to embrace, not only all the most important
principles of the science, but also exercises in parsing, false syntax,
and punctuation, sufficiently extensive for all ordinary, practical
purposes, and a key to the exercises, and, moreover, a series of
illustrations so full and intelligible, as _completely to adapt the
principles to the capacities of common learners._ Whether this design
has been successfully or unsuccessfully executed, is left for the public
to decide. The general adoption of the work into schools, wherever it
has become known, and the ready sale of _forty thousand_ copies, (though
_without hitherto affording the author any pecuniary profit,_) are
favorable omens.

In the selection and arrangement of principles for his work, the author
has endeavored to pursue a course between the extremes, of taking
blindly on trust whatever has been sanctioned by prejudice and the
authority of venerable names, and of that arrogant, innovating spirit,
which sets at defiance all authority, and attempts to overthrow all
former systems, and convince the world that all true knowledge and
science are wrapped up in a crude system of vagaries of its own
invention. Notwithstanding the author is aware that public prejudice is
powerful, and that he who ventures much by way of innovation, will be
liable to defeat his own purpose by falling into neglect; yet he has
taken the liberty to think for himself, to investigate the subject
critically and dispassionately, and to adopt such principles only as he
deemed the least objectionable, and best calculated to effect the object
he had in view. But what his system claims as improvements on others,
consists not so much in bettering the principles themselves, as in the
_method adopted of communicating a knowledge of them to the mind of the
learner_. That the work is defective, the author is fully sensible: and
he is free to acknowledge, that its defects arise, in part, from his own
want of judgment and skill. But there is another and a more serious
cause of them, namely, the anomalies and imperfections with which the
language abounds. This latter circumstance is also the cause of the
existence of so widely different opinions on many important points; and,
moreover, the reason that the grammatical principles of our language can
never be indisputably settled. But principles ought not to be rejected
because they admit of exceptions.--He who is thoroughly acquainted with
the genius and structure of our language, can duly appreciate the truth
of these remarks.

       *       *       *       *       *

Should parents object to the Compendium, fearing it will soon be
destroyed by their children, they are informed that the pupil will not
have occasion to use it one-tenth part as much as he will the book which
it accompanies: and besides, if it be destroyed, he will find all the
definitions and rules which it contains, recapitulated in the series of
Lectures.

HINTS TO TEACHERS AND PRIVATE LEARNERS.

As this work proposes a new mode of parsing, and pursues an arrangement
essentially different from that generally adopted, it may not be deemed
improper for the author to give some directions to those who may be
disposed to use it. Perhaps they who take only a slight view of the
order of parsing, will not consider it _new_, but blend it with those
long since adopted. Some writers have, indeed, attempted plans somewhat
similar; but in no instance have they reduced them to what the author
considers a _regular systematic order_.

The methods which they have generally suggested, require the teacher to
_interrogate_ the pupil as he proceeds; or else he is permitted to parse
without giving any explanations at all. Others hint that the learner
ought to apply definitions in a general way, but they lay down no
systematic arrangement of questions as his guide. The _systematic_ order
laid down in this work, if pursued by the pupil, compels him to apply
every definition and every rule that appertains to each word he parses,
without having a question put to him by the teacher; and, in so doing,
he explains every word fully as he goes along. This course enables the
learner to proceed independently; and proves, at the same time, a great
relief to the instructer. The convenience and advantage of this method,
are far greater than can be easily conceived by one who is unacquainted
with it. The author is, therefore, anxious to have the absurd practice,
wherever it has been established, of causing learners to commit and
recite definitions and rules without any simultaneous application of
them to practical examples, immediately abolished. This system obviates
the necessity of pursuing such a stupid course of drudgery; for the
young beginner who pursues it, will have, in a few weeks, all the most
important definitions and rules perfectly committed, simply by applying
them in parsing.

If this plan be once adopted, it is confidently believed that every
teacher who is desirous to consult, either his own convenience, or the
advantage of his pupils, will readily pursue it in preference to any
former method. This belief is founded on the advantages which the
author himself has experienced from it in the course of several years,
devoted to the instruction of youth and adults. By pursuing this system,
he can, with less labor, advance a pupil farther in a practical
knowledge of this abstruse science, in _two months_, than he could in
_one year_ when he taught in the "old way." It is presumed that no
instructor, who once gives this system a fair trial, will doubt the
truth of this assertion.

Perhaps some will, on a first view of the work, disapprove of the
transposition of many parts; but whoever examines it attentively, will
find that, although the author has not followed the common "artificial
and unnatural arrangement adopted by most of his predecessors," yet he
has endeavored to pursue a more judicious one, namely, "the order of the
understanding."

The learner should commence, _not by committing and rehearsing_, but by
reading attentively the first _two_ lectures several times over. He
ought then to parse, according to the _systematic order_, the examples
given for that purpose; in doing which, as previously stated, he has an
opportunity of committing all the definitions and rules belonging to the
parts of speech included in the examples.

The COMPENDIUM, as it presents to the eye of the learner a condensed but
comprehensive view of the whole science, may be properly considered an
"Ocular Analysis of the English language." By referring to it, the young
student is enabled to apply all his definitions and rules from the very
commencement of his parsing. To some, this mode of procedure may seem
rather tedious; but it must appear obvious to every person of
discernment, that a pupil will learn more by parsing _five_ words
critically, and explaining them fully, than he would by parsing _fifty_
words superficially, and without understanding their various properties.
The teacher who pursues this plan, is not under the necessity of hearing
his pupils recite a single lesson of _definitions_ committed to memory,
for he has a fair opportunity of discovering their knowledge of these as
they evince it in parsing. All other directions necessary for the
learner in school, as well as for the _private learner_, will be given
in the succeeding pages of the work. Should these feeble efforts prove a
saving of much time and expense to those young persons who may be
disposed to pursue this science with avidity, by enabling them easily to
acquire a critical knowledge of a branch of education so important and
desirable, the author's fondest anticipations will be fully realized;
but should his work fall into the hands of any who are expecting, by the
acquisition, to become grammarians, and yet, have not sufficient
ambition and perseverance to make themselves acquainted with its
contents, it is hoped that the blame for their nonimprovement, will not
be thrown upon _him._

       *       *       *       *       *

To those enterprising and intelligent gentlemen who may be disposed to
lecture on this plan, the author takes the liberty to offer a few hints
by way of encouragement.

Any judicious instructor of grammar, if he take the trouble to make
himself familiar with the contents of the following pages, will find it
an easy matter to pursue this system. One remark only to the lecturer,
is sufficient. Instead of causing his pupils to acquire a knowledge of
the nature and use of the principles by intense application, let him
communicate it verbally; that is, let him first take up one part of
speech, and, in an oral lecture, unfold and explain all its properties,
not only by adopting the illustrations given in the book, but also by
giving others that may occur to his mind as he proceeds. After a part of
speech has been thus elucidated, the class should be interrogated on it,
and then taught to parse it, and correct errors in composition under the
rules that apply to it. In the same manner he may proceed with the other
parts of speech, observing, however, to recapitulate occasionally, until
the learners become thoroughly acquainted with whatever principles may
have been presented. If this plan be faithfully pursued, rapid progress,
on the part of the learner, will be the inevitable result; and that
teacher who pursues it, cannot fail of acquiring distinction, and an
enviable popularity in his profession. S. KIRKHAM.




FAMILIAR LECTURES

ON

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

       *       *       *       *       *

LECTURE I


DIVISIONS OF GRAMMAR.--ORTHOGRAPHY.

TO THE YOUNG LEARNER.

You are about to enter upon one of the most useful, and, when rightly
pursued, one of the most interesting studies in the whole circle of
science. If, however, you, like many a misguided youth, are under the
impression that the study of grammar is dry and irksome, and a matter of
little consequence, I trust I shall succeed in removing from your mind,
all such false notions and ungrounded prejudices; for I will endeavor to
convince you, before I close these lectures, that this is not only a
pleasing study, but one of real and substantial utility; a study that
directly tends to adorn and dignify human nature, and meliorate the
condition of man. Grammar is a leading branch of that learning which
alone is capable of unfolding and maturing the mental powers, and of
elevating man to his proper rank in the scale of intellectual
existence;--of that learning which lifts the soul from earth, and
enables it to hold converse with a thousand worlds. In pursuing any and
every other path of science, you will discover the truth of these
remarks, and feel its force; for you will find, that, as grammar opens
the door to every department of learning, a knowledge of it is
indispensable: and should you not aspire at distinction in the republic
of letters, this knowledge cannot fail of being serviceable to you, even
if you are destined to pass through the humblest walks of life. I think
it is clear, that, in one point of view, grammatical knowledge possesses
a decisive advantage over every other branch of learning. Penmanship,
arithmetic, geography, astronomy, botany, chemistry, and so on, are
highly useful in their respective places; but not one of them is so
universally applicable to practical purposes, as this. In every
situation, under all circumstances, on all occasions;--when you speak,
read, write, or think, a knowledge of grammar is of essential utility.

Doubtless you have heard some persons assert, that they could detect and
correct any error in language by the ear, and speak and write accurately
without a knowledge of grammar. Now your own observation will soon
convince you, that this assertion is incorrect. A man of refined taste,
may, by perusing good authors, and conversing with the learned, acquire
that knowledge of language which will enable him to avoid those glaring
errors that offend the ear; but there are other errors equally gross,
which have not a harsh sound, and, consequently, which cannot be
detected without a knowledge of the rules that are violated. Believe me,
therefore, when I say, that without the knowledge and application of
grammar rules, it is impossible for any one to think, speak, read, or
write with accuracy. From a want of such knowledge, many often express
their ideas in a manner so improper and obscure as to render it
impossible for any one to _understand_ them: their language frequently
amounts, not only to _bad_ sense, but _non_-sense. In other instances
several different meanings may be affixed to the words they employ; and
what is still worse, is, that not unfrequently their sentences are so
constructed, as to convey a meaning quite the reverse of that which they
intended. Nothing of a secular nature can be more worthy of your
attention, then, than the acquisition of grammatical knowledge.

The path which leads to grammatical excellence, is not all the way
smooth and flowery, but in it you will find some thorns interspersed,
and some obstacles to be surmounted; or, in simple language, you will
find, in the pursuit of this science, many intricacies which it is
rather difficult for the juvenile mind completely to unravel. I shall,
therefore, as I proceed, address you in plain language, and endeavor to
illustrate every principle in a manner so clear and simple, that you
will be able, _if you exercise your mind,_ to understand its nature, and
apply it to practice as you go along; for I would rather give you one
useful idea, than fifty high-sounding words, the meaning of which you
would probably be unable to comprehend.

Should you ever have any doubts concerning the meaning of a word, or the
sense of a sentence, you must not be discouraged, but persevere, either
by studying my explanations, or by asking some person competent to
inform you, till you obtain a clear conception of it, and till all
doubts are removed. By carefully examining, and frequently reviewing,
the following lectures, you will soon be able to discern the grammatical
construction of our language, and fix in your mind the principles by
which it is governed. Nothing delights youth so much, as a clear and
distinct knowledge of any branch of science which they are pursuing;
and, on the other hand, I know they are apt to be discouraged with any
branch of learning which requires much time and attention to be
understood. It is the evidence of a weak mind, however, to be
discouraged by the obstacles with which the young learner must expect to
meet; and the best means that you can adopt, in order to enable you to
overcome the difficulties that arise in the incipient stage of your
studies, is to cultivate the habit of _thinking methodically and
soundly_ on all subjects of importance which may engage your attention.
Nothing will be more effectual in enabling you to think, as well as to
speak and write, correctly, than the study of English grammar, according
to the method of pursuing it as prescribed in the following pages. This
system is designed, and, I trust, well calculated, to expand and
strengthen the intellectual faculties, in as much as it involves a
process by which the mind is addressed, and a knowledge of grammar
communicated in an interesting and familiar manner.

You are aware, my young friend, that you live in an age of light and
knowledge;--an age in which science and the arts are marching onward
with gigantic strides. You live, too, in a land of liberty;--a land on
which the smiles of Heaven beam with uncommon refulgence. The trump of
the warrior and the clangor of arms no longer echo on our mountains, or
in our valleys; "the garments dyed in blood have passed away;" the
mighty struggle for independence is over; and you live to enjoy the rich
boon of freedom and prosperity which was purchased with the blood of our
fathers. These considerations forbid that you should ever be so
unmindful of your duty to your country, to your Creator, to yourself,
and to succeeding generations, as to be content to grovel in ignorance.
Remember that "knowledge is power;" that an enlightened and a virtuous
people can never be enslaved; and that, on the intelligence of our
youth, rest the future liberty, the prosperity, the happiness, the
grandeur, and the glory of our beloved country. Go on then, with a
laudable ambition, and an unyielding perseverance, in the path which
leads to honor and renown. Press forward. Go, and gather laurels on the
hill of science; linger among her unfading beauties; "drink deep" of her
crystal fountain; and then join in "the march of fame." Become learned
and virtuous, and you will be great. Love God and serve him, and you
will be happy.

LANGUAGE.

Language, in its most extensive sense, implies those signs by which men
and brutes communicate to each other their thoughts, affections, and
desires.

Language may be divided, 1. into natural and artificial; 2. into spoken
and written.

NATURAL LANGUAGE, consists in the use of those natural signs which
different animals employ in communicating their feelings one to another.
The meaning of these signs all perfectly understand by the principles of
their nature. This language is common both to man and brute. The
elements of natural language in man, may be reduced to three kinds;
modulations of the voice, gestures, and features. By means of these, two
savages who have no common, artificial language, can communicate their
thoughts in a manner quite intelligible: they can ask and refuse, affirm
and deny, threaten and supplicate; they can traffick, enter into
contracts, and plight their faith. The language of brutes consists in
the use of those _inarticulate_ sounds by which they express their
thoughts and affections. Thus, the chirping of a bird, the bleating of a
lamb, the neighing of a horse, and the growling, whining, and barking of
a dog, are the language of those animals, respectively.

ARTIFICIAL LANGUAGE consists in the use of words, by means of which
mankind are enabled to communicate their thoughts to one another.--In
order to assist you in comprehending what is meant by the term _word,_ I
will endeavor to illustrate the meaning of the term.

_Idea_. The _notices_ which we gain by sensation and perception, and
which are treasured up in the mind to be the materials of thinking and
knowledge, are denominated ideas. For example, when you place your hand
upon a piece of ice, a sensation is excited which we call _coldness_.
That faculty which notices this sensation or change produced in the
mind, is called _perception;_ and the abstract notice itself, or notion
you form of this sensation, is denominated an _idea_. This being
premised, we will now proceed to the consideration of words.

_Words_ are _articulate_ sounds, used by common consent, not as natural,
but as artificial, signs of our ideas. Words have no meaning in
themselves. They are merely the artificial representatives of those
ideas affixed to them by compact or agreement among those who use them.
In English, for instance, to a particular kind of metal we assign the
name _gold;_ not because there is, in that sound, any peculiar aptness
which suggests the idea we wish to convey, but the application of that
sound to the idea signified, is an act altogether arbitrary. Were there
any natural connexion between the sound and the thing signified, the
word _gold_ would convey the same idea to the people of other countries
as it does to ourselves. But such is not the fact. Other nations make
use of different sounds to signify the same thing. Thus, _aurum_ denotes
the same idea in Latin, and _or_ in French. Hence it follows, that it is
by custom only we learn to annex particular ideas to particular sounds.

SPOKEN LANGUAGE or speech is made up of articulate sounds uttered by the
human voice.

_The voice_ is formed by air which, after it passes through the glottis,
(a small aperture in the upper part of the wind-pipe,) is modulated by
the action of the throat, palate, teeth, tongue, lips, and nostrils.

WRITTEN LANGUAGE. The elements of written language consist of letters or
characters, which, by common consent and general usage, are combined
into words, and thus made the ocular representatives of the articulate
sounds uttered by the voice.

       *       *       *       *       *




GRAMMAR.


GRAMMAR is the science of language.

Grammar may be divided into two species, universal and particular.

UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR explains the principles which are common to all
languages.

PARTICULAR GRAMMAR applies those general principles to a particular
language, modifying them according to its genius, and the established
practice of the best speakers and writers by whom it is used. Hence,

_The established practice of the best speakers and writers_ of any
language, is the standard of grammatical accuracy in the use of that
language.

By the phrase, _established practice,_ is implied reputable, national,
and present usage. A usage becomes _good_ and _legal,_ when it has been
long and generally adopted.

_The best speakers and writers,_ or such as may be considered good
authority in the use of language, are those who are deservedly in high
estimation; speakers, distinguished for their elocution and other
literary attainments, and writers, eminent for correct taste, solid
matter, and refined manner.

In the grammar of a _perfect_ language, no rules should be admitted, but
such as are founded on fixed principles, arising out of the genius of
that language and the nature of things; but our language being
_im_-perfect, it becomes necessary, in a _practical_ treatise, like
this, to adopt some rules to direct us in the use of speech as regulated
by _custom_. If we had a permanent and surer standard than capricious
custom to regulate us in the transmission of thought, great
inconvenience would be avoided. They, however, who introduce usages
which depart from the analogy and philosophy of a language, are
conspicuous among the number of those who form that language, and have
power to control it.

Language is conventional, and not only invented, but, in its progressive
advancement, _varied_ for purposes of practical convenience. Hence it
assumes any and every form which those who make use of it choose to give
it. We are, therefore, as _rational_ and _practical_ grammarians,
compelled to submit to the necessity of the case; to take the language
as it _is_, and not as it _should be_, and bow to custom.

PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR investigates and develops the principles of
language, as founded in the nature of things and the original laws of
thought. It also discusses the grounds of the classification of words,
and explains those procedures which practical grammar lays down for our
observance.

PRACTICAL GRAMMAR adopts the most convenient classification of the words
of a language, lays down a system of definitions and rules, founded on
scientific principles and good usage, illustrates their nature and
design, and enforces their application.

PRINCIPLE. A principle in grammar is a peculiar construction of the
language, sanctioned by good usage.

DEFINITION. A definition in grammar is a principle of language expressed
in a definite form.

RULE. A rule describes the peculiar construction or circumstantial
relation of words, which custom has established for our observance.

       *       *       *       *       *

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR is the art of speaking and writing the English language
with propriety.

GRAMMAR teaches us _how to use words in a proper manner._ The most
important use of that faculty called speech, is, to convey our thoughts
to others. If, therefore, we have a store of words, and even know what
they signify, they will be of no real use to us unless we can also apply
them to practice, and make them answer the purposes for which they were
invented. _Grammar_, well understood, enables us to express our
thoughts fully and clearly; and, consequently, in a manner which will
defy the ingenuity of man to give our words any other meaning than that
which we ourselves intend them to express. To be able to speak and write
our vernacular tongue with accuracy and elegance, is, certainly, a
consideration of the highest moment.


Grammar is divided into four parts;

    1. ORTHOGRAPHY,
    2. ETYMOLOGY,
    3. SYNTAX,
    4. PROSODY.

ORTHOGRAPHY teaches the nature and powers of
letters, and the just method of spelling words.

ORTHOGRAPHY means _word-making_, or _spelling_. It teaches us the
different kinds and sounds of letters, how to combine them into
syllables, and syllables into words.

As this is one of the first steps in the path of literature, I presume
you already understand the nature and use of letters, and the just
method of spelling words. If you do, it is unnecessary for you to dwell
long on this part of grammar, which, though very important, is rather
dry and uninteresting, for it has nothing to do with parsing and
analyzing language. And, therefore, if you can _spell correctly_, you
may omit Orthography, and commence with Etymology and Syntax.

Orthography treats, 1st, of _Letters_, 2ndly, of _Syllables_, and 3dly,
of _Words_.

I. LETTERS. A letter is the first principle, or least part, of a word.

The English Alphabet contains twenty-six letters.

They are divided into vowels and consonants.

A vowel is a letter that can be perfectly sounded by itself. The vowels
are _a, e, i, o, u,_ and sometimes _w_ and _y_. _W_ and _y_ are
consonants when they begin a word or syllable; but in every other
situation they are vowels.

A consonant is a letter that cannot be perfectly sounded without the
help of a vowel; as, _b, d, f, l_. All letters except the vowels are
consonants.

Consonants are divided into mutes and semi-vowels.

The mutes cannot be sounded _at all_ without the aid of a vowel. They
are _b, p, t, d, k_, and _c_ and _g_ hard.

The semi-vowels have an imperfect sound of themselves. They are _f, l,
m, n, r, v, s, z, x_, and _c_ and _g_ soft.

Four of the semi-vowels, namely, _l, m, n, r_, are called _liquids_,
because they readily unite with other consonants, and flow, as it were,
into their sounds.


A diphthong is the union of _two_ vowels, pronounced by a single impulse
of the voice; as _oi_ in voice, _ou_ in sound.

A triphthong is the union of _three_ vowels pronounced in like manner;
as, _eau_ in beau, _iew_ in view.

A _proper_ diphthong has _both_ the vowels sounded; as, _ou_ in ounce.
An _improper_ diphthong has only _one_ of the vowels sounded; as, _oa_
in boat.

II. SYLLABLES. A Syllable is a distinct sound, uttered by a single
impulse of the voice; as, _a, an, ant_.

A word of one syllable, is termed a Monosyllable; a word of two
syllables, a Dissyllable; a word of three syllables, a Trisyllable; a
word of four or more syllables, a Polysyllable.

III. WORDS. Words are articulate sounds, used by common consent, as
signs of our ideas.

Words are of two sorts, primitive and derivative.

A _primitive_ word is that which cannot be reduced to a simpler word in
the language; as, _man, good_.

A _derivative_ word is that which may be reduced to a simpler word; as,
_manful, goodness_.

There is little or no difference between derivative and compound words.
The terminations or added syllables, such as _ed, es, ess, est, an, ant,
en, ence, ent, dom, hood, ly, ous, ful, ness_, and the like, were,
originally, distinct and separate words, which, by long use, have been
contracted, and made to coalesce with other words.


OF THE SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS.

A.--_A_ has four sounds; the long; as in _name, basin_; the broad; as in
_ball, wall_; the short; as in _fagot, glass_; and the flat, Italian
sound; as in _bar, farther_. The improper diphthong, _aa_, has the
short sound of a in _Balaam, Canaan, Isaac_; and the long sound of _a_
in _Baal, Gaal, Aaron_.

The Latin diphthong, _ae_, has the long sound of _e_ in _aenigma,
Caesar_, and some other words. But many authors reject this useless
excrescence of antiquity, and write, _enigma, Cesar_.

The diphthong, _ai_, has the long sound of _a_; as in _pail, sail_;
except in _plaid, said, again, raillery, fountain, Britain_, and some
others.

_Au_ is sounded like broad _a_ in _taught_, like flat _a_ in _aunt_,
like long _o_ in _hautboy_, and like short _o_ in _laurel_.

_Aw_ has always the sound of broad _a_; as in _bawl, crawl_.

_Ay_ has the long sound of _a_; as in _pay, delay_.

B.--_B_ has only one sound; as in _baker, number, chub_.

_B_ is silent when it follows _m_ in the same syllable; as in _lamb_,
&c. except in _accumb, rhomb_, and _succumb_. It is also silent before
_t_ in the same syllable; as in _doubt, debtor, subtle_, &c.

C.--_C_ sounds like _k_ before _a, o, u, r, l, t_, and at the end of
syllables; as in _cart, cottage, curious, craft, tract, cloth; victim,
flaccid_. It has the sound of _s_ before _e, i_, and _y_; as in _centre,
cigar, mercy. C_ has the sound of _sh_ when followed by a diphthong, and
is preceded by the accent, either primary or secondary; as in _social,
pronunciation_, &c.; and of _z_ in _discern, sacrifice, sice, suffice_.
It is mute in _arbuscle, czar, czarina, endict, victuals, muscle_.

_Ch_ is commonly sounded like _tsh_; as in _church, chin_; but in words
derived from the ancient languages, it has the sound of _k_; as in
_chemist, chorus_; and likewise in foreign names; as in _Achish, Enoch_.
In words from the French, _ch_ sounds like _sh_; as in _chaise,
chevalier_; and also like _sh_ when preceded by _l_ or _n_; as in
_milch, bench, clinch_, &c.

_Ch_ in _arch_, before a vowel, sounds like _k_; as in _arch-angel_,
except in _arched, archery, archer; archenemy_; but before a consonant,
it sounds like _tsh_; as in _archbishop. Ch_ is silent in _schedule,
schism, yacht, drachm_.

D.--_D_ has one uniform sound; as in _death, bandage_. It sounds like
_dj_ or _j_ when followed by long _u_ preceded by the accent; as in
_educate, verdure_. It also sounds like _j_ in _grandeur, soldier_.

The termination, _ed_, in adjectives and participial adjectives, retains
its distinct sound; as, a _wick-ed_ man, a _learn-ed_ man, _bless-ed_
are the meek; but in verbs the _e_ is generally dropped; as, _passed,
walked, flashed, aimed, rolled_, &c. which are pronounced, _past, walkt,
flasht, aimd, rold_.

E.--_E_ has a long sound; as in _scheme, severe_; a short sound; as in
_men, tent_; and sometimes the sound of flat _a_; as in _sergeant_; and
of short _i_; as in _yes, pretty, England_, and generally in the
unaccented terminations, _es, et, en_.

F.--_F_ has one unvaried sound; as in _fancy, muffin_; except in _of_,
which, when uncompounded, is pronounced _ov_. A wive's portion, a
calve's head, are improper. They should be, _wife's_ portion, _calf's_
head.

G.--_G_ has two sounds. It is hard before _a, o, u, l_, and _r_, and at
the end of a word; as in _gay, go, gun, glory; bag, snug_. It is soft
before _e, i_, and _y_; as in _genius, ginger, Egypt_. Exceptions; _get,
gewgaw, gimlet_, and some others. G is silent before _n_, as in _gnash_.

H.--_H_ has an articulate sound; as in _hat, horse, hull_. It is silent
after _r_; as in _rhetoric, rhubarb_.

I.--_I_ has a long sound; as in _fine_; and a short one; as in _fin_.
Before _r_ it is often sounded like _u_ short; as in _first, third_; and
in other words, like short _e_; as in _birth, virtue_. In some words it
has the sound of long _e_; as in _machine, profile_.

J.--_J_ has the sound of soft _g_; except in _hallelujah_, in which it
is pronounced like _y_.

K.--_K_ has the sound of _c_ hard, and is used before _e, i_, and _y_,
where _c_ would be soft; as _kept, skirt, murky_. It is silent before
_n_; as in _knife, knell, knocker_.

L.--_L_ has always a soft liquid sound; as in _love, billow_. It is
often silent; as in _half, talk, almond_.

M.--_M_ has always the same sound; as in _murmur, monumental_; except in
_comptroller_, which is pronounced _controller_.

N.--_N_ has two sounds; the one pure; as in _man, net, noble_; the other
a compound sound; as in _ankle, banquet, distinct_, &c., pronounced
_angkl, bangkwet_. _N_ final is silent when preceded by _m_; as in
_hymn, autumn_.

O.--_O_ has a long sound; as in _note, over_; and a short one; as in
_not, got_. It has the sound of _u_ short; as in _son, attorney, doth,
does_; and generally in the terminations, _op, ot, or, on, om, ol, od_,
&c.

P.--_P_ has but one uniform sound; as in _pin, slipper_; except in
_cupboard, clapboard_, where it has the sound of _b_. It is mute in
_psalm, Ptolemy, tempt, empty, corps, raspberry, and receipt_.

_Ph_ has the sound of _f_ in _philosophy, Philip_; and of _v_ in
_nephew, Stephen_.

Q.--_Q_ is sounded like _k_, and is always followed by _u_ pronounced
like _w_; as in _quadrant, queen, conquest_.

R.--_R_ has a rough sound; as in _Rome, river, rage_; and a smooth one;
as in _bard, card, regard_. In the unaccented termination _re_, the _r_
is sounded after the e; as _in fibre, centre_.

S.--_S_ has a flat sound like _z_; as in _besom, nasal_; and, at the
beginning of words, a sharp, hissing sound; as in _saint, sister,
sample_. It has the sound of _sh_ when preceded by the accent and
another s or a liquid, and followed by a diphthong or long _u_; as in
_expulsion, censure_. _S_ sounds like _zh_ when preceded by the accent
and a vowel, and followed by a diphthong or long _u_ as in _brasier,
usual_. It is mute in _isle, corps, demesne, viscount_.

T.--_T_ is sounded in _take, temper_. _T_ before _u_, when the accent
precedes, and generally before _eou_, sounds like _tsh_; as, _nature,
virtue, righteous_, are pronounced _natshure, virtshue, richeus_. _Ti_
before a vowel, preceded by the accent, has the sound of _sh_; as in
_salvation, negotiation_; except in such words as _tierce, tiara_, &c.
and unless an _s_ goes before; as, _question_; and excepting also
derivatives from words ending in _ty_; as in _mighty, mightier_.

_Th_, at the beginning, _middle_, and end of words, is sharp; as in
_thick, panther, breath_. Exceptions; _then, booth, worthy_, &c.

U.--_U_ has three sounds; a long; as in _mule, cubic_; a short; as in
_dull, custard_; and an obtuse sound; as in _full, bushel_. It is
pronounced like short _e_ in _bury_; and like short _i_ in _busy,
business_.

V.--_V_ has uniformly the sound of flat _f_; as in _vanity, love_.

W.--_W_, when a consonant, has its sound, which is heard in _wo,
beware_. _W_ is silent before _r_; as in _wry, wrap, wrinkle_; and also
in _answer, sword_, &c. Before _h_ it is pronounced as if written after
the _h_; as in _why, when, what_;--_hwy, hwen, hwat_. When heard as a
vowel, it takes the sound of _u_; as in _draw, crew, now_.

X.--_X_ has a sharp sound, like _ks_, when it ends a syllable with the
accent on it; as, _exit, exercise_; or when it precedes an accented
syllable which begins with any consonant except _h_; as, _excuse,
extent_; but when the following accented syllable begins with a vowel or
_h_, it has, generally, a flat sound, like _gz_; as in _exert, exhort_.
_X_ has the sound of _Z_ at the beginning of proper names of Greek
original; as in _Xanthus, Xenophon, Xerxes_.

Y.--_Y_, when a consonant, has its proper sound; as in _youth, York,
yes, new-year_. When _y_ is employed as a vowel, it has exactly the
sound that _i_ would have in the same situation; as in _rhyme, system,
party, pyramid_.

Z.--_Z_ has the sound of flat _s_; as in _freeze, brazen_.


RULES FOR SPELLING.

SPELLING is the art of expressing a word by its proper letters.

The following rules are deemed important in practice, although they
assist us in spelling only a small portion of the words of our language.
This useful art is to be chiefly acquired by studying the spelling-book
and dictionary, and by strict attention in reading.

RULE I. Monosyllables ending in _f, l_, or _s_, double the final or
ending consonant when it is preceded by a _single_ vowel; as _staff,
mill, pass_. Exceptions; _of, if, is, as, lids, was, yes, his, this,
us_, and _thus_.

    _False Orthography for the learner to correct_.--Be thou like the
    gale that moves the gras, to those who ask thy aid.--The aged hero
    comes forth on his staf; his gray hair glitters in the beam.--Shal
    mortal man be more just than God?--Few know the value of health til
    they lose it.--Our manners should be neither gros, nor excessively
    refined.

      And that is not the lark, whose notes do beat
      The vaulty heaven so high above our heads:
      I have more care to stay, than wil to go.


RULE II. Monosyllables ending in any consonant but _f, l_, or _s_, never
double the final consonant when it is preceded by a _single_ vowel; as,
_man, hat_. Exceptions; _add, ebb, butt, egg, odd, err, inn, bunn,
purr_, and _buzz_.

    _False Orthography_.--None ever went sadd from Fingal.--He rejoiced
    over his sonn.--Clonar lies bleeding on the bedd of death.--Many a
    trapp is set to insnare the feet of youth.

      The weary sunn has made a golden sett,
      And, by the bright track of his golden carr,
      Gives token of a goodly day to-morrow.


RULE III. Words ending in _y_, form the plural of nouns, the persons of
verbs, participial nouns, past participles, comparatives, and
superlatives, by changing _y_ into _i_, when the _y_ is preceded by a
_consonant_; as, _spy, spies; I carry, thou carriest, he carries;
carrier, carried; happy, happier, happiest_.

The present participle in _ing_, retains the _y_ that _i_ may not be
doubled; as, _carry, carrying_.

But when _y_ is preceded by a _vowel_, in such instances as the above,
it is not changed into _i_; as, _boy, boys; I cloy, he cloys_; except
in the words _lay, pay_, and _say I_ from which are formed _laid, paid_,
and _said_; and their compounds, _unpaid, unsaid_, &c.

    _False Orthography_.--Our fancys should be governed by reason.--Thou
    wearyest thyself in vain.--He denyed himself all sinful pleasures.

      Win straiing souls with modesty and love;
      Cast none away.
      The truly good man is not dismaied by poverty.
      Ere fresh morning streak the east, we must be risen to reform yonder
        allies green.


RULE IV. When words ending in _y_, assume an additional syllable
beginning with a consonant, the _y_, if it is preceded by a consonant,
is commonly changed to _i_; as, _happy, happily, happiness_.

But when _y_ is preceded by a vowel, in such instances, it is very
rarely changed to _i_; as, _coy, coyless; boy, boyish; boyhood; joy,
joyless, joyful_.

    _False Orthography_.--His mind is uninfluenced by fancyful
    humors.--The vessel was heavyly laden.--When we act against
    conscience, we become the destroiers of our own peace.

      Christiana, mayden of heroic mien!
      Star of the north! of northern stars the queen!


RULE V. Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable,
ending with a single consonant that is preceded by a single vowel,
double that consonant when they assume another syllable that begins
with a vowel; as, _wit, witty; thin, thinnish; to abet, an abetter_.

But if a diphthong precedes, or the accent is _not_ on the last
syllable, the consonant remains single; as, _to toil, toiling; to offer,
an offering; maid, maiden_.

    _False Orthography_.--The business of to-day, should not be defered
    till to-morrow.--That law is annuled.--When we have outstriped our
    errors we have won the race.--By defering our repentance, we
    accumulate our sorrows.--The Christian Lawgiver has prohibited many
    things which the heathen philosophers allowed.

      At summer eve, when heaven's aerial bow
      Spans with bright arch the glitterring hills below.--
      Thus mourned the hapless man; a thunderring sound
      Rolled round the shudderring walls and shook the ground.

RULE VI. Words ending in double _l_, in taking _ness, less, ly_, or
_ful_, after them, generally omit one _l_; as, _fulness, skilless, fully
skilful_.

But words ending in any double letter but _l_, and taking _ness, less,
ly_, or _ful_, after them, preserve the letter double; as,
_harmlessness, carelessness, carelessly, stiffly, successful_.

    _False Orthography_.--A chillness generally precedes a fever.--He is
    wed to dullness.

      The silent stranger stood amazed to see
      Contempt of wealth and willful poverty.

    Restlesness of mind impairs our peace.--The road to the blisful
    regions, is as open to the peasant as to the king.--The arrows of
    calumny fall harmlesly at the feet of virtue.

RULE VII. _Ness, less, ly_, or _ful_, added to words ending in silent
_e_, does not cut it off; as, _paleness, guileless, closely, peaceful_;
except in a few words; as, _duly, truly, awful_.

    _False Orthography_.--Sedatness is becoming.

      All these with ceasless praise his works behold.
      Stars rush: and final ruin fiercly drives
      Her ploughshare o'er creation!
      ------Nature made a pause,
      An aweful pause! prophetic of her end!

RULE VIII. When words ending in silent _e_, assume the termination,
_ment_, the _e_ should not be cut off; as, _abatement, chastisement_.

_Ment_, like other terminations, changes _y_ into _i_ when the _y_ is
preceded by a consonant; as, _accompany, accompaniment; merry,
merriment_.

    _False Orthography_.--A judicious arrangment of studies facilitates
    improvment.--Encouragment is greatest when we least need it.

      To shun allurments is not hard,
      To minds resolv'd, forwarn'd, and well prepared.

RULE IX. When words ending in silent _e_, assume the termination, _able_
or _ible_, the _e_ should generally be cut off; as, _blame, blamable;
cure, curable; sense, sensible_. But if _c_ or _g_ soft comes before _e_
in the original word, the _e_ is preserved in words compounded with
_able_; as, _peace, peaceable; change, changeable_.

    _False Orthography_.--Knowledge is desireable.--Misconduct is
    inexcuseable.--Our natural defects are not chargable upon us.--We
    are made to be servicable to others as well as to ourselves.

RULE X. When _ing_ or _ish_ is added to words ending in silent
_e_, the _e_ is almost always omitted; as, _place, placing; lodge,
lodging; slave, slavish; prude, prudish_.

    _False Orthography_.--Labor and expense are lost upon a droneish
    spirit.--An obligeing and humble disposition, is totally unconnected
    with a servile and cringeing humor.

      Conscience anticipateing time,
      Already rues th' unacted crime.
      One self-approveing hour, whole years outweighs
      Of stupid starers, and of loud huzzas.

RULE XI. Compound words are generally spelled in the same manner as the
simple words of which they are compounded; as, _glasshouse, skylight,
thereby, hereafter_. Many words ending in double _l_, are exceptions to
this rule; as, _already, welfare, wilful, fulfil_; and also the words,
_wherever, christmas, lammas, &c_.

    _False Orthography_.--The Jew's pasover was instituted in A.M.
    2513.--They salute one another by touching their forheads.--That
    which is some times expedient, is not allways so.

      Then, in the scale of reasoning life 'tis plain,
      There must be, somwhere, such a rank as man.
      Till hymen brought his lov-delighted hour,
      There dwelt no joy in Eden's rosy bower.
        The head reclined, the loosened hair,
        The limbs relaxed, the mournful air:--
        See, he looks up; a wofull smile
        Lightens his wo-worn cheek awhile.


You may now answer the following

QUESTIONS.

What is language?--How is language divided?--What is natural
language?--What are the elements of natural language in man?--Wherein
consists the language of brutes?--What is artificial language?--What is
an idea?--What are words?--What is grammar?--What does Universal grammar
explain?--Wherein does Particular grammar differ from universal?--What
is the standard of grammatical accuracy?--What is Philosophical
grammar?--What is Practical grammar?--What is a principle of grammar?--A
definition?--A rule?--What is English grammar?--Into how many parts is
grammar divided?--What does Orthography teach?

       *       *       *       *       *

ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX


LECTURE II

OF NOUNS AND VERBS.

ETYMOLOGY treats of the different sorts of words, their various
modifications, and their derivation.

SYNTAX treats of the agreement and government of words, and of their
proper arrangement in a sentence.

The word ETYMOLOGY signifies the _origin_ or _pedigree of words_.

_Syn_, a prefix from the Greek, signifies _together_. _Syn-tax_, means
_placing together_; or, as applied in grammar, _sentence making_.

The rules of syntax, which direct to the proper choice of words, and
their judicious arrangement in a sentence, and thereby enable us to
correct and avoid errors in speech, are chiefly based on principles
unfolded and explained by Etymology. Etymological knowledge, then, is a
prerequisite to the study of Syntax; but, in parsing, under the head of
Etymology, you are required to apply the rules of Syntax. It becomes
necessary, therefore, in a practical work of this sort, to treat these
two parts of grammar in connexion.

Conducted on scientific principles, Etymology would comprehend the
exposition of the origin and meaning of words, and, in short, their
whole history, including their application to things in accordance with
the laws of nature and of thought, and the caprice of those who apply
them; but to follow up the current of language to its various sources,
and analyze the springs from which it flows, would involve a process
altogether too arduous and extensive for an elementary work. It would
lead to the study of all those languages from which ours is immediately
derived, and even compel us to trace many words through those languages
to others more ancient, and so on, until the chain of research would
become, if not endless, at least, too extensive to be traced out by one
man. I shall, therefore, confine myself to the following, limited views
of this part of grammar.

1. Etymology treats of the _classification_ of words.

2. Etymology explains the _accidents_ or _properties_ peculiar to each
class or sort of words, and their present _modifications_. By
modifications, I mean the changes produced on their _endings_, in
consequence of their assuming different relations in respect to one
another. These changes, such as fruit, fruit_s_, fruit'_s_; he, h_is_,
h_im_; write, write_st_, write_th_, write_s_, wr_ote_, writ_ten_,
writ_ing_, write_r_; a, a_n_; ample, ampl_y_, and the like, will be
explained in their appropriate places.

3. Etymology treats of the _derivation_ of words; that is, it teaches
you _how one word comes from_, or _grows out of_ another. For example,
from the word speak, come the words speak_est_, speak_eth_, speak_s_,
speak_ing_, sp_oke_, spo_ken_, speak_er_, speak_er's_, speak_ers_.
These, you perceive, are all one and the same word, and all, except the
last three, express the same kind of action. They differ from each other
only in the termination. These changes in termination are produced on
the word in order to make it correspond with the various _persons_ who
speak, the _number_ of persons, or the _time_ of speaking; as, _I_
speak, _thou_ speak_est_, the _man_ speak_eth_, or speak_s_, the _men_
speak, _I_ sp_oke_; The speak_er_ speak_s_ another speak_er's_ spe_ech_.

The third part of Etymology, which is intimately connected with the
second, will be more amply expanded in Lecture XIV, and in the
Philosophical notes; but I shall not treat largely of that branch of
derivation which consists in tracing words to foreign languages. This is
the province of the lexicographer, rather than of the philologist. It is
not the business of him who writes a practical, English grammar, to
trace words to the Saxon, nor to the Celtic, the Greek, the Dutch, the
Mexican, nor the Persian; nor is it his province to explain their
meaning in Latin, French, or Hebrew, Italian, Mohegan, or Sanscrit; but
it is his duty to explain their properties, their powers, their
connexions, relations, dependancies, and, bearings, not at the period in
which the Danes made an irruption into the island of Great Britain, nor
in the year in which Lamech paid his addresses to Adah and Zillah, but
_at the particular period in which he writes_. His words are already
derived, formed, established, and furnished to his hand, and he is bound
to take them and explain them as he finds them _in his day_, without any
regard to their ancient construction and application.

CLASSIFICATION. In arranging the parts of speech, I conceive it to be
the legitimate object of the practical grammarian, to consult _practical
convenience_. The true principle of classification seems to be, not a
reference to essential differences in the _primitive_ meaning of words,
nor to their original combinations, but to the _manner in which they are
at present employed_. In the early and rude state of society, mankind
are quite limited in their knowledge, and having but few ideas to
communicate, a small number of words answers their purpose in the
transmission of thought. This leads them to express their ideas in
short, detached sentences, requiring few or none of those _connectives_,
or words of transition, which are afterwards introduced into language by
refinement, and which contribute so largely to its perspicuity and
elegance. The argument appears to be conclusive, then, that every
language must necessarily have more parts of speech in its refined, than
in its barbarous state.

The part of speech to which any word belongs, is ascertained, not by the
_original_ signification of that word, but by its present _manner_ of
meaning, or, rather, _the office which it performs in a sentence_.

The various ways in which a word is applied to the idea which it
represents, are called its _manner of meaning_. Thus, The painter dips
his _paint_ brush in _paint_, to _paint_ the carriage. Here, the word
_paint_, is first employed to _describe_ the brush which the painter
uses; in this situation it is, therefore, an _adjective_; secondly, to
_name_ the mixture employed; for which reason it is a _noun_; and,
lastly, to _express the action_ performed; it therefore, becomes a
_verb_; and yet, the meaning of the word is the same in all these
applications. This meaning, however, is applied in different ways; and
thus the same word becomes different parts of speech. Richard took
_water_ from the _water_ pot, to _water_ the plants.

ETYMOLOGY.

Etymology treats, first, of the _classification_ of words.

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE is derived chiefly from the Saxon, Danish, Celtic,
and Gothic; but in the progressive stages of its refinement, it has been
greatly enriched by accessions from the Greek, Latin, French, Spanish,
Italian, and German languages.

The number of words in our language, after deducting proper names, and
words formed by the inflections of our verbs, nouns, and adjectives, may
be estimated at about _forty thousand_. There are ten sorts of words,
called parts of speech, namely, the NOUN or SUBSTANTIVE, VERB, ARTICLE,
ADJECTIVE, PARTICIPLE, ADVERB, PREPOSITION, PRONOUN, CONJUNCTION, and
INTERJECTION.

Thus you perceive, that all the words in the English language are
included in these ten classes: and what you have to do in acquiring a
knowledge of English Grammar, is merely to become acquainted with these
ten parts of speech, and the rules of Syntax that apply to them. The
_Noun_ and _Verb_ are the most important and leading parts of speech;
therefore they are first presented: all the rest (except the
interjection) are either appendages or connectives of these two. As you
proceed, you will find that it will require more time, and cost you more
labor, to get a knowledge of the noun and verb, than it will to become
familiar with all the minor parts of speech.

The principal use of words is, to _name_ things, _compare_ them with
each other, and _express their actions_.

_Nouns_, which are the names of entities or things, _adjectives_ which
denote the comparisons and relations of things by describing them, and
expressing their qualities, and _verbs_, which express the actions and
being of things, are the only classes of words necessarily recognised
in a philosophical view of grammar. But in a treatise which consults,
mainly, the _practical_ advantages of the learner, it is believed, that
no classification will be found more convenient or accurate than the
foregoing, which divides words into ten sorts. To attempt to prove, in
this place, that nothing would be gained by adopting either a less or a
greater number of the parts of speech, would be anticipating the
subject. I shall, therefore, give my reasons for adopting this
arrangement in preference to any other, as the different sorts of words
are respectively presented to you, for then you will be better prepared
to appreciate my arguments.


OF NOUNS.

A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing; as, _man, Charleston,
knowledge_.

Nouns are often improperly called _substantives_. A substantive is the
name of a _substance_ only; but a noun is the name either of a
_substance_ or a _quality_.

_Noun_, derived from the Latin word _nomen_, signifies _name_. The name
of any thing [1] that exists, whether animate or inanimate, or
which we can see, hear, feel, taste, smell, or think of, is a noun.
_Animal, bird, creature, paper, pen, apple, fold, house, modesty,
virtue, danger_, are all nouns. In order that you may easily distinguish
this part of speech from others, I will give you a _sign_, which will be
useful to you when you cannot tell it by the _sense_. Any word that will
make sense with _the_ before it, is a noun. Try the following words by
this sign, and see if they are nouns: tree, mountain, soul, mind,
conscience, understanding. _The_ tree, _the_ mountain, _the_ soul, and
so on. You perceive, that they will make sense with _the_ prefixed;
therefore you know they are _nouns_. There are, however, exceptions to
this rule, for some nouns will not make sense with _the_ prefixed. These
you will be able to distinguish, if you exercise your mind, by their
_making sense of themselves_; as, _goodness, sobriety, hope,
immortality_.

    [1] The word _thing_, from the Saxon verb _thingian_, to think, is
    almost unlimited in its meaning. It may be applied to every animal
    and creature in the universe. By the term creature, I mean that
    which has been created; as, a dog, water, dirt. This word is also
    frequently applied to actions; as, "To get drunk is a beastly
    _thing_." In this phrase, it signifies neither animal nor creature;
    but it denotes merely an action; therefore this action is the thing.

Nouns are used to denote the nonentity or absence of a thing, as well as
its reality; as, _nothing, naught, vacancy, non-existence,
invisibility_.

Nouns are sometimes used as verbs, and verbs, as nouns, according to
their _manner_ of meaning; and nouns are sometimes used as adjectives,
and adjectives, as nouns. This matter will be explained in the
concluding part of this lecture, where you will be better prepared to
comprehend it.

NOUNS are of two kinds, common and proper.

A _Common noun_ is the name of a sort or species of things; as, _man,
tree, river_.

A _Proper noun_ is the name of an individual; as, _Charles, Ithaca,
Ganges_.

A noun signifying many, is called a _collective noun_, or _noun of
multitude_; as, the _people_, the _army_.

The distinction between a common and a proper noun, is very obvious. For
example: _boy_ is a common noun, because it is a name applied to _all_
boys; but _Charles_ is a proper noun, because it is the name of an
_individual_ boy. Although many boys may have the same name, yet you
know it is not a common noun, for the name Charles is _not_ given to all
boys. _Mississippi_ is a proper noun, because it is the name of an
individual river; but _river_ is a common noun, because it is the name
of a _species_ of things, and the name _river_ is common to _all_
rivers.

Nouns which denote the genus, species, or variety of beings or things,
are always common; as, _tree_, the genus; _oak, ash, chestnut, poplar_,
different species; and red _oak_, white _oak_, black _oak_, varieties.
The word earth, when it signifies a kind or quantity of dirt, is a
common noun; but when it denotes the planet we inhabit, it is a proper
noun. The _words_ person, place, river, mountain, lake, &c. are _common
nouns_, because they are the names of whole _species_, or classes of
things containing many sorts; but the _names_ of persons, places,
rivers, mountains, lakes, &c. are _proper nouns_, because they denote
_individuals_; as, Augustus, Baltimore, Alps, Huron.

_Physician, lawyer, merchant_, and _shoemaker_, are common nouns,
because these names are common to classes of men. _God_ and _Lord_, when
applied to Jehovah or Jesus Christ, are proper; but when employed to
denote heathen or false _gods_, or temporal _lords_, they are common.
The Notes and remarks throughout the work, though of minor importance,
demand your attentive and careful perusal.

    NOTES.

    1. When _proper_ nouns have an article annexed to them, they are
    used after the manner of _common_ nouns; as, "Bolivar is styled
    _the_ Washington of South America."

    2. _Common_ nouns are sometimes used to signify _individuals_, when
    articles or pronouns are prefixed to them; as, "_The_ boy is
    studious; _That_ girl is discreet." In such instances, they are
    nearly equivalent to proper nouns.

    3. _Common_ nouns are sometimes subdivided into the following
    classes: _Nouns of Multitude_; as, The people, the parliament:
    _Verbal or participial nouns_; as, The beginning, reading, writing;
    and _Abstract nouns_, or the names of qualities abstracted from
    their substances; as, knowledge, virtue, goodness. Lest the student
    be led to blend the idea of abstract nouns with that of adjectives,
    both of which denote qualities, a farther illustration appears to be
    necessary, in order to mark the distinction between these two parts
    of speech. An abstract noun denotes a quality considered _apart_
    (that is, abstracted) _from_ the substance or being to which it
    belongs; but an adjective denotes a quality _joined_ (adjected) _to_
    the substance or being to which it belongs. Thus, _whiteness_ and
    _white_ both denote the same quality; but we speak of whiteness as a
    distinct object of thought, while we use the word _white_ always in
    reference to the noun to which it belongs; as, _white_ paper,
    _white_ mouse.

    4. Some authors have proceeded to still more minute divisions and
    sub-divisions of nouns; such, for example, as the following, which
    appear to be more complex than useful: _Natural nouns_, or names of
    things formed by nature; as, man, beast, water, air: 2. _Artificial
    nouns_, or names of things formed by art; as, book, vessel, house:
    3. _Personal nouns_, or those which stand for human beings; as, man,
    woman, Edwin: 4. _Neuter nouns_, or those which denote things
    inanimate; as, book, field, mountain, Cincinnati. The following,
    however, is quite a rational division: _Material nouns_ are the
    names of things formed of matter; as, stone, book: _Immaterial
    nouns_ are the names of things having no substance; as, hope,
    immortality.

To nouns belong gender, person, number, and case.

GENDER.

GENDER is the distinction of sex. Nouns have three genders, the
masculine, the feminine, and the neuter.

The _masculine gender_ denotes males; as, a _man_, a _boy_.

The _feminine gender_ denotes females; as, a _woman_, a _girl_.

The _neuter gender_ denotes things without sex; as, a _hat_, a _stick_.

_Neuter_ means _neither:_ therefore neuter gender signifies neither
gender; that is, neither masculine nor feminine. Hence, neuter gender
means _no gender_. Strictly speaking, then, as there are but two sexes,
nouns have but _two_ genders; but for the sake of practical convenience,
we apply to them three genders, by calling that a gender which is _no_
gender. The English and the pure Persian, appear to be the only
languages which observe, in the distinction of sex, the natural division
of nouns.--The genders of nouns are so easily known, that a farther
explanation of them is unnecessary, except what is given in the
following

    NOTES.

    1. The same noun is sometimes masculine _and_ feminine, and
    sometimes masculine _or_ feminine. The noun _parents_ is of the
    masculine _and_ feminine gender. The nouns _parent, associate,
    neighbor, servant, friend, child, bird, fish, &c._ if doubtful, are
    of the masculine _or_ feminine gender.

    2. Some nouns naturally neuter, are, when used figuratively, or
    _personified_, converted into the masculine or feminine gender.
    Those nouns are generally rendered masculine, which are conspicuous
    for the attributes of imparting or communicating, and which are by
    nature strong and efficacious; as, the _sun, time, death, sleep,
    winter, &c._ Those, again, are generally feminine, which are
    conspicuous for the attributes of containing or bringing forth, or
    which are very beautiful, mild, or amiable; as, the _earth, moon,
    church, boat, vessel, city, country, nature, ship, soul, fortune,
    virtue, hope, spring, peace, &c._ This principle for designating the
    sex of a personified object, which is quite rational, is generally
    adhered to in the English language; but, in some instances, the poet
    applies the sex according to his fancy.

    The masculine and feminine genders are distinguished in three ways:


      1. _By different words_; as,

      _Masculine_.      _Feminine_.
      Bachelor             maid
      Boar                 sow
      Boy                  girl
      Brother              sister
      Buck                 doe
      Bull                 cow
      Cock                 hen
      Dog                  bitch
      Drake                duck
      Earl                 countess
      Father               mother
      Friar                nun
      Gander               goose
      Hart                 roe
      Horse                mare
      Husband              wife
      King                 queen
      Lad                  lass
      Lord                 lady
      Man                  woman
      Master               mistress
      Milter               spawner
      Nephew               niece
      Ram                  ewe
      Singer               songstress or singer
      Sloven               slut
      Son                  daughter
      Stag                 hind
      Uncle                aunt
      Wizard               witch
      Sir                  madam

      2. _By a difference in termination_; as,
      Abbot                abbess
      Actor                actress
      Administrator        administratrix
      Adulterer            adulteress
      Ambassador           ambassadress
      Arbiter              arbitress
      Auditor              auditress
      Author               authoress
      Baron                baroness
      Benefactor           benefactress
      Bridegroom           bride
      Canon                canoness
      Caterer              cateress
      Chanter              chantress
      Conductor            conductress
      Count                countess
      Czar                 czarina
      Deacon               deaconess
      Detracter            detractress
      Director             directress
      Duke                 dutchess
      Elector              electress
      Embassador           embassadress
      Emperor              emperess
      Enchanter            enchantress
      Executor             executrix
      Fornicator           fornicatress
      God                  goddess
      Governor             governess
      Heir                 heiress
      Hero                 heroine
      Host                 hostess
      Hunter               huntress
      Inheritor            inheritress or inheritrix
      Instructor           instructress
      Jew                  Jewess
      Lion                 lioness
      Marquis              marchioness
      Mayor                mayoress
      Patron               patroness
      Peer                 peeress
      Poet                 poetess
      Priest               priestess
      Prince               princess
      Prior                prioress
      Prophet              prophetess
      Proprietor           proprietress
      Protector            protectress
      Shepherd             shepherdess
      Songster             songstress
      Sorcerer             sorceress
      Suiter               suitress
      Sultan               sultaness or sultana
      Tiger                tigress
      Testator             testatrix
      Traitor              traitress
      Tutor                tutoress
      Tyrant               tyranness
      Victor               victress
      Viscount             viscountess
      Votary               votaress
      Widower              widow

      3. _By prefixing another word_; as,

      A cock-sparrow        A hen-sparrow
      A man-servant         A maid-servant
      A he-goat             A she-goat
      A he-bear             A she-bear
      A male-child          A female-child
      Male-descendants      Female-descendants


PERSON.

PERSON is a property of the noun and pronoun which varies the verb.

The _first person_ denotes the speaker.

The _second person_ denotes the person or thing spoken to; as, "Listen,
_earth!"_

The _third person_ denotes the person or thing spoken of; as, "The
_earth_ thirsts."

Nouns have but _two_ persons, the second and third. When a man speaks,
the _pronoun I_ or _we_ is always used; therefore nouns can never be in
the _first_ person. In examples like the following, some philologists
suppose the noun to be in the _first_ person:--"This may certify, that
I, _Jonas Taylor_, do hereby give and grant," &c. But it is evident,
that the speaker or writer, in introducing his own name, speaks _of_
himself; consequently the noun is of the _third person_.

If you wish to understand the persons of nouns, a little sober thought
is requisite; and, by exercising it, all difficulties will be removed.
If I say, my _son_, have you seen the young man? you perceive that the
noun _son_ is of the _second_ person, because I address myself _to_ him;
that is, he is spoken _to;_ but the noun _man_ is of the _third_
person, because he is spoken _of_. Again, if I say, young _man_, have
you seen my son? _man_ is of the _second_ person, and _son_ is of the
_third_.

"Hast thou left thy blue course in the heavens, golden-haired _sun_ of
the sky?"

"_Father_, may the Great Spirit so brighten the chain of friendship
between us, that a child may find it, when the sun is asleep in his
wig-wam behind the western waters."

  "Lo, earth receives him from the bending skies!
   Sink down, ye _mountains_, and, ye _valleys_, rise!"
  "Eternal _Hope_, thy glittering wings explore
   Earth's loneliest bounds, and ocean's wildest shore."

In these examples, the nouns, sun, father, mountains, valleys, and hope,
are of the _second_ person, and, as you will hereafter learn, in the
nominative case independent. Course, heavens, sky, Spirit, chain,
friendship, child, sun, wig-wam, waters, earth, skies, wings, earth,
bounds, ocean, and shore, are all of the _third_ person.

NUMBER.

Number is the distinction of objects, as one or more. Nouns are of two
numbers, the singular and the plural.

The _singular_ number implies but one; as, a _book_.

The _plural_ number implies more than one; as, _books_.

    NOTES.

    1. Some nouns are used only in the singular form; as, hemp, flax,
    barley, wheat, pitch, gold, sloth, pride, honesty, meekness,
    compassion, &c.; others only in the plural form; as, bellows,
    scissors, ashes, riches, snuffers, tongs, thanks, wages, embers,
    ides, pains, vespers, &c.

    2. Some words are the same in both numbers; as, deer, sheep, swine;
    and, also, hiatus, apparatus, series, species.

    3. The plural number of nouns is generally formed by adding _s_ to
    the singular; as, dove, doves; face, faces; but sometimes we add
    _es_ in the plural; as, box, boxes; church, churches; lash, lashes;
    cargo, cargoes.

    4. Nouns ending in _f_ or _fe_, are rendered plural by a change of
    that termination into _ves_; as, half, halves; wife, wives: except
    grief, relief, reproof, and several others, which form their plurals
    by the addition of _s_. Those ending in _ff_, have the regular
    plural; as, ruff, ruffs; except staff, staves.

    5. Nouns ending in _y_ in the singular, with no other vowel in the
    same syllable, change it into _ies_ in the plural; as, beauty,
    beauties; fly, flies. But the _y_ is not changed, where there is
    another vowel in the syllable; as, key, keys; delay, delays;
    attorney, attorneys; valley, valleys; chimney, chimneys.

    6. _Mathematics, metaphysics, politics, optics, ethics, pneumatics,
    hydraulics_, &c. are construed either as singular or plural nouns.

    7. The word _news_ is always singular. The nouns _means, alms_, and
    _amends_, though plural in form, may be either singular or plural in
    signification. Antipodes, credenda, literati, and minutiæ are
    always plural. _Bandit_ is now used as the singular of Banditti.

    8. The following nouns form their plurals not according to any
    general rule; thus, man, men; woman, women; child, children; ox,
    oxen; tooth, teeth; goose, geese; foot, feet; mouse, mice; louse,
    lice; brother, brothers or brethren; cow, cows or kine; penny,
    pence, or pennies when the coin is meant; die, dice _for play,_
    dies _for coining;_ pea and fish, pease and fish when the species
    is meant, but _peas_ and _fishes_ when we refer to the number; as,
    six _peas_, ten _fishes_.

    9. The following compounds form their plurals thus: handful,
    handfuls; cupful, cupfuls; spoonful, spoonfuls:--brother-in-law,
    brothers-in-law; court-martial, courts-martial.

    The following words form their plurals according to the rules of the
    languages from which they are adopted.


      _Singular_         _Plural._
      Antithesis        antitheses
      Apex              apices
      Appendix          appendixes _or_ appendices
      Arcanum           arcana
      Automaton         automata
      Axis              axes
      Basis             bases
      Beau              beaux _or_ beaus
      Calx              calces _or_ calxes
      Cherub            cherubim _or_ cherubs
      Crisis            crises
      Criterion         criteria
      Datum             data
      Diæresis          diæreses
      Desideratum       desiderata
      Effluvium         effluvia
      Ellipsis          ellipses
      Emphasis          emphases
      Encomium          encomia _or_ encomiums
      Erratum           errata
      Genius            genii [2]
      Genus             genera
      Hypothesis        hypotheses
      Ignis fatuus,     ignes fatui
      Index             indices _or_ indexes [3]
      Lamina            laminae
      Magus             magi
      Memorandum        memoranda _or_ memorandums
      Metamorphosis     metamorphoses
      Parenthesis       parentheses
      Phenomenon        phenomena
      Radius            radii _or_ radiuses
      Stamen            stamina
      Seraph            seraphim _or_ seraphs
      Stimulus          stimuli
      Stratum           strata
      Thesis            theses
      Vertex            vertices
      Vortex            vortices _or_ vortexes


[2] Genii, imaginary spirits: geniuses, persons of great mental
abilities.

[3] Indexes, when pointers or tables of contents are meant: indices,
when referring to algebraic quantities.

CASE.

Case, when applied to nouns and pronouns, means the different state,
situation, or position they have in relation to other words. Nouns have
three cases, the nominative, the possessive, and the objective.

I deem the essential qualities of _case_, in English, to consist, not in
the _changes_ or _inflections_ produced on nouns and pronouns, but in
the various offices which they perform in a sentence, by assuming
different positions in regard to other words. In accordance with this
definition, these cases can be easily explained on reasoning
principles, founded in the nature of things.

Now, five grains of common sense will enable any one to comprehend what
is meant by case. Its real character is extremely simple; but in the
different grammars it assumes as many meanings as Proteus had shapes.
The most that has been written on it, however, is mere verbiage. What,
then, is meant by _case_? In speaking of a horse, for instance, we say
he is in a good _case_, when he is fat, and in a bad _case_, when he is
lean, and needs more oats; and in this sense we apply the term _case_ to
denote the _state_ or _condition_ of the horse. So, when we place a noun
before a verb as actor or subject, we say it is in the _nominative
case_; but when it follows a transitive verb or preposition, we say it
has another _case_; that is, it assumes a new _position_ or _situation_
in the sentence: and this we call the _objective_ case. Thus, the _boy_
gathers fruit. Here the boy is represented as _acting_. He is,
therefore, in the _nominative_ case. But when I say, Jane struck the
_boy_, I do not represent the boy as the _actor_, but as the _object_ of
the action. He is, therefore, in a new _case_ or _condition_. And when I
say, This is the _boy's_ hat, I do not speak of the boy either as
_acting_ or as _acted upon_; but as possessing something: for which
reason he is in the _possessive_ case. Hence, it is clear, that nouns
have three cases or positions.

As the nominative and objective cases of the noun are inseparably
connected with the verb, it is impossible for you to understand them
until you shall have acquired some knowledge of this part of speech. I
will, therefore, now give you a partial description of the verb in
connexion with the noun; which will enable me to illustrate the cases of
the noun so clearly, that you may easily comprehend their nature.

In the formation of language, mankind, in order to hold converse with
each other, found it necessary, in the first place, to give _names_ to
the various objects by which they were surrounded. Hence the origin of
the first part of speech, which we denominate the _noun_. But merely to
name the objects which they beheld or thought of, was not sufficient for
their purpose. They perceived that these objects existed, moved, acted,
or caused some action to be done. In looking at a man, for instance,
they perceived that he lived, walked, ate, smiled, talked, ran, and so
on. They perceived that plants grow, flowers bloom, and rivers flow.
Hence the necessity of another part of speech, whose office it should be
to express these existences and actions. This second class of words we
call

VERBS.

A verb is a word which signifies to BE, to DO, or to SUFFER; as, I _am_;
I _rule_; I _am ruled_.

Verbs are of three kinds, active, passive, and neuter. They are also
divided into regular, irregular, and defective.

The term _verb_ is derived from the Latin word _verbum_, which signifies
a _word_. This part of speech is called a _verb_ or _word_, because it
is deemed the most important word in every sentence: and without a verb
and nominative, either expressed or implied, no sentence can exist. The
noun is the original and leading part of speech; the verb comes next in
order, and is far more complex than the noun. These two are the most
useful in the language, and form the basis of the science of grammar.
The other eight parts of speech are subordinate to these two, and, as
you will hereafter learn, of minor importance.

For all practical purposes, the foregoing definition and division of the
verb, though, perhaps, not philosophically correct, will be found as
_convenient_ as any other. I adopt them, therefore, to be consistent
with the principle, that, in arranging the materials of this treatise, I
shall not alter or reject any established definition, rule, or principle
of grammar, unless, in my humble judgment, some _practical advantage_ to
the learner is thereby gained. The following, some consider a good
definition.

A VERB is a word which _expresses affirmation_.

An _active verb_ expresses action; and

The _nominative case_ is the actor, or subject of the verb; as, _John
writes_.

In this example, which is the _verb?_ You know it is the word _writes_,
because this word signifies to _do;_ that is, it expresses _action_,
therefore, according to the definition, it is an _active verb_. And you
know, too, that the noun _John_ is the _actor_, therefore John is in the
_nominative case_ to the verb writes. In the expressions, The man
walks--The boy plays--Thunders roll--- Warriors fight--you perceive that
the words _walks, plays, roll_, and _fight_, are _active verbs;_ and you
cannot be at a loss to know, that the nouns _man, boy, thunders_, and
_warriors_, are in the _nominative case._

As no _action_ can be produced without some agent or moving cause, it
follows, that every active verb must have some _actor_ or _agent_. This
_actor, doer_, or _producer of the action_, is the nominative.
_Nominative_, from the Latin _nomino_, literally signifies to _name;_
but in the technical sense in which it is used in grammar, it means the
noun or pronoun which is the _subject_ of affirmation. This subject or
nominative may be _active, passive_, or _neuter_, as hereafter
exemplified.

A _neuter verb_ expresses neither action nor passion, but _being_, or _a
state of being_; as, _John sits_.

Now, in this example, _John_ is not represented as _an actor_, but, as
the _subject_ of the verb _sits_, therefore John is in the _nominative
case_ to the verb. And you know that the word _sits_ does not express
_apparent action_, but a _condition of being;_ that is, it represents
John in a particular _state of existence;_ therefore _sits_ is a _neuter
verb_. In speaking of the neuter gender of nouns, I informed you, that
_neuter_ means _neither;_ from which it follows, that neuter gender
implies neither gender; that is, neither masculine nor feminine. Hence,
by an easy transition of thought, you learn, that _neuter_, when applied
to verbs, means neither of the other two classes; that is, a _neuter_
verb is one which is neither active nor passive. In these examples, The
man stands--The lady lives--The child sleeps--The world exists--the
words _stands, lives, sleeps_, and _exists_, are _neuter verbs;_ and the
nouns, _man, lady, child_, and _world_, are all in the _nominative
case_, because each is the _subject_ of a verb. Thus you perceive, that
when a noun is in the nominative case to an _active_ verb, it is the
_actor;_ and when it is nominative to a _neuter_ verb, it is _not_ an
actor, but the _subject_ of the verb.

Some neuter verbs express _being in general;_ as, The man _is_; Kingdoms
_exist_. Others express _being in some particular state_; as, The man
_stands, sits, lies_, or _hangs_.

I will now give you two _signs_, which will enable you to distinguish
the verb from other parts of speech, when you cannot tell it by its
signification. Any word that will make sense with _to_ before it, is a
verb. Thus, to run, to write, to smile, to sing, to hear, to ponder, to
live, to breathe, are verbs. Or, any word that will _conjugate_, is a
verb. Thus, I run, thou runnest, he runs; I write, thou writest, he
writes; I smile, &c. But the words, boy, lady, child, and world, will
not make sense with _to_ prefixed--_to_ boy, _to_ lady, _to_ world, is
nonsense. Neither will they con_jugate_--I lady, thou ladiest, &c. is
worse than nonsense. Hence you perceive, that these words are _not_
verbs. There are some exceptions to these rules, for verbs are sometimes
used as nouns. This will be explained by and by.

To verbs belong _number, person, mood_, and _tense_.

At present I shall speak only of the number and person of verbs; but
hereafter I will give you a full explanation of all their properties.
And permit me to inform you, that I shall not lead you into the
_intricacies_ of the science, until, by gradual and easy progressions,
you are enabled to comprehend the principles involved in them. Only such
principles will be elucidated, as you are prepared to understand at the
time they are unfolded before you. You must not be too anxious to get
along _rapidly_; but endeavor to become thoroughly acquainted with one
principle, before you undertake another. This lecture will qualify you
for the next.

NUMBER AND PERSON OF VERBS. You recollect, that the nominative is the
_actor_ or _subject_, and the active verb is the _action_ performed by
the nominative. By this you perceive, that a very intimate connexion or
relation exists between the nominative case and the verb. If, therefore,
only _one_ creature or thing acts, only _one_ action, at the same
instant, can be done; as, The _girl writes_. The nominative _girl_ is
here of the singular number, because it signifies but one person; and
the verb _writes_ denotes but one action, which the girl performs;
therefore the verb _writes_ is of the _singular_ number, agreeing with
its nominative _girl_. When the nominative case is _plural_, the verb
must be _plural_; as, _girls write_. Take notice, the _singular_ verb
ends in _s_, but the noun is generally _plural_ when it ends in _s_;
thus, The girl _writes_--the _girls_ write.

_Person_, strictly speaking, is a quality that belongs _not_ to _verbs_,
but to nouns and pronouns. We say, however, that the verb must agree
with its nominative in _person_, as well as in number; that is, the verb
must be spelled and spoken in such a manner as to correspond with the
_first, second_, or _third_ person of the noun or pronoun which is its
nominative.

I will now show you how the verb is varied in order to agree with its
nominative in number and person. I, Thou, He, She, It; We, Ye or You,
They, are _personal pronouns_. _I_ is of the _first_ person, and
_singular_ number; _Thou_ is _second_ person, _sing._; _He, She_, or
_It_, is _third_ per. _sing._; _We_ is _first_ per. _plural_; _Ye_ or
_You_ is _second_ per. _plural_; _They_ is _third_ per. _plural_. These
pronouns are the representatives of nouns, and perform the same office
that the nouns would for which they stand. When placed before the verb,
they are, therefore, the _nominatives_ to the verb.

Notice particularly, the different variations or endings of the verb, as
it is thus conjugated in the INDICATIVE MOOD, PRESENT TENSE.

   _Singular_.                           _Plural_.

1. _Per_. I walk,                     1. _Per_. We Walk,
2. _Per_. Thou walk_est_,             2. _Per_. Ye _or_ you walk,
3. _Per_. He walk_s_, _or_            3. _Per_. They walk, or
               the boy walk_s_,                      the boys walk.
               _or_ walk_eth_.

This display of the verb shows you, that whenever it ends in _est_, it
is of the _second_ person _singular_; but when the verb ends in _s_, or
_eth_, it is of the _third_ person singular. _Walkest, ridest,
standest_, are of the second person singular; and _walks_ or _walketh,
rides_ or _rideth, stands_ or _standeth_, are of the third person
singular.

I have told you, that when the nominative is singular number, the verb
must be; when the nominative is plural, the verb must be; and when the
nominative is first, second, or third person, the verb must be of the
same person. If you look again at the foregoing conjugation of _walk_,
you will notice that the verb varies if its endings in the _singular_,
in order to agree in _form_ with the first, second, and third person of
its nominative; but in the _plural_ it does not vary its endings from
the first person singular. The verb, however, agrees in _sense_ with its
nominative in the plural, as well as in the singular. Exercise a little
mind, and you will perceive that _agreement_ and _government_ in
language do not consist _merely_ in the _form_ of words. Now, is it not
clear, that when I say, I _walk_, the verb walk is _singular_, because
it expresses but _one_ action? And when I say, Two men _walk_, is it not
equally apparent, that walk is _plural_, because it expresses _two_
actions? In the sentence, Ten men _walk_, the verb _walk_ denotes _ten_
actions, for there are ten actors. Common sense teaches you, that there
must be as many _actions_ as there are _actors_; and that the verb, when
it has _no form_ or _ending_ to show it, is as strictly plural, as when
it has.--So, in the phrase, _We_ walk, the verb walk is _first_ person,
because it expresses the actions performed by the _speakers: Ye_ or
_you_ walk, the verb is _second_ person, denoting the actions of the
persons _spoken to;_ third person, _They_ walk. The verb, then, when
correctly written, always agrees, in _sense_, with its nominative in
number and person.

At present you are learning two parts of speech, neither of which can be
understood without a knowledge of the other. It therefore becomes
necessary to explain them both, in the same lecture. You have been
already informed, that nouns have three cases; the nominative, the
possessive, and the objective.

POSSESSIVE CASE. The _possessive case_ denotes the possessor of
something; as, This is _John's_ horse. This expression implies, that
_John_ is the _owner_ or _possessor_ of the horse; and, that horse is
the _property_ which he possesses.

When I say, These are the _men's_, and those, the _boys'_ hats, the two
words, "boys' hats," plainly convey the idea, if they have any meaning
at all, that the boys _own_ or _possess_ the hats. "Samuel Badger sells
_boys'_ hats." Who _owns_ the hats? Mr. Badger. How is that fact
ascertained? Not by the words, "boys' hats," which, taken by themselves,
imply, not that they are _Mr. Badger's_ hats, nor that they are _for_
boys, but that they are hats _of_, or _belonging to_, or _possessed by_
boys. But we _infer_ from the _words connected_ with the phrase, "boys'
hats," that the boys are not yet, as the phrase literally denotes, in
the actual possession of the hats. The possession is anticipated.

In the phrases, _fine_ hats, _coarse_ hats, _high-crowned_ hats,
_broad-brimmed_ hats, _woollen, new, ten, some, these, many_ hats, the
words in italics, are adjectives, because they restrict, qualify, or
define the term _hats;_ but the term _boys'_ does not _describe_ or
limit the meaning of _hats. Boys'_, therefore, is not, as some suppose,
an adjective.

"The _slave's_ master." Does the slave possess the master? Yes. The
slave _has_ a master. If he _has_ him, then, he _possesses_ him;--he
sustains that relation to him which we call possession.

A noun in the possessive case, is always known by its having an
apostrophe, and generally an _s_ after it; thus, _John's_, hat; the
_boy's_ coat. When a plural noun in the possessive case, ends in _s_,
the apostrophe is added, but no additional _s_; as, "_Boys'_ hats;
_Eagles'_ wings." When a singular noun ends in _ss_, the apostrophe
only is added; as, "For _goodness'_ sake; for _righteousness'_ sake;"
except the word witness; as, "The _witness's_ testimony." When a noun in
the possessive case ends in _ence_, the _s_ is omitted, but the
apostrophe is retained; as, "For _conscience'_ sake."

Now please to turn back, and read over this and the preceding lecture
_three_ times, and endeavor, not only to understand, but, also, to
_remember_, what you read. In reading, proceed thus: read one sentence
over slowly, and then look off the book, and repeat it two or three
times over in your mind. After that, take another sentence and proceed
in the same manner, and so on through the whole lecture. Do not presume
to think, that these directions are of no real consequence to you; for,
unless you follow them strictly, you need not expect to make rapid
progress. On the other hand, if you proceed according to my
instructions, you will be sure to acquire a practical knowledge of
grammar in a short time.--When you shall have complied with this
requisition, you may commit the following _order of parsing a noun_, and
_the order of parsing a verb_; and then you will be prepared to parse or
analyze the following examples.

ANALYSIS, OR PARSING.

Do you recollect the meaning of the word _analysis?_ If you do not, I
will explain if: and first, I wish you to remember, that analysis is the
reverse of synthesis. _Synthesis_ is the act of combining simples so as
to form a whole or compound. Thus, in putting together letters so as to
form syllables, syllables so as to form words, words so as to form
sentences, and sentences so as to form a discourse, the process is
called synthetic. _Analysis_, on the contrary, is the act of
decomposition; that is, the act of separating any thing compounded into
its simple parts, and thereby exhibiting its elementary principles.
Etymology treats of the analysis of language. To analyze a sentence, is
to separate from one another and classify the different words of which
it is composed; and to analyze or _parse_ a word, means to enumerate and
describe all its various properties, and its grammatical relations with
respect to other words in a sentence, and trace it through all its
inflections or changes. Perhaps, to you, this will, at first, appear to
be of little importance; but, if you persevere, you will hereafter find
it of great utility, for parsing will enable you to detect, and correct,
errors in composition.

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.

The _order of parsing_ a NOUN, is--a noun, and why?--common, proper, or
collective, and why?--gender, and why?--person, and why?--number, and
why?--case, and why?--RULE:--decline it.

_The order of parsing_ a VERB, is--a verb, and why?--active, passive,
or neuter, and why?--if _active_--transitive or intransitive, and
why?--if _passive_--how is it formed?--regular, irregular, or defective,
and why?--mood, and why?--tense, and why?--person and number, and
why?--with what does it agree?--RULE:--conjugate it.

I will now parse two nouns according to the order, and, in so doing, by
applying the definitions and rules, I shall answer all those questions
given in the order. If you have _perfectly committed_ the order of
parsing a noun and verb, you may proceed with me; but, recollect, you
cannot parse a verb _in full_, until you shall have had a more complete
explanation of it.

    _John's hand trembles_.

_John's_ is a noun, [because it is] the name of a person--proper, the
name of an individual--masculine gender, it denotes a male--third
person, spoken of--singular number, it implies but one--and in the
possessive case, it denotes possession--it is governed by the noun
"hand," according to

RULE 12. _A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the
noun it possesses_.

Declined--Sing. nom. John, poss. John's, obj. John. Plural--nom.
Johns, poss. Johns', obj. Johns.

_Hand_ is a noun, the name of a thing--common, the name of a sort or
species of things--neuter gender, it denotes a thing without sex--third
person, spoken of--sing. number, it implies but one--and in the
nominative case, it is the actor and subject of the verb "trembles," and
governs it agreeably to

RULE 3. _The nominative case governs the verb:_--that is, the nominative
determines the number and person of the verb.

Declined--Sing. nom. hand, poss. hand's, obj. hand. Plur. nom. hands,
poss. hands', obj. hands.

_Trembles_ is a verb, a word which signifies to do--active, it expresses
action--third person, singular number, because the nominative "hand" is
with which it agrees, according to

RULE 4. _The verb must agree with its nominative in number and person_.

You must not say that the verb is of the third person because _it is
spoken of_. The verb is never spoken of; but it is of the third person,
and singular or plural number, because its nominative is.

Conjugated--First pers. sing. I tremble, 2 pers. thou tremblest, 3 pers.
he trembles, or, the hand trembles. Plural, 1 pers. we tremble, 2 pers.
ye or you tremble, 3 pers. they or the hands tremble.

Government, in language, consists in the power which one word has over
another, in causing that other word to be in some _particular case,
number, person, mood_, or _tense_.

ILLUSTRATION.

RULE 3. _The nominative case governs the verb_.

If you employ the pronoun _I_, which is of the _first_ person, singular
number, as the nominative to a verb, the verb must be of the first pers.
sing, thus, I _smile_; and when your nominative is _second_ pers. sing,
your verb must be; as, thou smil_est_. Why, in the latter instance, does
the ending of the verb change to _est_? Because the nominative changes.
And if your nominative is _third_ person, the verb will vary again;
thus, he smiles, the man smiles. How clear it is, then, that _the
nominative governs the verb_; that is, the nominative has power to
change the _form_ and _meaning_ of the verb, in respect to num. and
person. Government, thus far, is evinced in the _form_ of the words, as
well as in the sense.

RULE 4. _The verb must agree with its nominative in number and person_.

It is improper to say, thou _hear_, the men _hears_. Why improper?
Because _hear_ is _first_ pers. and the nominative _thou_ is _second_
pers. _Hears_ is singular, and the nom. _men_ is _plural_. Rule 4th
says, _The verb must agree with its nominative_. The expressions should,
therefore, be, thou hear_est_, the men _hear_; and then the verb would
_agree_ with its nominatives. But _why_ must the verb agree with its
nominative? Why must we say, thou talk_est_, the man talks, men _talk_?
Because the genius of our language, and the common consent of those who
speak it, _require_ such a construction: and this _requisition_ amounts
to a _law_ or _rule_. This _rule_, then, is founded in _the nature of
things_, and sanctioned by _good usage_.

RULE 12. _A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the
noun which it possesses_.

It is correct to say, The _man_ eats, _he_ eats; but we cannot say, the
_man_ dog eats, _he_ dog eats. Why not? Because the man is here
represented as the _possessor_, and _dog_, the _property_, or _thing
possessed_; and the genius of our language requires, that when we add to
the possessor, the _thing_ which he is represented as possessing, the
possessor shall take a particular form to show its _case_, or _relation
to the property_; thus, The _man's_ dog eats, _his_ dog eats. You
perceive, then, that the _added_ noun, denoting the thing possessed, has
power _to change the form_ of the noun or pronoun denoting the
possessor, according to RULE 12. thus, by adding dog in the preceding
examples, _man_ is changed to _man's_, and _he_, to _his_.

Now parse the sentence which I have parsed, until the manner is quite
familiar to you; and then you will be prepared to analyze correctly and
_systematically_, the following exercises. When you parse, you may
spread the Compendium before you; and, if you have not already committed
the definitions and rules, you may read them on that, as you apply them.
This mode of procedure will enable you to learn _all_ the definitions
and rules by applying them to practice.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

Rain descends--Rains descend--Snow falls--Snows fall--Thunder
rolls--Thunders roll--Man's works decay--Men's labors cease--John's dog
barks--Eliza's voice trembles--Julia's sister's child improves--Peter's
cousin's horse limps.

In the next place, I will parse a noun and a _neuter_ verb, which verb,
you will notice, differs from an active only in one respect.

    _"Birds repose_ on the branches of trees."

_Birds_ is a noun, the name of a thing or creature--common, the name of
a genus or class--masculine and feminine gender, it denotes both males
and females--third person, spoken of--plural number, it implies more
than one--and in the nominative case, it is the _subject_ of the verb
"repose," and governs it according to RULE 3. _The nominative case
governs the verb_. Declined--Sing. nom. bird, poss. bird's, obj. bird.
Plural, nom. birds, poss. birds', obj. birds.

_Repose_ is a verb, a word that signifies to _be_--neuter, it expresses
neither action nor passion, but a state of being--third person, plural
number, because the nominative "birds" is with which it agrees,
agreeably to RULE 4. _The verb must agree with its nominative in number
and person_.

Declined--1. pers. sing. I repose, 2. pers. thou reposest, 3. pers. he
reposes, or the bird reposes. Plur. 1. pers. we repose, 2. pers. ye or
you repose, 3. pers. they repose, or birds repose.

Now parse those nouns and neuter verbs that are distinguished by
_italics_, in the following

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

The _book lies_ on the desk--The _cloak hangs_ on the wall--_Man's days
are_ few--_Cathmor's warriors sleep_ in death--_Caltho reposes_ in the
narrow house--Jocund _day stands_ tiptoe on the misty mountain tops. The
_sunbeams rest_ on the grave where her _beauty sleeps_.

You may parse these and the preceding exercises, and all that follow,
_five or six times over_, if you please.

OBJECTIVE CASE.--ACTIVE-TRANSITIVE VERBS.

The _objective_ case expresses the object of an action or of a
relation. It generally follows a transitive verb, a participle, or a
preposition.

A noun is in the objective case when it is the _object_ of something. At
present I shall explain this case only as the object of an _action_; but
when we shall have advanced as far as to the preposition, I will also
illustrate it as the object of a _relation_.

An active verb is _transitive_ when the action passes over from the
subject or nominative to an object; as, Richard _strikes_ John.

_Transitive_ means _passing_. In this sentence the action of the verb
_strikes_ is _transitive_, because it _passes over_ from the nominative
Richard to the object John; and you know that the noun John is in the
_objective_ case, because it is _the object of the action_ expressed by
the active-transitive verb strikes. This matter is very plain. For
example: Gallileo invented the telescope. Now it is evident, that
Gallileo did not exert his powers of invention, without some object in
view. In order to ascertain that object, put the question, Gallileo
invented what? The telescope. _Telescope_, then, is the real object of
the action, denoted by the transitive verb invented; and, therefore,
telescope is in the objective case. If I say, The horse _kicks_ the
servant--Carpenters _build_ houses--Ossian _wrote_ poems--Columbus
_discovered_ America--you readily perceive, that the verbs _kick, build,
wrote_, and _discovered_, express transitive actions; and you cannot be
at a loss to tell which nouns are in the objective case:--they are
_servant, houses, poems_, and _America_.

The nominative and objective cases of nouns are generally known by the
following rule: the nominative _does something_; the objective _has
something done to it_. The nominative generally comes _before_ the verb;
and the objective, _after_ it. When I say, George struck the servant,
_George_ is in the nominative, and _servant_ is in the objective case;
but, when I say, The servant struck George, _servant_ is in the
nominative case, and _George_ is in the objective. Thus you perceive,
that _Case_ means the different state or situation of nouns with regard
to other words.

It is sometimes very difficult to tell the case of a noun. I shall,
therefore, take up this subject again, when I come to give you an
explanation of the participle and preposition.

Besides the three cases already explained, nouns are sometimes in the
nominative case _independent_, sometimes in the nominative case
absolute, sometimes in apposition in the same case, and sometimes in the
nominative or objective case after the neuter to _be_, or after an
active-intransitive or passive verb. These cases are illustrated in
Lecture X. and in the 21 and 22 rules of Syntax.

ACTIVE-INTRANSITIVE VERBS.

An active verb is _transitive_, when the action terminates on an object:
but

An active verb is _intransitive_, when the action does _not_ terminate
on an object; as, John _walks_.

You perceive that the verb _walks_, in this example, is _intransitive_,
because the action does not pass over to an object; that is, the action
is confined to the agent John. The following _sign_ will generally
enable you to distinguish a _transitive_ verb from an _intransitive_.
Any verb that will make sense with the words _a thing_ or _a person_,
after it, is _transitive_. Try these verbs by the sign, _love, help,
conquer, reach, subdue, overcome_. Thus, you can say, I love _a person_
or _thing_--I can help _a person_ or _thing_--and so on. Hence you know
that these verbs are transitive. But an intransitive verb will not make
sense with this sign, which fact will be shown by the following
examples: _smile, go, come, play, bark, walk, fly_. We cannot say, if we
mean to speak English, I smile a _person_ or _thing_--I go _a person_ or
_thing_:--hence you perceive that these verbs are not transitive, but
intransitive.

If you reflect upon these examples for a few moments, you will have a
clear conception of the nature of transitive and intransitive verbs.
Before I close this subject, however, it is necessary farther to remark,
that some transitive and intransitive verbs express what is called a
_mental_ or _moral_ action; and others, a _corporeal_ or _physical_
action. Verbs expressing the different affections or operations of the
mind, denote moral actions; as, Brutus _loved_ his country; James
_hates_ vice; We _believe_ the tale:--to _repent_, to _relent_, to
_think_, to _reflect_, to _mourn_, to _muse_. Those expressing the
actions produced by matter, denote physical actions; as, The _dog hears_
the bell; Virgil _wrote_ the Aenead; Columbus _discovered_ America;--to
_see_, to _feel_, to _taste_, to _smell_, to _run_, to _talk_, to _fly_,
to _strike_. In the sentence, Charles _resembles_ his father, the verb
_resembles_ does not appear to express any action at all; yet the
construction of the sentence, and the office which the verb performs,
are such, that we are obliged to parse it as an _active-transitive_
verb, governing the noun _father_ in the objective case. This you may
easily reconcile in your mind, by reflecting, that the verb has a
_direct reference_ to its object. The following verbs are of this
character: _Have, own, retain_; as, I _have_ a book.

Active _in_transitive verbs are frequently made _transitive_. When I
say, The birds _fly_, the verb _fly_ is _in_transitive; but when I say,
The boy _flies_ the kite, the verb _fly_ is _transitive_, and governs
the noun _kite_ in the objective case. Almost any active intransitive
verb, and sometimes even neuter verbs, are used as transitive. The horse
_walks_ rapidly; The boy _runs_ swiftly; My friend _lives_ well; The man
_died_ of a fever. In all these examples the verbs are _in_transitive;
in the following they are _transitive_: The man _walks_ his horse; The
boy _ran_ a race; My friend _lives_ a holy life; Let me _die_ the death
of the righteous.

The foregoing development of the character of verbs, is deemed
sufficiently critical for practical purposes; but if we dip a little
deeper into the verbal fountain, we shall discover qualities which do
not appear on its surface. If we throw aside the veil which art has
drawn over the real structure of speech, we shall find, that almost
every verb has either a _personal_ or a _verbal_ object, expressed or
implied. Verbal objects, which are the _effects_ or _productions_
resulting from the actions, being necessarily implied, are seldom
expressed.

The fire _burns_. If the fire burns, it must burn _wood, coal, tallow_,
or some other combustible substance. The man _laughs_. Laughs what?
Laughs _laughter_ or _laugh_. They _walk_; that is, They walk or take
_walks_. Rivers flow (move or roll _them-selves_ or their _waters_)
into the ocean.

    "I _sing_ the shady _regions_ of the west."

    "And _smile_ the _wrinkles_ from the brow of age."

The child _wept itself_ sick; and then, by taking (or _sleeping_) a
short _nap_, it _slept itself_ quiet and well again. "He will soon
_sleep_ his everlasting _sleep"_; that is, "He will _sleep_ the _sleep_
of death."

Thinkers think _thoughts_; Talkers talk or employ _words, talk,_ or
_speeches_; The rain rains _rain_. "Upon Sodom and Gomorrah the Lord
_rained fire_ and _brimstone_." "I must _go_ the whole _length_." "I
shall soon _go_ the _way_ of all the earth."

Now please to turn back again, and peruse this lecture attentively;
after which you may parse, systematically, the following exercises
containing nouns in the three cases, and active-transitive verbs.

    The printer _prints_ books.

_Prints_ is a verb, a word that signifies to do--active, it expresses
action--transitive, the action passes over from the nominative "printer"
to the object "books"--third pers. sing. numb. because the nominative
printer is with which it agrees.

RULE 4. _The verb must agree with its nominative case in number and
person_.

Declined--1. pers. sing. I print, 2. pers. thou printest, 3. pers. he
prints, or the printer prints, and so on.

_Books_ is a noun, the name of a thing--common, the name of a sort of
things,--neut. gend. it denotes a thing without sex--third pers. spoken
of--plur. num. it implies more than one--and in the objective case, it
is the object of the action, expressed by the active-transitive verb
"prints," and is governed by it according to

RULE 20. _Active-transitive verbs govern the objective case_.

The noun _books_ is thus declined--Sing. nom. book, poss. book's, obj.
book--Plur. nom. books, poss. books', obj. books.

RULE 20. Transitive verbs _govern_ the objective case; that is, they
_require_ the noun or pronoun following them to be in that case; and
this requisition is government. Pronouns have a particular _form_ to
suit each case; but nouns have not. We cannot say, She _struck he_; I
gave the book _to they_. Why not? Because the genius of our language
requires the pronoun following a transitive verb or preposition (_to_ is
a preposition) to assume that _form_ which we call the _objective_ form
or case. Accordingly, the construction should be, She struck _him_; I
gave the book to _them_.--Read, again, the illustration of "government"
on page 52.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

_Nom. case.--Trans. verb--Poss. case--Obj. case._
Julius prints childrens' primers.
Harriet makes ladies' bonnets.
The servant beats the man's horse.
The horse kicks the servant's master.
The boy struck that man's child.
The child lost those boys' ball.
The tempest sunk those merchants' vessels.
Pope translated Homer's Illiad.
Cicero procured Milo's release.
Alexander conquered Darius' army.
Perry met the enemy's fleet.
Washington obtained his country's freedom.

    NOTE 1. The words _the, that, those_, and _his_, you need not parse.
    2. A noun in the possessive case, is sometimes governed by a noun
    understood; as, Julia's lesson is longer than John's [lesson.]

As you have been analyzing nouns in their three cases, it becomes
necessary to present, in the next place, the declension of nouns, for
you must decline every noun you parse. _Declension_ means putting a noun
through the different cases: and you will notice, that the possessive
case varies from the nominative in its termination, or ending, but the
_objective_ case ends like the nominative. The nominative and objective
cases of nouns, must, therefore, be ascertained by their situation in
the sentence, or by considering the office they perform.

DECLENSION OF NOUNS.

         SING.     PLUR.

_Nom._   king      kings
_Poss._  king's    kings'
_Obj._   king.     kings.

_Nom._   man       men
_Poss._  man's     men's
_Obj._   man.      men.

Now, if you have parsed every word in the preceding examples, (except
_the, that, those_, and _his_) you may proceed with me and parse the
examples in the following exercises, in which are presented nouns and
active-intransitive verbs.

    "My _flock increases_ yearly."

_Flock_ is a noun, a name denoting animals--a noun of multitude, it
signifies many in one collective body--masculine and feminine gender,
denoting both sexes--third person, spoken of--singular number, it
denotes but one flock--and in the nominative case, it is the active
agent of the verb "increases," and governs it, according to RULE 3, _The
nominative case governs the verb_. (Decline it.)

_Increases_ is a verb, a word that signifies to do--active, it expresses
action--intransitive, the action does not pass over to an object--of the
third person, singular number, because its nominative "flock" conveys
_unity_ of idea, and it agrees with "flock" agreeably to

RULE 10. _A noun of multitude conveying_ unity _of idea, must have a
verb or pronoun agreeing with it in the singular_.

"The divided _multitude_ hastily _disperse_."

_Multitude_ is a noun, a name that denotes persons--a collective noun,
or noun of multitude, it signifies many--masculine and feminine gender,
it implies both sexes--third person, spoken of--singular number, it
represents but one multitude, or collective body; (but in another sense,
it is plural, as it conveys plurality of idea, and, also, implies more
_individuals_ than one;)--and in the nominative case, it is the actor
and subject of the verb "disperse," which it governs, according to RULE
3. _The nom. case governs the verb_.--Declined.--Sing. nom. multitude,
poss. multitude's, obj. multitude--Plur. nom. multitudes, poss.
multitudes', obj. multitudes.

_Disperse_ is a verb, a word that signifies to do--active, it expresses
action--intransitive, the action does not terminate on an object--third
person, plural number, because its nominative "multitude" conveys
plurality of idea; and it agrees with "multitude" agreeably to RULE 11.
_A noun of multitude conveying plurality of idea, must have a verb or
pronoun agreeing with it in the plural._

Rules 10, and 11, rest on a sandy foundation. They appear not to be
based on the principles of the language; and, therefore, it might,
perhaps, be better to reject than to retain them. Their application is
quite limited. In many instances, they will not apply to nouns of
multitude. The existence of such a thing as "unity or plurality of
idea," as applicable to nouns of this class, is _doubtful_. It is just
as correct to say, "The _meeting was_ divided in _its_ sentiments," as
to say, "The _meeting were_ divided in _their_ sentiments." Both are
equally supported by the genius of the language, and by the power of
custom. It is correct to say, either that, "The _fleet were_ dispersed;"
"The _council were_ unanimous;" "The _council were_ divided;" or that,
"The _fleet was_ dispersed;" "The _council was_ unanimous;" "The
_council was_ divided." But, perhaps for the sake of euphony, in some
instances, custom has decided in favor of a singular, and in others, of
a plural construction, connected with words of this class. For example;
custom gives a preference to the constructions, "My _people do_ not
consider;" "The _peasantry go_ barefoot;" "The _flock is_ his object;"
instead of, "_My people doth_ not consider;" "The _peasantry goes_
barefoot;" "The _flock are_ his object." In instances like these, the
application of the foregoing rules _may_ be of some use; but the
constructions in which they do not apply, are probably more numerous
than those in which they do.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

Nom. case.    Intran. verb.   Nom. case.    Intran. verb.
Men           labor.          The sun       sets.
Armies        march.          The moon      rises.
Vessels       sail.           The stars     twinkle.
Birds         fly.            The rain      descends.
Clouds        move.           The river     flows.
Multitudes    perish.         The nation    mourns.

Your improvement in grammar depends, not on the number of words which
you parse, but on the _attention_ which you give the subject. _You may
parse the same exercises several times over._

For the gratification of those who prefer it, I here present another

DIVISION OF VERBS.

Verbs are of two kinds, transitive and intransitive.

A verb is transitive when the action affects an object; as, "Earthquakes
_rock_ kingdoms; thrones and palaces _are shaken_ down; and potentates,
princes, and subjects, _are buried_ in one common grave."

The nominative to a passive verb, is the _object_, but not the _agent_,
of the action.

A verb is intransitive when it has no object; as, "The waters _came_
upon me;" "I _am_ he who _was_, and _is_, and _is_ to _come_."

As an exercise on what you have been studying, I will now put to you a
few questions, all of which you ought to be able to answer before you
proceed any farther.

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING.

With what two general divisions of grammar does the second lecture
begin?--Of what does Etymology treat?--Of what does Syntax treat?--On
what is based the true principle of classification?--How do you
ascertain the part of speech to which a word belongs?--What is meant by
its _manner_ of meaning?--Name the ten parts of speech.--Which of these
are considered the most important?--By what sign may a noun be
distinguished?--How many kinds of nouns are there?--What belong to
nouns?--What is gender?--How many genders have nouns?--What is
person?--How many persons have nouns?--What is number?--How many numbers
have nouns?--What is case?--How many cases have nouns?--Does case
consist in the _inflections_ of a noun?--How many kinds of verbs are
there?--By what sign may a verb be known?--What belong to verbs?--What
is synthesis?--What is analysis?--What is parsing?--Repeat the order of
parsing the noun.--Repeat the order of parsing the verb.--What rule do
you apply in parsing a noun in the possessive case?--What rule, in
parsing a noun in the nominative case?--What rule applies in parsing a
verb?--What is meant by government?--Explain rules 3, 4, and 12.--By
what rule are the nominative and objective cases of nouns known?--By
what sign can you distinguish a transitive from an intransitive
verb?--Do transitive verbs ever express a _moral_ action?--Are
intransitive and neuter verbs ever used as transitive?--Give some
examples of transitive verbs with _personal_ and _verbal_ objects.--What
rule do you apply in parsing a noun in the objective case?--Explain rule
20.--In parsing a verb agreeing with a noun of multitude conveying
_plurality_ of idea, what rule do you apply?

       *       *       *       *       *

QUESTIONS ON THE NOTES.

Whether the learner be required to answer the following questions, or
not, is, of course, left _discretionary_ with the teacher. The author
takes the liberty to suggest the expediency of _not_, generally,
enforcing such a requisition, _until the pupil goes through the book a
second time._

Name some participial nouns.--What are abstract nouns?--What is the
distinction between abstract nouns and adjectives?--What are natural
nouns?--Artificial nouns?--What is the distinction between _material_
and _immaterial_ nouns?--Are nouns ever of the masculine and feminine
gender?--Give examples.--When are nouns, naturally neuter, converted
into the masculine or feminine gender?--Give examples.--Speak some nouns
that are always in the singular number.--Some that are always
plural.--Speak some that are in the same form in both numbers.--Name
_all_ the various ways of forming the plural number of nouns.--Of what
number are the nouns _news, means, alms_, and _amends_?--Name the
plurals to the following compound nouns, _handful, cupful, spoonful,
brother-in-law, court-martial_.


       *       *       *       *       *


    NOTES ON PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR.

    Perhaps no subject has, in this age, elicited more patient research,
    and critical investigation of original, constituent principles,
    formations, and combinations, than the English language. The
    legitimate province of philology, however, as I humbly conceive,
    has, in some instances, been made to yield to that of philosophy, so
    far as to divert the attention from the combinations of our language
    which refinement has introduced, to radical elements and
    associations which no way concern the progress of literature, or the
    essential use for which language was intended. Were this
    retrogressive mode of investigating and applying principles, to
    obtain, among philologists, the ascendency over that which
    accommodates the use of language to progressive refinement, it is
    easy to conceive the state of barbarism to which society would, in a
    short time, be reduced. Moreover, if what some call the philosophy
    of language, were to supersede, altogether, the province of
    philology as it applies to the present, progressive and refined
    state of English literature, the great object contemplated by the
    learned, in all ages, namely, the approximation of language, in
    common with every thing else, to that point of perfection at which
    it is the object of correct philology to arrive, would be
    frustrated.

    The dubious and wildering track struck out by those innovators and
    visionaries who absurdly endeavor to teach modern English, by
    rejecting the authority and sanction of custom, and by conducting
    the learner back to the original combinations, and the detached,
    disjointed, and barbarous constructions of our progenitors, both
    prudence and reason, as well as a due regard for correct philology,
    impel me to shun. Those modest writers who, by bringing to their aid
    a little sophistry, much duplicity, and a wholesale traffic in the
    swelling phrases, "philosophy, reason, and common sense," attempt to
    overthrow the wisdom of former ages, and show that the result of all
    the labors of those distinguished philologists who had previously
    occupied the field of grammatical science, is nothing but error and
    folly, will doubtless meet the neglect and contempt justly merited
    by such consummate vanity and unblushing pedantry. Fortunately for
    those who employ our language as their vehicle of mental conference,
    custom will not yield to the speculative theories of the visionary.
    If it would, improvement in English literature would soon be at an
    end, and we should be tamely conducted back to the Vandalic age.

    As the use of what is commonly called the philosophy of language, is
    evidently misapplied by those who make it the test of _grammatical
    certainty_, it may not be amiss to offer a few considerations with a
    view to expose the fallacy of so vague a criterion.

    All reasoning and investigation which depend on the philosophy of
    language for an ultimate result, must be conducted _a posteriori_.
    Its office, according to the ordinary mode of treating the subject,
    is to trace language to its origin, not for the purpose of
    determining and fixing grammatical associations and dependances,
    such as the agreement, government, and mutual relations of words,
    but in order to analyze combinations with a view to develop the
    first principles of the language, and arrive at the primitive
    meaning of words. Now, it is presumed, that no one who has paid
    critical attention to the subject, will contend, that the original
    import of single words, has any relation to the syntactical
    dependances and connexions of words in general;--to gain a knowledge
    of which, is the leading object of the student in grammar. And,
    furthermore, I challenge those who have indulged in such useless
    vagaries, to show by what process, with their own systems, they can
    communicate a practical knowledge of grammar. I venture to predict,
    that, if they make the attempt, they will find their systems more
    splendid in theory, than useful in practice.

    Again, it cannot rationally be contended, that the radical meaning
    has any efficiency in controlling the signification which, by the
    power of association, custom has assigned to many words;--a
    signification _essentially different_ from the original import. Were
    this the case, and were the language now to be taught and understood
    in compliance with the original import of words, it would have to
    undergo a thorough change; to be analyzed, divided, and sub-divided,
    almost _ad infinitum_. Indeed, there is the same propriety in
    asserting that the Gothic, Danish, and Anglo-Saxon elements in our
    language, ought to be pronounced separately, to enable us to
    understand our vernacular tongue, that there is in contending, that
    their primitive meaning has an ascendency over the influence of the
    principle of association in changing, and the power of custom in
    determining, the import of words. Many of our words are derived from
    the Greek, Roman, French, Spanish, Italian, and German languages;
    and the only use we can make of their originals, is to render them
    subservient to the force of custom in cases in which general usage
    has not varied from the primitive signification. Moreover, let the
    advocates of a mere philosophical investigation of the language,
    extend their system as far as a radical analysis will warrant them,
    and, with Horne Tooke, not only consider adverbs, prepositions,
    conjunctions, and interjections, as abbreviations of nouns and
    verbs, but, on their own responsibility, apply them, in teaching the
    language, _in compliance with their radical import_, and what would
    such a course avail them against the power of custom, and the
    influence of association and refinement? Let them show me one
    grammarian, produced by such a course of instruction, and they will
    exhibit a "philosophical" miracle. They might as well undertake to
    teach architecture, by having recourse to its origin, as
    represented by booths and tents. In addition to this, when we
    consider the great number of obsolete words, from which many now in
    use are derived, the original meaning of which cannot be
    ascertained, and, also, the multitude whose signification has been
    changed by the principle of association, it is preposterous to
    think, that a mere philosophical mode of investigating and teaching
    the language, is the one by which its significancy can be enforced,
    its correctness determined, its use comprehended, and its
    improvement extended. Before what commonly passes for a
    philosophical manner of developing the language can successfully be
    made the medium through which it can be comprehended, in all its
    present combinations, relations, and dependances, it must undergo a
    thorough retrogressive change, in all those combinations, relations,
    and dependances, even to the last letter of the alphabet. And before
    we can consent to this radical modification and retrograde ratio of
    the English language, we must agree to revive the customs, the
    habits, and the precise language of our progenitors, the Goths and
    Vandals. Were all the advocates for the introduction of such
    philosophical grammars into common schools, at once to enter on
    their pilgrimage, and recede into the native obscurity and barbarity
    of the ancient Britons, Picts, and Vandals, it is believed, that the
    cause of learning and refinement would not suffer greatly by their
    loss, and that the good sense of the present age, would not allow
    many of our best teachers to be of the party.

    The last consideration which I shall give a philosophical manner of
    investigating and enforcing the English language, is, that by this
    mode of analyzing and reducing it to practice, _it cannot, in this
    age, be comprehended_ as the medium of thought. Were this method to
    prevail, our present literal language would become a dead letter. Of
    what avail is language, if it can not be understood? And how can it
    be accommodated to the understanding, unless it receive the sanction
    of common consent? Even if we admit that such a manner of unfolding
    the principles of our language, is more rational and correct than
    the ordinary, practical method, I think it is clear that such a mode
    of investigation and development, does not meet the necessities and
    convenience of ordinary learners in school. To be consistent, that
    system which instructs by tracing a few of our words to their
    origin, must unfold the whole in the same manner. But the student in
    common schools and academies, cannot afford time to stem the tide of
    language up to its source, and there dive to the bottom of the
    fountain for knowledge. Such labor ought not to be required of him.
    His object is to become, not a philosophical antiquarian, but a
    practical grammarian. If I comprehend the design (if they have any)
    of our modern philosophical writers on this subject, it is to make
    grammarians by inculcating a few general principles, arising out of
    the genius of the language, and the nature of things, which the
    learner, by the exercise of his _reasoning powers_, must reduce to
    practice. His own judgment, _independent of grammar rules_, is to be
    his guide in speaking and writing correctly. Hence, many of them
    exclude from their systems, all exercises in what is called _false
    Syntax_. But these profound philological dictators appear to have
    overlooked the important consideration, that the great mass of
    mankind, and especially of boys and girls in common schools, _can
    never become philosophers;_ and, consequently, can never comprehend
    and reduce to practice their metaphysical and obscure systems of
    grammar. I wish to see children treated as _reasoning_ beings. But
    there should be a medium in all things. It is, therefore, absurd to
    instruct children as if they were already profound philosophers and
    logicians.

    To demonstrate the utility, and enforce the necessity, of exercising
    the learner in correcting _false Syntax_, I need no other argument
    than the interesting and undeniable fact, that Mr. Murray's labors,
    in this department, have effected a complete revolution in the
    English language, in point of verbal accuracy. Who does not know,
    that the best writers of this day, are not guilty of _one_
    grammatical inaccuracy, where those authors who wrote before Mr.
    Murray flourished, are guilty of _five_? And what has produced this
    important change for the better? Ask the hundreds of thousands who
    have studied "Mr. Murray's exercises in FALSE SYNTAX." If, then,
    this view of the subject is correct, it follows, that the greater
    portion of our philosophical grammars, are far more worthy the
    attention of literary connoisseurs, than of the great mass of
    learners.

    Knowing that a strong predilection for philosophical grammars,
    exists in the minds of some teachers of this science, I have thought
    proper, for the gratification of such, to intersperse through the
    pages of this work under the head of "PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES," an
    entire system of grammatical principles as deduced from what appears
    to me to be the most rational and consistent philosophical
    investigations. They who prefer this theory to that exhibited in the
    body of the work, are, of course, at liberty to adopt it.

    _In general, a philosophical theory of grammar will be found to
    accord with the practical theory embraced in the body of this work.
    Wherever such agreement exists, the system contained in these NOTES
    will be deficient, and this deficiency may be supplied by adopting
    the principles contained in the other parts of the work_.


       *       *       *       *       *


    OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS.

    According to the method in which philosophical investigations of
    language have generally been conducted, all our words should be
    reduced to two classes; for it can be easily shown, that from the
    noun and verb, all the other parts of speech have sprung. Nay, more.
    They may even be reduced to one. Verbs do not, in reality, _express_
    actions; but they are intrinsically the mere _names_ of actions. The
    idea of action or being communicated by them, as well as the
    _meaning_ of words in general, is merely _inferential_. The
    principle of reasoning assumed by the celebrated Horne Tooke, if
    carried to its full extent, would result, it is believed, in proving
    that we have but one part of speech.

    _Adnouns_ or _adjectives_ were originally nouns. _Sweet, red,
    white_, are the _names_ of qualities, as well as _sweetness,
    redness, whiteness_. The former differ from the latter only in their
    _manner_ of signification. To denote that the name of some quality
    or substance is to be used in connexion with some other name, or,
    that this quality is to be _attributed_ to some other name, we
    sometimes affix to it the termination _en, ed_, or _y;_ which
    signifies _give, add,_ or _join_. When we employ the words wood_en_,
    wooll_en_, wealth_y_, grass_y_, the terminations _en_ and _y_, by
    their own intrinsic meaning, give notice that we intend to _give,
    add, or join_, the names of some other substances in which are found
    the properties or qualities of _wood, wool, wealth_, or _grass_.

    _Pronouns_ are a class of nouns, used instead of others to prevent
    their disagreeable repetition. Participles are certain forms of the
    verb. Articles, interjections, adverbs, prepositions, and
    conjunctions, are contractions of abbreviations of nouns and verbs.
    _An_ (_a, one_, or _one_) comes from _ananad_, to add, to heap.
    _The_ and _that_, from the Anglo-Saxon verb _thean_, to get, assume.
    _Lo_ is the imperative of _look_; _fy_, of _fian_, to hate; and
    _welcome_ means, it is _well_ that you are _come. In_ comes from the
    Gothic noun _inna_, the interior of the body; and _about_, from
    _boda_, the first outward boundary. _Through_ or _thorough_ is the
    Teutonic noun _thuruh_, meaning passage, gate, door. _From_ is the
    Anglo-Saxon noun _frum_, beginning, source, author. He came _from
    (beginning)_ Batavia. _If_ (formerly written _gif, give, gin_) is
    the imperative of the Anglo-Saxon verb _gifan_, to give. I will
    remain _if_ (_give_ or _grant that fact_) he will (_remain_.) _But_
    comes from the Saxon verb _beon-utan_, to be-out. I informed no one
    _but (be-out, leave-out)_ my brother.

    This brief view of the subject, is sufficient to elucidate the
    manner in which, according to Horne Tooke's principles, the ten
    parts of speech are reduced to one. But I am, by no means, disposed
    to concede, that this is the _true_ principle of classification; nor
    that it is any more _philosophical_ or _rational_ than one which
    allows a more practical division and arrangement of words. What has
    been generally received as "philosophical grammar," appears to
    possess no stronger claims to that imposing appellation than our
    common, practical grammars. Query. Is not Mr. Murray's octavo
    grammar more worthy the dignified title of a "Philosophical
    Grammar," than Horne Tooke's "Diversions of Purley," or William S.
    Cardell's treatises on language? What constitutes a _philosophical_
    treatise, on this, or on any other subject? _Wherein_ is there a
    display of philosophy in a speculative, etymological performance,
    which attempts to develop and explain the elements and primitive
    meaning of words by tracing them to their origin, _superior_ to the
    philosophy employed in the development and illustration of the
    principles by which we are governed in applying those words to their
    legitimate purpose, namely, that of forming a correct and convenient
    medium by means of which we can communicate our thoughts? Does
    philosophy consist in ransacking the mouldy records of antiquity, in
    order to _guess_ at the ancient construction and signification of
    single words? or have such investigations, in reality, any thing to
    do with _grammar_?

    Admitting that all the words of our language include, in their
    _original_ signification, the import of nouns or names, and yet, it
    does not follow, that they _now_ possess no other powers, and, in
    their combinations and connexions in sentences, are employed for no
    other purpose, than _barely_ to _name objects_. The _fact_ of the
    case is, that words are variously combined and applied, to answer
    the distinct and diversified purposes of _naming_ objects,
    _asserting_ truths, _pointing out_ and _limiting_ objects,
    _attributing qualities_ to objects, _connecting_ objects, and so on;
    and on this _fact_ is founded the _true philosophical principle of
    the classification of words_. Hence, an arrangement of words into
    classes according to this principle, followed by a development and
    illustration of the principles and rules that regulate us in the
    proper use and application of words in oral and written discourse,
    appears to approximate as near to a true definition _of
    philosophical grammar_, as any I am capable of giving.

    _Nouns_, or the names of the objects of our perceptions, doubtless
    constituted the original class of words; (if I may be allowed to
    assume such a hypothesis as an _original_ class of words;) but the
    ever-active principle of association, soon transformed nouns into
    verbs, by making them, when employed in a particular manner,
    expressive of affirmation. This same principle also operated in
    appropriating names to the purpose of attributing qualities to other
    names of objects; and in this way was constituted the class of words
    called _adjectives_ or _attributes_. By the same principle were
    formed all the other classes.

    In the following exposition of English grammar on scientific
    principles, I shall divide words into seven classes; _Nouns_ or
    _Names, Verbs, Adjectives, Adnouns_, or _Attributes, Adverbs,
    Propositions, Pronouns_, and _Conjunctions_ or _Connectives_.

    For an explanation of the noun, refer to the body of the work.


       *       *       *       *       *


    PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.

    Plausible arguments may be _advanced_, for rejecting _neuter_ and
    passive verbs; but they have been found to be so convenient in
    practice, that the theory which recognises them, has stood the test
    of ages. If you tell the young learner, that, in the following
    expressions, The church _rests_ on its foundation; The book _lies_
    on the desk; The boys _remain (are)_ idle, the nouns _church, book_,
    and _boys_, are represented as acting, and, therefore, the verbs
    _rests, lies, remain_, and _are_, are _active_, he will not believe
    you, because there is no action that is apparent to his senses. And
    should you proceed further, and, by a labored and metaphysical
    investigation and development of the laws of motion, attempt to
    prove to him that "every portion of matter is influenced by
    different, active principles, tending to produce change," and,
    therefore, every thing in universal nature is _always_ acting, it is
    not at all probable, that you could convince his _understanding_, in
    opposition to the dearer testimony of his senses. Of what avail to
    learners is a theory which they cannot comprehend?

    Among the various theorists and speculative writers on philosophical
    grammar, the ingenious Horne Tooke stands pre-eminent; but,
    unfortunately, his principal speculations on the verb, have never
    met the public eye. William S. Cardell has also rendered himself
    conspicuous in the philological field, by taking a bolder stand than
    any of his predecessors. His view of the verb is novel, and
    ingeniously supported. The following is the substance of his theory

    OF THE VERB.

    A verb is a word which expresses _action;_ as, Man _exists_; Trees
    _grow_; Waters_flow_; Mountains _stand_; I _am_.

    All verbs are active, and have one object or more than one,
    expressed or implied. The pillar _stands_; that is, it _keeps
    itself_ in an erect or standing posture; it _upholds_ or _sustains
    itself_ in that position. They _are_; i.e. they _air_ themselves, or
    _breathe_ air; they _inspirit, vivify_, or _uphold_ themselves by
    inhaling air.

    Many verbs whose objects are seldom expressed, always have a persona
    or verbal one implied. The clouds _move_; i.e. move _themselves_
    along. The troops _marched_ twenty miles a day; i.e. marched
    _themselves_. The moon _shines_:--The moon _shines_ or _sheds_ a
    _shining, sheen, lustre_, or _brightness_. The sparrow
    _flies:--flies_ or _takes_ a _flight_. Talkers talk or speak _words_
    or _talk_; Walkers walk _walkings_ or _walks_; The rain rains
    _rain_; Sitters sit or hold _sittings_ or _sessions_.

    To prove that there is no such thing as a neuter verb, the following
    appear to be the strongest arguments adduced.

    1. No portion of matter is ever in a state of perfect quiescence;
    but the component parts of every thing are at all times "influenced
    by different, active principles, tending to produce change." Hence,
    it follows, that no being or thing can be represented in a _neuter_
    or _non-acting state_.

    This argument supposes the essential character of the verb to be
    identified with the primary laws of action, as unfolded by the
    principles of physical science. The correctness of this position may
    be doubted; but if it can be clearly demonstrated, that every
    particle of matter is always in motion, it does not, by any means,
    follow, that we cannot _speak of_ things in a state of quiescence.
    What is _false_ in fact may be _correct_ in grammar. _The point
    contested, is not whether things always_ act, _but whether, when we
    assert or affirm something respecting them, we always_ represent
    _them as acting_.

    2. Verbs were _originally_ used to express the motions or changes of
    things which produced obvious actions, and, by an easy transition,
    were afterward applied, in the same way, to things whose actions
    were not apparent. This assumption is untenable, and altogether
    gratuitous.

    3. Verbs called neuter are used in the imperative mood; and, as this
    mood commands some one to _do_ something, any verb which adopts it,
    must be active. Thus, in the common place phrases, "_Be_ there
    quickly; _Stand_ out of my way; _Sit_ or _lie_ farther."

    It is admitted that these verbs are here employed in an _active_
    sense; but it is certain, that they are not used according to their
    proper, _literal_ meaning. When I tell a man, _literally_, to
    _stand, sit_, or _lie_, by _moving_ he would disobey me; but when I
    say, "_Stand_ out of my way," I employ the neuter verb _stand_,
    instead of the active verb _move_ or _go_, and in a correspondent
    sense. My meaning is, _Move_ yourself out of my way; or _take_ your
    _stand_ somewhere else. This, however, does not prove that _stand_
    is properly used. If we choose to overstep the bounds of custom, we
    can employ any _word_ in the language as an active-transitive verb.
    _Be, sit_, and _lie_, may be explained in the same manner.

    4. Neuter verbs are used in connexion with adverbs which express the
    manner of _action_. They must, therefore, be considered active
    verbs. The child _sleeps soundly_; He _sits genteelly_; They _live
    contentedly_ and _happily_ together.

    The class of verbs that are never employed as active, is small. By
    using adverbs in connexion with verbs, we can fairly prove that some
    verbs are _not_ active. It is incorrect to say, I am _happily_; They
    were _peacefully_; She remains _quietly_; The fields appear
    _greenly_. These verbs in their common acceptation, do not express
    _action_; for which reason we say, I am _happy_; They are
    _peaceful_; &c. But in the expressions, The child sleeps _soundly_;
    She sits _gracefully_; They live _happily_ and _contentedly_; we
    employ the verbs _sleeps, sits_, and _live_, in an active sense.
    When no action is intended, we say, They live _happy_ and
    _contented_.

    If, on scientific principles, it can be proved that those verbs
    generally denominated neuter, _originally_ expressed action, their
    present, accepted meaning will still oppose the theory, for the
    generality of mankind do not attach to them the idea of _action_.

    Thus I have endeavored to present a brief but impartial abstract of
    the _modern_ theory of the verb, leaving it with the reader to
    estimate it according to its value.

    To give a satisfactory definition of the verb, or such a one as
    shall be found scientifically correct and unexceptionable, has
    hitherto baffled the skill, and transcended the learning, of our
    philosophical writers. If its essential quality, as is generally
    supposed, is made to consist in _expressing affirmation_, it remains
    still to be defined _when_ a verb _expresses_ affirmation. In
    English, and in other languages, words appropriated to express
    affirmation, are often used without any such force; our idea of
    affirmation, in such instances, being the mere _inference of
    custom_.

    In the sentence,--"_Think, love_, and _hate_, denote moral actions,"
    the words _think, love_, and _hate_, are nouns, because they are
    mere _names_ of actions. So, when I say, "John, _write_--is an
    irregular verb," the word _write_ is a noun; but when I say, "John,
    _write_--your copy," _write_ is called a verb.

    Why is this word considered a noun in one construction, and a verb
    in the other, when both constructions, until you pass beyond the
    word write, are exactly alike? If write does not _express_ action in
    the former sentence, neither does it in the latter, for, in both, it
    is introduced in the same manner. On scientific principles, _write_
    must be considered a noun in the latter sentence, for it does not
    _express_ action, or make an affirmation; but it merely _names_ the
    action which I wish John to perform, and affirmation is the
    _inferential_ meaning.

    The verb in the infinitive, as well as in the imperative mood, is
    divested of its affirmative or verbal force. In both these moods, it
    is always presented in its _noun-state_.

    If, after dinner, I say to a servant, "_Wine,"_ he infers, that I
    wish him to bring me wine; but all this is not said. If I say,
    _Bring_ some _wine_, he, in like manner, understands, that I wish
    him to bring me wine; but all that is expressed, is the _name_ of
    the action, and of the object of the action. In fact, as much is
    done by _inference_, as by actual expression, in every branch of
    language, for thought is too quick to be wholly transmitted by
    words.

    It is generally conceded, that the termination of our verbs, _est,
    eth, s, ed_, and, also, of the other parts of speech, were
    originally separate words of distinct meaning; and that, although
    they have been contracted, and, by the refinement of language, have
    been made to coalesce with the words in connexion with which they
    are employed, yet, in their present character of terminations, they
    retain their primitive meaning and force. To denote that a verbal
    name was employed as a verb, the Saxons affixed to it a verbalizing
    adjunct; thus, _the_ (to take, hold) was the noun-state of the verb;
    and when they used it as a verb, they added the termination _an_;
    thus, the_an_. The termination added, was a sign that _affirmation_
    was intended. The same procedure has been adopted, and, in many
    instances, is still practised, in our language. _An_, originally
    affixed to our verbs, in the progress of refinement, was changed to
    en, and finally dropped. A few centuries ago, the plural number of
    our verbs was denoted by the termination, _en_; thus, they _weren_,
    they _loven_; but, as these terminations do not supersede the
    necessity of expressing the _subject_ of affirmation, as is the case
    in the Latin and Greek verbs, they have been laid aside, as
    unnecessary excrescences. For the same reason, we might, without any
    disparagement to the language, dispense with the terminations of our
    verbs in the singular.

    In support of the position, that these terminations were once
    separate words, we can trace many of them to their origin. To denote
    the feminine gender of some nouns, we affix _ess_; as, heir_ess_,
    instructr_ess. Ess_ is a contraction of the Hebrew noun _essa_, a
    female. Of our verbs, the termination _est_ is a contraction of
    _doest, eth_, of _doeth_, _s_ of _does_. We say, thou _dost_ or
    _doest_ love; or thou _lovest_; i.e. _love-dost_, or _love-doest_.
    Some believe these terminations to be contractions of _havest,
    haveth, has_. We affix _ed_, a contraction of _dede_, to the present
    tense of verbs to denote that the action named is _dede, did, doed_,
    or _done_.

    _To_ and _do_ from the Gothic noun _taui_, signifying _act_ or
    _effect_, are, according to Horne Tooke, nearly alike in meaning and
    force; and when the custom of affixing some more ancient verbalizing
    adjunct, began to be dropped, its place and meaning were generally
    supplied by prefixing one of these. When I say, "I am going _to
    walk,"_ the verbal or affirmative force is conveyed by the use of
    _to_, meaning the same as _do_; and _walk_ is employed merely as a
    verbal name; that is, I assert that I shall _do_ the act which I
    name by the word _walk_, or the act of _walking_.

    Perhaps such speculations as these will prove to be more curious
    than profitable. If it be made clearly to appear, that, on
    scientific principles, whenever the verbal name is unaccompanied by
    a verbalizing adjunct, it is in the _noun-state_, and does not
    express affirmation, still this theory would be very inconvenient in
    practice.

    I shall resume this subject in Lecture XI.


       *       *       *       *       *


QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.

What has usually been the object of philosophical investigations of
language? (page 32.)--Do the syntactical dependances and connexions of
words depend on their _original_ import?--Is the power of association
and custom efficient in changing the radical meaning of some
words?--Have words intrinsically a signification of their own; or is
their meaning _inferential_; i.e. such as _custom_ has assigned to them?
(page 38.)--On what _fact_ is based the true, philosophical principle of
classification?--Define philosophical grammar.--Which is supposed to be
the original part of speech?--How were the others formed from that?--How
many parts of speech may be recognised in a scientific development and
arrangement of the principles of our language?--Name them.--What
testimony have we that many things do not act? (page 43.)--Repeat some
of the arguments in favor of, and against, the principle which regards
all verbs as _active_.--In what moods are verbs used in their
_noun-state?_ (page 48.)--Give examples.--What is said of the
terminations _est, eth, s,_ and _en_, and of the words _to_ and _do?_

REMARKS ON VERBS AND NOUNS.

You have already been informed, that verbs are the most important part
of speech in our language; and to convince you of their importance, I
now tell you, that you cannot express a _thought_, or communicate an
_idea_, without making use of a verb, either expressed or implied. Verbs
express, not only _the state_ or _manner of being_, but, likewise, all
the different _actions_ and _movements_ of all creatures and things,
whether animate or inanimate. As yet I have given you only a partial
description of this sort of words; but when you are better prepared to
comprehend the subject, I will explain all their properties, and show
you the proper manner of using them.

A word that is generally a _noun_, sometimes becomes a _verb_; and a
verb is frequently used as a _noun_. These changes depend on the sense
which the word conveys; or, rather, on the office it performs in the
sentence; that is the _manner_ in which it is applied to things. For
instance, _glory_ is generally a noun; as "The _glory_ of God's throne."
But if I say, I _glory_ in religion; or, He _glories_ in wickedness, the
word _glory_ becomes a verb. The _love_ of man is inconstant. In this
sentence, _love_ is a _noun_; in the next, it is a _verb_: They _love_
virtue. He _walks_ swiftly; Scavengers _sweep_ the streets; The ship
_sails_ well. In these phrases, the words _walks, sweep_, and _sails_,
are verbs; in the following they are nouns: Those are pleasant _walks_;
He takes a broad _sweep_; The ship lowered her _sails_.

Thus you see, it is impossible for you to become a grammarian without
exercising your judgment. If you have sufficient resolution to do this,
you will, in a short time, perfectly understand the nature and office of
the different parts of speech, their various properties and relations,
and the rules of syntax that apply to them; and, in a few weeks, be able
to speak and write accurately. But you must not take things for granted,
without examining their propriety and correctness. No. You are not a
mere _automaton_, or _boy-machine_; but a rational being. You ought,
therefore, to _think_ methodically, to _reason_ soundly, and to
_investigate_ every principle critically. Don't be afraid to _think for
yourself_. You know not the high destiny that awaits you. You know not
the height to which you may soar in the scale of intellectual existence.
Go on, then, boldly, and with unyielding perseverance; and if you do not
gain admittance into the temple of fame, strive, at all hazards, to
drink of the fountain which gurgles from its base.

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX.

NOTE 1, TO RULE 12. A noun in the possessive case, should always be
distinguished by the apostrophe, or mark of elision; as, The _nation's_
glory.

That girls book is cleaner than those boys books.

Not correct, because the nouns _girls_ and _boys_ are both in the
possessive case, and, therefore, require the apostrophe, by which they
should be distinguished; thus, "_girl's, boys'"_ according to the
preceding NOTE. [Repeat the note.]

Thy ancestors virtue is not thine.

If the writer of this sentence meant _one_ ancestor, he should have
inserted the apostrophe after _r_, thus, "_ancestor's"_; if more than
one, after _s_, thus, _"ancestors'_ virtue;" but, by neglecting to place
the apostrophe, he has left his meaning ambiguous, and we cannot
ascertain it. This, and a thousand other mistakes you will often meet
with, demonstrate the truth of my declaration, namely, that "without the
knowledge and application of grammar rules, you will often speak and
write in such a manner as not to be _understood."_ You may now turn back
and re-examine the "illustration" of Rules 3, 4, and 12, on page 52, and
then correct the following examples about _five_ times over.

A mothers tenderness and a fathers care, are natures gift's for mans
advantage. Wisdoms precept's form the good mans interest and happiness.
They suffer for conscience's sake. He is reading Cowpers poems. James
bought Johnsons Dictionary.

RULE 4. A verb must agree with its nominative in number and person.

Those boys improves rapidly. The men labors in the field. Nothing
delight some persons. Thou shuns the light. He dare not do it. They
reads well.

I know you can correct these sentences without a rule, for they all have
a harsh sound, which offends the ear. I wish you, however, to adopt the
habit of correcting errors by applying rules; for, by-and-by, you will
meet with errors in composition which you cannot correct, if you are
ignorant of the application of grammar rules.

Now let us clearly understand this 4th Rule. Recollect, it applies to
the _verb_ and not to the noun; therefore, in these examples the verb is
ungrammatical. The noun _boys_, in the first sentence, is of the third
person _plural_, and the verb _improves_ is of the third person
_singular_; therefore, Rule 4th is violated, because the verb dues not
agree with its nominative in _number_. It should be, "boys _improve_."
The verb would then be _plural_, and agree with its nominative according
to the Rule. In the fourth sentence, the verb does not agree in _person_
with its nominative. _Thou_ is of the _second_ person, and _shuns_ is of
the _third_. It should be, "thou _shunnest_," &c. You may correct the
other sentences, and, likewise, the following exercises in

FALSE SYNTAX.

A variety of pleasing objects charm the eye. The number of inhabitants
of the United States exceed nine millions. Nothing but vain and foolish
pursuits delight some persons.

  In vain our flocks and fields increase our store,
  When our abundance make us wish for more.

  While ever and anon, there falls
  Huge heaps of hoary, moulder'd walls.




LECTURE III.

OF ARTICLES.

An article is a word prefixed to nouns to limit their signification; as,
_a_ man, _the_ woman.

There are only two articles, _a_ or _an_, and _the. A_ or _an_ is called
the indefinite article. _The_ is called the definite article.

The _indefinite article_ limits the noun to one of a kind, but to no
particular one; as, _a_ house.

The _definite article_ generally limits the noun to a particular object,
or collection of objects; as, _the_ house, _the_ men.

The small claims of the article to a separate rank as a distinct part of
speech, ought not to be admitted in a scientific classification of
words. _A_ and _the, this_ and _that, ten, few_, and _fourth_, and many
other words, are used to restrict, vary, or define the signification of
the nouns to which they are joined. They might, therefore, with
propriety, be ranked under the general head of _Restrictives, Indexes_,
or _Defining Adjectives_. But, as there is a marked distinction in their
particular meaning and application, each class requires a separate
explanation. Hence, no practical advantage would be gained, by rejecting
their established classification, as articles, numerals, and
demonstratives, and by giving them _new_ names. The character and
application of _a_ and _the_ can be learned as soon when they are styled
_articles_, as when they are denominated _specifying_ or _defining
adjectives_.

The history of this part of speech is very brief. As there are but two
articles, _a_ or _an_ and _the_, you will know them wherever they occur.

A noun used without an article, or any other restrictive, is taken in
its _general_ sense; as, _"Fruit_ is abundant;" "_Gold_ is heavy;"
"_Man_ is born to trouble" Here we mean, fruit and gold _in general;_
and _all men_, or _mankind_.

When we wish to limit the meaning of the noun to _one_ object, but to no
_particular_ one, we employ _a_ or _an_. If I say, "Give me _a_ pen;"
"Bring me _an_ apple;" you are at liberty to fetch _any_ pen or _any_
apple you please. _A_ or _an_, then, is _indefinite_, because it leaves
the meaning of the noun to which it is applied, as far as regards the
person spoken to, _vague_, or _indeterminate_; that is, _not definite_.
But when reference is made to a _particular_ object, we employ _the_,
as, "Give me _the_ pen;" "Bring me _the_ apple, or _the_ apple." When
such a requisition is made, you are not at liberty to bring any pen or
apple you please, but you must fetch the _particular_ pen or apple to
which you know me to refer. _The_ is, therefore, called the _definite_
article.

"_A_ star appears." Here, the star referred to, may be known as a
_particular_ star, _definite_, and distinguished from all others, in the
mind of the _speaker_; but to the _hearer_, it is left, among the
thousands that bedeck the vault of heaven, _undistinguished_ and
_indefinite_. But when the star has previously been made the subject of
discourse, it becomes, in the minds of both speaker and hearer a
_definite_ object, and he says, "_The_ star appears;" that is, that
_particular_ star about which we were discoursing.

"Solomon built _a_ temple." Did he build _any_ temple, _undetermined
which?_ No; it was a _particular_ temple, pre-eminently distinguished
from all others. But _how_ does it become a definite object in the mind
of the _hearer_? Certainly, not by the phrase, "_a_ temple," which
indicates _any_ temple, leaving it altogether _undetermined_ which; but
supposing the person addressed was totally unacquainted with the fact
asserted, and it becomes to him, _in one respect only_, a definite and
particular temple, by means of the associated words, "Solomon built;"
that is, by the use of these words in connexion with the others, the
hearer gets the idea of a temple distinguished as _the one erected by
Solomon_. If the speaker were addressing one whom he supposed to be
unacquainted with the fact related, he might make the temple referred to
a still more definite object in the mind of the hearer by a farther
explanation of it; thus, "Solomon built _a_ temple _on mount Zion_; and
that was _the_ temple _to which the Jews resorted to worship_."

  "_The_ lunatic, _the_ poet, and _the_ lover,
  Are of imagination all compact."

"_The_ horse is a noble animal;" "_The_ dog is a faithful creature;"
"_The_ wind blows;" "_The_ wolves were howling in _the_ woods." In these
examples, we do not refer to any particular lunatics, poets, lovers,
horses, dogs, winds, wolves, and woods, but we refer to these
_particular classes_ of things, in contradistinction to other objects or
classes. The phrase, "Neither _the_ one nor _the_ other," is an idiom of
the language.

    REMARKS.--This method of elucidating the articles, which is popular
    with Blair, Priestley, Lowth, Johnson, Harris, Beattie, Coote,
    Murray, and many other distinguished philologists, is discarded by
    some of our modern writers. But, by proving that this theory is
    exceptionable, they by no means make it appear, that it ought,
    therefore, to be rejected.

    Exceptionable or not, they have not been able to supply its place
    with one that is more _convenient in practice_. Neither have they
    adopted one _less_ exceptionable. The truth is, after all which can
    be done to render the definitions and rules of grammar comprehensive
    and accurate, they will still be found, when critically examined by
    men of learning and science, more or less exceptionable. These
    exceptions and imperfections are the unavoidable consequence of the
    imperfections of the language. Language, as well as every thing else
    of human invention, will always be _imperfect_. Consequently, a
    _perfect_ system of grammatical principles, would not suit it. A
    _perfect_ grammar will not be produced, until some _perfect_ being
    writes it for a _perfect_ language; and a perfect language will not
    be constructed, until some _super-human_ agency is employed in its
    production. All grammatical principles and systems which are not
    _perfect_, are _exceptionable_.

    NOTES.

    1. The article is _omitted_ before nouns implying the different
    virtues, vices, passions, qualities, sciences, arts, metals, herbs,
    &c.; as, "_Modesty_ is becoming; _Falsehood_ is odious; _Grammar_ is
    useful," &c.

    2. The article is not prefixed to proper nouns; as, _Barron_ killed
    _Decatur_; except by way of eminence, or for the sake of
    distinguishing a particular family, or when some noun is understood;
    as, "He is not _a_ Franklin; He is _a_ Lee, or of the family of
    _the_ Lees; We sailed down _the_ (river) Missouri."

    3. An _adjective_ is frequently placed between the article and the
    noun with which the article agrees; as, "A _good_ boy; an
    _industrious_ man." Sometimes the adjective precedes the article;
    as, "As _great_ a man as Alexander; _Such_ a shame."

    4. In referring to many individuals, when we wish to bring each
    separately under consideration, the indefinite article is sometimes
    placed between the adjective _many_ and a singular noun; as, "Where
    _many a rosebud_ rears its blushing head;" "Full _many a flower_ is
    born to blush unseen."

    5. The definite article _the_ is frequently applied to _adverbs_ in
    the comparative or superlative degree; as, "_The more_ I examine it,
    _the better_ I like it," "I like this _the least_ of any."

You may proceed and parse the following articles, when you shall have
committed this

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING

_The order of parsing an_ Article, is--an article, and why?--definite or
indefinite, and why?--with what noun does it agree?--RULE.

    "He is _the_ son of _a_ king."

_The_ is an article, a word prefixed to a noun to limit its
signification--definite, it limits the noun to a particular object--it
belongs to the noun "son," according to

RULE 2. _The definite article_ the _belongs to nouns in the singular or
plural number_.

_A_ is an article, a word placed before a noun to limit its
signification--indefinite, it limits the noun to one of a kind, but to
no particular one--it agrees with "king," agreeably to

RULE 1. _The article_ a _or_ an _agrees with nouns in the singular
number only_.

    NOTE. By considering the original meaning of this article, the
    propriety of Rule 1, will appear. _A_ or _an_, (formerly written
    _ane,)_ being equivalent to _one, any one_, or _some one_, cannot be
    prefixed to nouns in the plural number. There is, however, an
    exception to this rule. _A_ is placed before a plural noun when any
    of the following adjectives come between the article and the noun:
    _few, great, many, dozen, hundred, thousand, million_; as, _a_ few
    _men, a_ thousand _houses_, &c.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

A bird sings. An eagle flies. Mountains stand. The multitude pursue
pleasure. The reaper reaps the farmer's grain. Farmers mow the grass.
Farmers' boys spread the hay. The clerk sells the merchant's goods. An
ostrich outruns an Arab's horse. Cecrops founded Athens. Gallileo
invented the telescope. James Macpherson translated Ossian's poems. Sir
Francis Drake circumnavigated the globe. Doctor Benjamin Franklin
invented the lightning-rod. Washington Irving wrote the Sketch-Book.

I will now offer a few remarks on the misapplication of the articles,
which, with the exercise of your own discriminating powers, will enable
you to use them with propriety. But, before you proceed, please to
answer the following

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING.

How many articles are there?--In what sense is a noun taken, when it has
no article to limit it?--Repeat the _order_ of parsing an article.--What
rule applies in parsing the _definite_ article?--What rule in parsing
the _indefinite_?

       *       *       *       *       *

    PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.

    A, AN, THE.

    In a scientific arrangement of grammatical principles, _a_ and _the_
    belong to that class of adjectives denominated _definitives_ or
    _restrictives_.

    _A, an, ane_, or _one_, is the past participle of _ananad_, to add,
    to join. It denotes that the thing to which it is prefixed, is
    _added, united, aned, an-d, oned, (woned,)_ or made _one_.

    _The_ and _that_. According to Horne Tooke, _the_ is the imperative,
    and _that_, the past participle, of the Anglo-Saxon verb _thean_, to
    get, take, assume. _The_ and _that_ had, originally, the same
    meaning. The difference in their present application, is a modern
    refinement. Hence, _that_, as well as _the_, was formerly used,
    indifferently, before either a singular or a plural noun.

       *       *       *       *       *

QUESTIONS ON THE NOTES.

Before what nouns is the article omitted?--Is the article _the_ ever
applied to adverbs?--Give examples.--What is the meaning of _a_ or _an_?
--When is _a_ or _an_ placed before a plural noun?--From what are _a,
the_, and _that_ derived?

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX.

NOTE TO RULE 1. _An_ is used before a vowel or silent _h_, and _a_
before a consonant or _u_ long, and also before the word _one_.

It is not only disagreeable to the ear, but, according to this note,
improper to say, _a_ apple, _a_ humble suppliant, _an_ hero, _an_
university, because the word _apple_ begins with a vowel, and _h_ is not
sounded in the word _humble_, for which reasons _a_ should be _an_ in
the first two examples; but, as the _h_ is sounded in _hero_, and the
_u_ is long in _university, a_ ought to be prefixed to these words:
thus, _an_ apple, _an_ humble suppliant: _a_ hero, _a_ university. You
may correct the following


EXAMPLES.

A enemy, a inkstand, a hour, an horse, an herald, an heart, an heathen,
an union, a umbrella, an useful book, many an one. This is an hard
saying. They met with an heavy loss. He would not give an hat for an
horse.

NOTE 1, TO RULE 2. The articles are often properly omitted: when used
they should be justly applied, according to their distinct character;
as, "Gold is corrupting; _The_ sea is green; _A_ lion is bold." It would
be improper to say, _The_ gold is corrupting; Sea is green; Lion is
bold.

The grass is good for horses, and the wheat for men. Grass is good for
the horses, and wheat for the men. Grass looks well. Wheat is blighted.

In the first of these sentences, we are not speaking of any particular
kind of _grass_ or _wheat_, neither do we wish to limit the meaning to
any particular crop or field of grass, or quantity of wheat; but we are
speaking of grass and wheat generally, therefore the article _the_
should be omitted. In the second sentence, we do not refer to any
definite kind, quality, or number of _horses_ or _men_; but to horses
and men generally; that is, the terms are here used to denote _whole
species_, therefore, the article should be omitted, and the sentence
should read thus, "Grass is good for horses, and wheat for men."

In the third and fourth examples, we wish to limit our meaning to the
crops of _grass_ and _wheat_ now on the ground, which, in
contradistinction to the crops heretofore raised, are considered as
_particular_ objects; therefore we should say, "_The_ grass looks
well; _The_ wheat is blighted."

NOTE 2. When a noun is used in its _general_ sense, the article should
be omitted; as, "_Poetry_ is a pleasing art;" "_Oranges_ grow in New
Orleans."

FALSE SYNTAX.

Corn in the garden, grows well; but corn in the field, does not. How
does the tobacco sell? The tobacco is dear. How do you like the study of
the grammar? The grammar is a pleasing study. A candid temper is proper
for the man. World is wide. The man is mortal. And I persecuted this way
unto the death. The earth, the air, the fire, and the water, are the
four elements of the old philosophers.

       *       *       *       *       *




LECTURE IV.

OF ADJECTIVES.

An ADJECTIVE is a word added to a noun to express its quality or kind,
or to restrict its meaning; as, a _good_ man, a _bad_ man, _a free_ man,
an _unfortunate_ man, _one_ man, _forty_ men.

In the phrases, a _good_ apple, a _bad_ apple, a _large_ apple, a
_small_ apple, a _red_ apple, a _white_ apple, a _green_ apple, a
_sweet_ apple, a _sour_ apple, a _bitter_ apple, a _round_ apple, a
_hard_ apple, a _soft_ apple, a _mellow_ apple, a _fair_ apple, a _May_
apple, an _early_ apple, a _late_ apple, a _winter_ apple, a _crab_
apple, a _thorn_ apple, a _well-tasted_ apple, an _ill-looking_ apple, a
_water-cored_ apple, you perceive that all those words in _italics_ are
adjectives, because each expresses some quality or property of the noun
apple, or it shows what _kind_ of an apple it is of which we are
speaking.

The distinction between a _noun_ and an _adjective_ is very clear. A
noun is the _name_ of a thing; but an adjective denotes simply the
_quality_ or _property_ of a thing. This is _fine cloth_. In this
example, the difference between the word denoting the _thing_, and that
denoting the _quality_ of it, is easily perceived. You certainly cannot
be at a loss to know, that the word _cloth_ expresses the _name_, and
_fine_, the _quality_, of the _thing_; consequently _fine_ must be an
_adjective_. If I say, He is a _wise_ man, a _prudent_ man, a _wicked_
man, or an _ungrateful_ man, the words in _italics_ are adjectives,
because each expresses a _quality_ of the noun man. And, if I say, He is
a _tall_ man, a _short_ man, a _white_ man, a _black_ man, or a
_persecuted_ man, the words, _tall, short, white, black_, and
_persecuted_, are also adjectives, because they tell what _kind_ of a
man he is of whom I am speaking, or they attribute to him some
particular property.

Some adjectives _restrict_ or _limit_ the signification of the nouns to
which they are joined, and are, therefore, sometimes called
_definitives_; as, _one_ era, _seven_ ages, the _first_ man, the _whole_
mass, _no_ trouble, _those_ men, _that_ book, _all_ regions.

Other adjectives _define_ or _describe_ nouns, or do both; as, _fine_
silk, _blue_ paper, a _heavy_ shower, _pure_ water, _green_ mountains,
_bland_ breezes, _gurgling_ rills, _glass_ window, _window_ glass,
_beaver_ hats, _chip_ bonnets, _blackberry_ ridge, _Monroe_ garden,
_Juniata_ iron, _Cincinnati_ steam-mill.

Some adjectives are _secondary_, and qualify other adjectives; as,
_pale_ red lining, _dark_ blue silk, _deep sea_ green sash, _soft_ iron
blooms, _red hot_ iron plate.

You will frequently find the adjective placed after the noun; as, "Those
_men_ are _tall_; A _lion_ is _bold_; The _weather_ is _calm_; The
_tree_ is three feet _thick_."

Should you ever be at a loss to distinguish an adjective from the other
parts of speech, the following sign will enable you to tell it. Any word
that will make sense with the word _thing_ added, or with any other noun
following it, is an adjective; as, a _high_ thing, a _low_ thing, a
_hot_ thing, a _cold_ thing, an _unfinished_ thing, a _new-fashioned_
thing:--or, a _pleasant_ prospect, a _long-deserted_ dwelling, an
_American_ soldier, a _Greek_ Testament. Are these words adjectives,
_distant, yonder, peaceful, long-sided, double-headed?_ A distant
_object_ or _thing_, yonder _hill_, &c. They are. They will make sense
with a noun after them. Adjectives sometimes become adverbs. This matter
will be explained in Lecture VI. In parsing, you may generally know an
adjective by its _qualifying a noun or pronoun_.

Most words ending in _ing_ are _present participles_. These are
frequently used as adjectives; therefore, most participles will make
sense with the addition of the word thing, or any other noun, after
them; as, a _pleasing_ thing, a _moving_ spectacle, _mouldering_ ruins.

In the Latin language, and many others, adjectives, like nouns, have
gender, number, and case; but in the English language, they have neither
gender, person, number, nor case. These properties belong to _creatures_
and _things_, and not to their _qualities_; therefore gender, person,
number, and case, are the properties of _nouns_, and _not_ of
adjectives.

Adjectives are varied only to express the degrees of comparison. They
have three degrees of comparison, the Positive, the Comparative, and the
Superlative.

The _positive degree_ expresses the quality of an object without any
increase or diminution; as, _good, wise, great_.

The _comparative degree_ increases or lessens the positive in
signification; as, _better, wiser, greater, less wise_.

The _superlative degree_ increases or lessens the positive to the
highest or lowest degree; as, _best, wisest, greatest, least wise_.

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.

_More_ and _most_ form the comparative and superlative degrees by
increasing the positive; and _less_ and _least_, by diminishing it.

Comparison by increasing the positive

_Pos._         _Comp._         _Sup._
great,        greater,        greatest.
wise,         wiser,          wisest.
holy,         more holy       most holy.
frugal,       more frugal     most frugal.

Comparison by diminishing the positive.

_Pos._         _Comp._         _Sup._
wise,         less wise       least wise.
holy,         less holy,      least holy.
frugal,       less frugal,    least frugal.

NUMERAL ADJECTIVES.

Words used in counting, are called _numeral adjectives_ of the
_cardinal_ kind; as, _one, two, three, four, twenty, fifty,_ &c.

Words used in numbering, are called _numeral adjectives_ of the
_ordinal_ kind; as, _first, second, third, fourth, twentieth, fiftieth,_
&c.

    NOTE. The words _many, few_, and _several_, as they always refer to
    an indefinite number, may be properly called _numeral adjectives_ of
    the indefinite kind.

    NOTES.

    1. The simple word, or Positive, becomes the Comparative by adding
    _r_, or _er_; and the Positive becomes the Superlative, by adding
    _st_, or _est_, to the end of it; as, Pos. wise, Com. wise_r_, Sup.
    wise_st_; rich, rich_er_, rich_est_; bold, bold_er_, bold_est_. The
    adverbs, _more_ and _most, less_ and _least_, when placed before the
    adjective, have the same effect; as, Pos. wise, Com. _more_ wise,
    Sup. _most_ wise; Pos. wise, Com. _less_ wise, Sup. _least_ wise.

    2. _Monosyllables_ are generally compared by adding _er_ and _est;
    dissyllables, trisyllables_, &c. by _more_ and _most_; as, mild,
    milder, mildest; frugal, more frugal, most frugal; virtuous, more
    virtuous, most virtuous. Dissyllables ending in _y_; as, happy,
    lovely; and in _le_ after a mute; as, able, ample; and dissyllables
    accented on the last syllable; as, discreet, polite; easily admit of
    _er_ and _est_; as, happi_er_, happi_est_; polit_er_, _polit_est_.
    Words of more than two syllables very seldom admit of these
    terminations.

    3. When the positive ends in _d_, or _t_, preceded by a _single_
    vowel, the consonant is doubled in forming the comparative and
    superlative degrees; as red, _redder, reddest_; hot, _hotter,
    hottest_.

    4. In some words the superlative is formed by adding _most_ to the
    end of them; as, nethermost, uttermost or utmost, undermost,
    uppermost, foremost.

    5. In English, as in most languages, there are some words of very
    common use, (in which the caprice of custom is apt to get the better
    of analogy,) that are irregular in forming the degrees of
    comparison; as, "Good, better, best; bad, worse, worst; little,
    less, least; much or many, more, most; near, nearer, nearest or
    next; late, later, latest or last; old, older or elder, oldest or
    eldest;" and a few others.

    6. The following adjectives, and many others, are always in the
    _superlative_ degree, because, by expressing a quality in the
    highest degree, they carry in themselves a superlative
    signification: _chief, extreme, perfect, right, wrong, honest, just,
    true, correct, sincere, vast, immense, ceaseless, infinite, endless,
    unparalleled, universal, supreme, unlimited, omnipotent, all-wise,
    eternal_.

    7. Compound adjectives, and adjectives denoting qualities arising
    from the figure of bodies, do not admit of comparison; such as,
    _well-formed, frost-bitten, round, square, oblong, circular,
    quadrangular, conical_, &c.

    8. The termination _ish_ added to adjectives, expresses a slight
    degree of quality below the comparative; as, _black, blackish; salt,
    saltish. Very_, prefixed to the comparative, expresses a degree of
    quality, but not always a superlative degree.

Read this Lecture carefully, particularly the NOTES; after which you may
parse the following adjectives and neuter verb, and, likewise, the
examples that follow. If you cannot repeat all the definitions and
rules, spread the Compendium when you parse. But before you proceed,
please to commit the

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.

_The order of parsing an_ ADJECTIVE, is--an adjective, and why?--compare
it--degree of comparison, and why?--to what noun does it belong?--RULE.

    That _great_ nation _was_ once _powerful_; but now it is _feeble_.

_Great_ is an adjective, a word added to a noun to express its
quality--pos. great, com. greater, sup. greatest--it is in the positive
degree, it expresses the quality of an object without any increase or
diminution, and belongs to the noun "nation," according to

RULE 18. _Adjectives belong to, and qualify, nouns expressed or
understood_.

_Was_ is a verb, a word that signifies to be--neuter, it expresses
neither action nor passion, but being or a state of being--third person
singular, because its nominative "nation" is a noun of multitude
conveying _unity_ of idea--it agrees with "nation," agreeably to RULE
10. _A noun of multitude conveying_ unity _of idea, may have a verb or
pronoun agreeing with it in the_ singular.

_Powerful_ is an adjective belonging to "nation," according to Rule 18.
_Feeble_ belongs to "it," according to Note 1, under Rule 18. _Is_ is a
neuter verb agreeing with "it," agreeably to Rule 4.

    "Bonaparte entered Russia with 400,000 men."

_Four-hundred-thousand_ is a numeral adjective of the cardinal kind, it
is a word used in counting, and belongs to the noun "men," according to
Note 2, under Rule 18. _Numeral adjectives belong to nouns, which nouns
must agree in number with their adjectives_.

If, in parsing the following examples, you find any words about which
you are at a loss, you will please to turn back, and parse all the
foregoing examples again. This course will enable you to proceed without
any difficulty.

_More_ is an adverb. _Of_ and _to_ are prepositions, governing the nouns
that follow them in the objective case.

EXERCISES IN PARSING. A benevolent man helps indigent beggars.
Studious scholars learn many long lessons. Wealthy merchants own large
ships. The heavy ships bear large burdens; the lighter ships carry less
burdens. Just poets use figurative language. Ungrammatical expressions
offend a true critic's ear. Weak critics magnify trifling errors. No
composition is perfect. The rabble was tumultuous. The late-washed grass
looks green. Shady trees form a delightful arbor. The setting sun makes
a beautiful appearance; the variegated rainbow appears more beautiful.
Epaminondas was the greatest of the Theban generals; Pelopidas was next
to Epaminondas.

The first fleet contained three hundred men; the second contained four
thousand. The earth contains one thousand million inhabitants. Many a
cheering ray brightens the good man's pathway.

    NOTE. _Like, Worth_. The adjective _like_ is a contraction of the
    participle _likened_, and generally has the preposition _unto_
    understood after it. "She is _like_ [_unto_] her brother." "They are
    _unlike_ [_to_] him." "The kingdom of heaven is _like_ [_likened_ or
    made _like_] _unto_ a householder."

    The noun _worth_ has altogether dropped its associated words. "The
    cloth is _worth_ ten dollars _a_ yard;" that is, The cloth is _of
    the_ worth _of_ ten dollars _by the_ yard, or _for a, one_, or
    _every yard_.

    Some eminent philologists do not admit the propriety of supplying an
    ellipsis after _like, worth, ere, but, except_, and _than_, but
    consider them prepositions. See Anomalies, in the latter part of
    this work.

REMARKS ON ADJECTIVES AND NOUNS.

A critical analysis requires that the adjective when used without its
noun, should be parsed as an adjective belonging to its noun understood;
as, "The _virtuous_ [_persons_] and the _sincere_ [_persons_] are always
respected;" "Providence rewards the _good_ [_people,_] and punishes the
_bad_ [_people._]"

  "The _evil_ [_deed_ or _deeds_] that men do, lives after them;
  "The _good_ [_deed_ or _deeds_] is oft-interred with their bones."

But sometimes the adjective, by its _manner_ of meaning, becomes a noun,
and has another adjective joined to it; as, "the chief _good_;" "The
vast _immense_ [_immensity_] of space."

Various nouns placed before other nouns, assume the character of
adjectives, according to their _manner_ of meaning; as, "_Sea_ fish,
_iron_ mortar, _wine_ vessel, _gold_ watch, _corn_ field, _meadow_
ground, _mountain_ height."

The principle which recognises _custom_ as the standard of grammatical
accuracy, might rest for its support on the usage of only _six_ words,
and defy all the subtleties of innovating skeptics to gainsay it. If the
genius and analogy of our language were the standard, it would be
correct to observe this analogy, and say, "Good, good_er_, good_est_;
bad, bad_der_, bad_dest_; little, littl_er_, littl_est_; much,
much_er_; much_est_." "By _this mean_;" "What _are_ the _news_." But such
a criterion betrays only the weakness of those who attempt to establish
it. Regardless of the dogmas and edicts of the philosophical umpire, the
good sense of the people will cause them, in this instance, as well as
in a thousand others, to yield to _custom_, and say, "Good, _better,
best_; bad, _worse, worst_; little, _less, least_; much, _more, most_;"
"By _this means_;" "What _is_ the _news_?"

With regard to the using of adjectives and other qualifying words, care
must be taken, or your language will frequently amount to absurdity or
nonsense. Let the following general remark, which is better than a dozen
rules, put you on your guard. Whenever you utter a sentence, or put your
pen on paper to write, weigh well in your mind _the meaning of the
words_ which you are about to employ. See that they convey precisely the
ideas which you wish to express by them, and thus you will avoid
innumerable errors. In speaking of a man, we may say, with propriety, he
is _very_ wicked, or _exceedingly_ lavish, because the terms _wicked_ and
_lavish_ are adjectives that admit of comparison; but, if we take the
words in their literal acceptation, there is a solecism in calling a man
_very_ honest, or _exceedingly_ just, for the words _honest_ and _just_,
literally admit of no comparison. In point of fact, a man is _honest_ or
_dishonest, just_ or _unjust_: there can be no medium or excess in this
respect. _Very_ correct, _very_ incorrect, _very_ right, _very_ wrong,
are common expressions; but they are not _literally_ proper. What is not
_correct_, must be _incorrect_; and that which is not _incorrect_, must
be _correct_: what is not _right_, must be _wrong_; and that which is
not _wrong_, must be _right_. To avoid that circumlocution which must
otherwise take place, our best speakers and writers, however, frequently
compare adjectives which do not literally admit of comparison: "The
_most established_ practice;" "The _most uncertain_ method;" "Irving, as
a writer, _is far more accurate_ than Addison;" "The metaphysical
investigations of our philosophical grammars, are _still more
incomprehensible_ to the learner." Comparisons like these, should
generally be avoided; but sometimes they are so convenient in practice,
as to render them admissible. Such expressions can be reconciled with
the principles of grammar, only by considering them as figurative.

Comparative members of sentences, should be set in _direct opposition_
to each other; as, "Pope was _rich_, but Goldsmith was _poor_." The
following sentences are inaccurate: "Solomon was _wiser_ than Cicero was
_eloquent_." "The principles of the reformation were _deeper_ in the
prince's mind than to be _easily eradicated_." This latter sentence
contains _no comparison_ at all; neither does it literally convey _any
meaning_. Again, if the Psalmist had said, "I am the wisest of my
teachers," he would have spoken absurdly, because the phrase would
imply, that he was one of his teachers. But in saying, "I am wiser
_than_ my teachers," he does not consider himself one of them, but
places himself in contradistinction to them.

Before you proceed any farther, you may answer the following

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING.

What is the distinction between a noun and an adjective?--By what sign
may an adjective be known?--Are participles ever used as
adjectives?--Does gender, person, number, or case, belong to
adjectives?--How are they varied?--Name the three degrees of
comparison.--What effect have _less_ and _least_ in comparing
adjectives?--Repeat the order of parsing an adjective.--What rule
applies in parsing an adjective?--What rule in parsing a verb agreeing
with a noun of multitude conveying _unity_ of idea?--What Note should be
applied in parsing an adjective which belongs to a pronoun?--What Note
in parsing _numeral_ adjectives?

QUESTIONS ON THE NOTES. Repeat all the various ways of forming the
degrees of comparison, mentioned in the first five NOTES.--Compare these
adjectives; _ripe, frugal, mischievous, happy, able, good, little, much_
or _many, near, late, old_.--Name some adjectives that are always in the
superlative, and never compared.--Are compound adjectives
compared?--What is said of the termination _ish_, and of the adverb
_very?_--When does an adjective become a noun?--What character does a
noun assume when placed before another noun?--How can you prove that
_custom_ is the standard of grammatical accuracy?

       *       *       *       *       *

    PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.

    ADNOUNS.

    _Adnoun_ or _Adjective_, comes from the Latin, _ad_ and _jicio_, to
    _add to_.

    Adnouns are a class of words added to nouns to vary their
    comprehension, or to determine their extension. Those which effect
    the former object, are called _adjectives_, or _attributes;_ and
    those which effect the latter, _restrictives_. It is not, in all
    cases, easy to determine to which of these classes an adnoun should
    be referred. Words which express simply the _qualities_ of nouns,
    are adjectives; and such as denote their _situation_ or _number_,
    are restrictives.

    Adjectives were originally nouns or verbs.

    Some consider the adjective, in its present application, _exactly_
    equivalent to a noun connected to another noun by means of
    juxtaposition, of a preposition, or of a corresponding flexion. "A
    _golden_ cup," say they, "is the same as a _gold_ cup, or a cup _of
    gold_." But this principle appears to be exceptionable. "A cup _of
    gold_," may mean either a cup-_full_ of gold, or a cup _made_ of
    gold. "An _oaken_ cask," signifies an _oak_ cask, or a cask _of
    oak_; i.e. a cask _made_ of oak; but a _beer_ cask, and a cask _of
    beer_, are two different things. A _virtuous_ son; a son _of
    virtue_.

    The distinguishing characteristic of the adjective, appears to
    consist in its both _naming_ a quality, and _attributing_ that
    quality to some object.

    The terminations _en, ed_, and _ig_ (our modern _y_,) signifying
    _give, add, join_, denote that the names of qualities to which they
    are postfixed, are to be attributed to other nouns possessing such
    qualities: wood-_en_, wood-_y_. See page 37.

    _Left_ is the past participle of the verb _leave_. Horne Tooke
    defines _right_ to be that which is _ordered_ or _directed_. The
    _right_ hand is that which your parents and custom direct you to use
    in preference to the other. And when you employ that in preference,
    the other is the _leaved, leav'd_, or _left_ hand; i.e. the one
    _leaved_ or _left_. "The one shall be taken, and the other _(leaved)
    left_."

    _Own_. Formerly a man's _own_ was what he _worked for, own_ being a
    past participle of a verb signifying to _work_.

    _Restrictive_. Some restrictives, in modern times, are applied only
    to singular nouns; such as _a_ or _an, another, one, this, that,
    each, every, either_. Others, only to plural nouns; as, _these,
    those, two, three, few, several, all_. But most restrictives, like
    adjectives, are applied to both singular and plural nouns: _first,
    second, last, the, former, latter, any, such, same, some, which,
    what_.

    _Numerals_. All numeration was, doubtless, originally performed by
    the fingers; for the number of the fingers is still the utmost
    extent of its signification. _Ten_ is the past participle of
    _tynan_, to close, to shut in. The hands _tyned, tened_, closed, or
    shut in, signified _ten_; for there numeration _closed_. To denote a
    number greater than ten, we must begin again, _ten_ and _one, ten_
    and _two_, &c.

    _Twain, twa-in, twa-ain, twa-ane_, is a compound of _two (twa, twae,
    twee, twi, two_ or _dwo_ or _duo)_ and _one (ane, ain, an.)_ It
    signifies _two_ units _joined, united, aned,_ or _oned. Twenty
    (twa-ane-ten)_ signifies _two tens aned, oned_, or _united_. Things
    _separated_ into parcels of twenty each, are called _scores. Score_
    is the past participle of _shear_, to _separate_.

    _The Ordinals_ are formed like abstract nouns in _eth. Fifth,
    sixth_, or _tenth_ is the number which _fiv-eth, six-eth, ten-eth_,
    or mak-_eth_ up the number _five, six_, or _ten_.

    Philosophical writers who limit our acceptation of words to that in
    which they were _originally_ employed, and suppose that all the
    complicated, yet often definable, associations which the gradual
    progress of language and intellect has connected with words, are to
    be reduced to _the standard of our forefathers_; appear not to have
    sufficiently attended to the _changes_ which this principle of
    association actually produces. As language is transmitted from
    generation to generation, many words become the representatives of
    ideas with which they were not originally associated; and thus they
    undergo a change, not only in the _mode_ of their application, but
    also in their meaning. Words being the signs of things, their
    meaning must necessarily change as much, _at least_, as things
    themselves change; but this variation in their import more
    frequently depends on accidental circumstances. Among the ideas
    connected with a word that which was once of primary, becomes only
    of secondary importance; and sometimes, by degrees, it loses
    altogether its connexion with the word, giving place to others with
    which, from some accidental causes, it has been associated.

    Two or three instances will illustrate the truth of these remarks.
    In an ancient English version of the New Testament, we find the
    following language: "I, Paul, a _rascal_ of Jesus Christ, unto you
    Gentiles," &c. But who, in the present acceptation of the word,
    would dare to call "the great apostle of the Gentiles" a _rascal?
    Rascal_ formerly meant a _servant:_ one devoted to the interest of
    another; but now it is nearly synonymous with _villain. Villain_
    once had none of the odium which is now associated with the term;
    but it signified one who, under the feudal system, rented or held
    lands of another. Thus, Henry the VIII. says to a vassal or tenant,
    "As you are an accomplished _villain_, I order that you receive £700
    out of the public treasury." The word _villain_, then, has given up
    its original idea, and become the representative of a new one, the
    word _tenant_ having supplanted it. To prove that the meaning of
    words _changes_, a thousand examples could be adduced; but with the
    intelligent reader, proof is unnecessary.

       *       *       *       *       *

QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.

How are adnouns divided?--What constitutes the true character of an
adjective?--What are the signification and denotement of the
terminations, _en, ed_, and _ig?_--What do _left_ and _own_
signify?--Name the three ways in which restrictives are applied.--How
was numeration originally performed?--What is said of _twain, twenty,
score_, and the ordinal numbers?--What is said of the changes produced
in the meaning of words, by the principle of association?

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. NOTE 9, under RULE 18. Double _Comparatives_
and _Superlatives_ should be avoided; such as, _worser, lesser, more_
deeper, _more_ wickeder, &c.: _chiefest, supremest, perfectest,
rightest_; or _more_ perfect, _most_ perfect, _most_ supreme, &c.

    Virtue confers the most supreme dignity on man, and it should be his
    chiefest desire.

    He made the greater light to rule the day, and the lesser light to
    rule the night.

The phrases "most supreme," and "chiefest," in the first sentence, are
incorrect, because _supreme_ and _chief_ are in the superlative degree
without having the superlative form superadded, which addition makes
them double superlatives. They should be written, "confers supreme
dignity," and, "his chief desire."

We can say, one thing is _less_ than another, or _smaller_ than another,
because the adjectives _less_ and _smaller_ are in the comparative
degree; but the phrase "_lesser_ light," in the second sentence, is
inaccurate. _Lesser_ is a double comparative, which, according to the
preceding Note, should be avoided. _Lesser_ is as incorrect as _badder,
gooder, worser_. "The _smaller_ light," would be less exceptionable. You
can correct the following without my assistance. Correct them _four_
times over.

The pleasures of the understanding are more preferable than those of
imagination or sense. The tongue is like a race-horse, which runs the
faster the lesser weight it carries. The nightingale's voice is the most
sweetest in the grove. The Most Highest hath created us for his glory,
He was admitted to the chiefest offices. The first witness gave a strong
proof of the fact; the next more stronger still; but the last witness,
the most stronger of all. He gave the fullest and the most sincere proof
of the truer friendship.




LECTURE V.

OF PARTICIPLES.

A PARTICIPLE is a word derived from a verb, and partakes of the nature
of a verb, and also of an adjective.

Verbs have three participles, the present or imperfect, the perfect, and
the compound.

The _present_ or _imperfect_ participle denotes action or being
continued, but not perfected. It always ends in _ing_; as, _ruling,
being_: "I am _writing_ a letter."

The _perfect_ participle denotes action or being perfected or finished.
When derived from a regular verb, it ends in _ed_, and corresponds with
the imperfect tense; as, _ruled, smiled:_ "The letter is _written_."

The _compound_ participle implies action or being completed before the
time referred to. It is formed by placing _having_ before the perfect
participle; as, _having ruled, having been ruled: "Having written_ the
letter, he mailed it."

The term _Participle_ comes from the Latin word _participio_, which
signifies to _partake_: and this name is given to this part of speech,
because it _partakes_ of the nature of the verb and of the adjective.

By many writers, the participle is classed with the verb, and treated as
a part of it; but, as it has no nominative, partakes of the nature of an
adjective, requires many syntactical rules which apply not to the verb,
and, in some other respects, has properties peculiar to itself, it is
believed that its character is sufficiently distinct from the verb, to
entitle it to the rank of a separate part of speech. It is, in fact, the
connecting link between, not only the adjective and the verb, but also
the noun and the verb.

All participles are compound in their meaning and office. Like verbs,
they express action and being, and denote time; and, like adjectives,
they describe the nouns of which they denote the action or being. In the
sentences, The boatman is _crossing_ the river; I see a man _laboring_
in the field; Charles is _standing_; you perceive that the participles
_crossing_ and _laboring_ express the actions of the boatman and the
man, and _standing_ the state of being of Charles. In these respects,
then, they partake of the nature of verbs. You also notice, that they
_describe_ the several nouns associated with them, like describing
adjectives; and that, in this respect, they participate the properties
of adjectives. And, furthermore, you observe they denote actions which
are still going on; that is, _incomplete_ or _unfinished_ actions; for
which reason we call them _imperfect_ participles.

Perhaps I can illustrate their character more clearly. When the
imperfect or present and perfect participles are placed before nouns,
they become defining or describing adjectives, and are denominated
_participial adjectives_; as, A _loving_ companion; The _rippling_
stream; _Roaring_ winds; A _wilted_ leaf; An _accomplished_ scholar.
Here the words _loving, rippling, roaring, wilted_, and _accomplished_,
describe or define the nouns with which they are associated. And where
the participles are placed after their nouns, they have, also, this
descriptive quality. If I say, I see the moon _rising_; The horse is
_running_ a race; The dog is _beaten_; I describe the several objects,
as a _rising_ moon, a _running_ horse, and a _beaten_ dog, as well as
when I place these participles before the nouns. The same word is a
participle or a participial adjective, according to its manner of
meaning. The preceding illustration, however, shows that this
distinction is founded on a very slight shade of difference in the
meaning of the two. The following examples will enable you to
distinguish the one from the other.

_Participles.                   Participial adjectives_.

See the sun _setting_.       See the _setting_ sun.
See the moon _rising_.       See the _rising_ moon.
The wind is _roaring_.       Hear the _roaring_ wind.
The twig is _broken_.        The _broken_ twig fell.
The vessel _anchored_ in the The _anchored_ vessel spreads
  bay, lost her mast.               her sail.

The _present_ or _imperfect_ participle is known by its ending in _ing_;
as, float_ing_, rid_ing_, hear_ing_, see_ing_. These are derived from
the verbs, _float, ride, hear_, and _see_. But some words ending in
_ing_ are not participles; such as _evening, morning, hireling, sapling,
uninteresting, unbelieving, uncontrolling_. When you parse a word ending
in _ing_, you should always consider whether it comes from a verb or
not. There is such a verb as _interest_, hence you know that the word
_interesting_ is a participle; but there is no such verb as
_un_interest, consequently, _un_interesting can _not_ be a participle:
but it is an adjective; as, an _uninteresting_ story. You will be able
very easily to distinguish the participle from the other parts of
speech, when you shall have acquired a more extensive knowledge of the
verb.

Speak the participles from each of these verbs, learn, walk, shun,
smile, sail, conquer, manage, reduce, relate, discover, overrate,
disengage. Thus, Pres. _learning_, Perf. _learned_, Comp. _having
learned_. Pres. _walking_, Perf. _walked_, Compound, _having walked_,
and so on.

You may now commit the _order_ of parsing a participle, and then proceed
with me.

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.

The _order of parsing_ a PARTICIPLE, is--a participle, and why?--from
what verb is it derived?--speak the three--present, perfect, or
compound, and why?--to what does it refer or belong?--RULE.

    "I saw a vessel _sailing"_

_Sailing_ is a participle, a word derived from a verb, and partakes of
the nature of a verb, and also of an adjective--it comes from the verb
to sail--pres. sailing, perf. sailed, comp. having sailed--it is a
present or imperfect participle, because it denotes the continuance of
an unfinished action--and refers to the noun "vessel" for its subject,
according to

RULE 27. _The present participle refers to some noun or pronoun denoting
the subject or actor_.

    "Not a breath disturbs the _sleeping_ billow."

_Sleeping_ is a participial adjective, a word added to a noun to express
its quality--it cannot, with propriety, be compared--- it belongs to the
noun "billow," agreeably to

RULE 18. _Adjectives belong to, and qualify, nouns expressed or
understood_.

You will please to parse these two words several times over, and, by a
little reflection, you will perfectly understand the 27th RULE.
Recollect, the participle never varies its termination to _agree_ with a
noun or pronoun, for, as it has no _nominative_, it has no agreement;
but it simply _refers to_ an actor. Examples: I see a _vessel_ sailing;
or, I see three _vessels_ sailing. You perceive that the participle
_sailing_ refers to a singular noun in the first example, and to a
plural noun in the second; and yet the participle is in the same form in
both examples. The noun _vessel_ is in the objective case, and governed
by the transitive verb _see_. But when a verb follows a noun, the ending
of the verb generally varies in order to agree with the noun which is
its nominative; as, the vessel _sails;_ the vessels _sail_.

In this place it may not be improper to notice another Rule that relates
to the participle. In the sentence, "The man is _beating_ his horse,"
the noun _horse_ is in the objective case, because it is the object of
the action expressed by the active-transitive participle "beating," and
it is governed by the participle beating, according to

RULE 26. _Participles have the same government as the verbs have from
which they are derived_.

The principle upon which this rule is founded, is quite apparent. As a
participle derived from a transitive verb, expresses the same kind of
action as its verb, it necessarily follows, that the participle must
govern the same case as the verb from which it is derived.

When you shall have studied this lecture attentively, you may proceed
and parse the following exercises, containing five parts of speech. If,
in analyzing these examples, you find any words which you cannot parse
correctly and _systematically_ by referring to your Compend for
definitions and rules, you will please to turn back and read over again
the whole _five_ lectures. You must exercise a little patience; and, for
your encouragement, permit me to remind you, that when you shall have
acquired a thorough knowledge of these five parts of speech, only _five_
more will remain for you to learn. Be ambitious to excel. Be thorough in
your investigations. Give your reasoning powers free scope. By studying
these lectures with attention, you will acquire more grammatical
knowledge in _three_ months, than is commonly obtained in _two_ years.

In the following examples, the words _purling, crusted, slumbering_, and
_twinkling_, are participial adjectives. _There_ and _its_ you may omit.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

Orlando left the herd grazing. The hunters heard the young dog barking.
The old fox heard the sportsman's horn sounding. Deep rivers float long
rafts. Purling streams moisten the earth's surface. The sun approaching,
melts the crusted snow. The slumbering seas calmed the grave old
hermit's mind. Pale Cynthia declining, clips the horizon. Man beholds
the twinkling stars adorning night's blue arch. The stranger saw the
desert thistle bending there its lowly head.

REMARKS ON PARTICIPLES.

Participles frequently become nouns; as, "A good _understanding_;
Excellent _writing_; He made a good _beginning_, but a bad _ending_."

Constructions like the following, have long been sanctioned by the best
authorities: "The goods are _selling_;" "The house is _building_;" "The
work is now _publishing_." A modern innovation, however, is likely to
supersede this mode of expression: thus, "The goods are _being sold_;"
"The house is _being built_;" "The work is now _being published_."

You may now answer these
QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING.

How many kinds of participles are there?--What is the ending of a
present participle?--What does a perfect participle denote?--With what
does the perfect participle of a regular verb correspond?--What is a
compound participle?--From what word is the term participle
derived?--Why is this part of speech thus named?--Wherein does this part
of speech partake of the nature of a verb?--Do all participles
participate the properties of adjectives?--In what respect?--When are
participles called _participial adjectives_?--Give examples.--How may a
present participle be known?--Repeat the order of parsing a
participle.--What rule applies in parsing a _present_ participle?--What
Rule in parsing a participial adjective?--Do participles vary in their
terminations in order to agree with their subject or actor?--What Rule
applies in parsing a noun in the _objective case_, governed by a
participle?--Do participles ever become nouns?--Give examples.

       *       *       *      *     *

    PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.

    Participles are formed by adding to the verb the termination _ing,
    ed_, or _en_. _Ing_ signifies the same as the noun _being_. When
    postfixed to the noun-state of the verb, the compound word thus
    formed, expresses a continued state of the verbal denotement. It
    implies that what is meant by the verb, is _being_ continued. _En_
    is an alteration of _an_, the Saxon verbalizing adjunct; _ed_ is a
    contraction of _dede_; and the terminations _d_ and _t_, are a
    contraction of _ed_. Participles ending in _ed_ or _en_, usually
    denote the _dodo, dede, doed, did, done_, or _finished_ state of
    what is meant by the verb. The book is _printed_. It is a _print-ed_
    or _print-done_ book, or such a one as the _done_ act of _printing_
    has made it. The book is _written_; i.e. it has received the _done_
    or _finish-ed_ act of _writ-ing_ it.

    Participles bear the same relation to verbs, that adnouns do to
    nouns. They might, therefore, be styled _verbal adjectives_. But
    that theory which ranks them with adnouns, appears to rest on a
    sandy foundation. In classifying words, we ought to be guided more
    by their _manner_ of meaning, and their _inferential_ meaning, than
    by their primitive, essential signification. "I have a _broken_
    plate;" i.e. I have a plate--_broken_; "I have _broken_ a plate." If
    there is no difference in the _essential_ meaning of the word
    _broken_, in these two constructions, it cannot be denied, that
    there is a wide difference in the meaning--_inferred_ by custom;
    which difference depends on the _manner_ in which the term is
    applied. The former construction denotes, that I _possess_ a plate
    which was _broken_, (whether with or without my agency, is not
    intimated,) perhaps, one hundred or one thousand years ago; whereas,
    the meaning of the latter is, that I _performed the act_ of reducing
    the plate from a whole to a _broken_ state; and it is not intimated
    whether I possess it, or some one else. It appears reasonable, that,
    in a practical grammar, at least, any word which occurs in
    constructions differing so widely, may properly be classed with
    different parts of speech. This illustration likewise establishes
    the propriety of retaining what we call the _perfect tense_ of the
    verb.

       *       *       *       *       *

QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.

How are participles formed?--What does the imperfect part express?--
What do perfect participles denote?

       *       *       *       *       *




LECTURE VI.


OF ADVERBS.

An ADVERB is a word used to modify the sense of a _verb_, a_participle_,
an _adjective_, or another _adverb_.

Recollect, an adverb never qualifies a _noun_. It qualifies any of the
four parts of speech abovenamed, and none others.

To _modify_ or _qualify_, you know, means to produce some _change_. The
adverb modifies. If I say, Wirt's style _excels_ Irving's, the
proposition is affirmative, and the verb _excels_ expresses the
affirmation. But when I say, Wirt's style _excels not_ Irving's, the
assertion is changed to a negative. What is it that thus modifies or
changes the meaning of the verb _excels_? You perceive that it is the
little word _not_. This word has power to reverse the meaning of the
sentence. _Not_, then, is a modifier, qualifier, or negative adverb.

When an adverb is used to modify the sense of a verb or participle, it
generally expresses the manner, time, or place, in which the action is
performed, or some accidental circumstance respecting it. In the
phrases, The man rides _gracefully, awkwardly_, _badly, swiftly,
slowly_, &c.; or, I saw the man riding _swiftly, slowly, leisurely, very
fast_, &c., you perceive that the words _gracefully, awkwardly, very
fast_, &c., are adverbs, qualifying the verb _rides_, or the participle
_riding_, because they express the _manner_ in which the action denoted
by the verb and participle, is done.

In the phrases, The man rides _daily, weekly, seldom, frequently, often,
sometimes, never_; or, The man rode _yesterday, heretofore, long since,
long ago, recently, lately, just now_ or, The man will ride _soon,
presently, directly, immediately, by and by, to-day, hereafter_, you
perceive that all these words in _italics_, are adverbs, qualifying the
meaning of the verb, rides, because they express the _time_ of the
action denoted by the verb.

Again, if I say, The man lives _here, near by, yonder, remote, far off,
somewhere, nowhere, everywhere_, &c., the words in _italics_ are adverbs
of _place_, because they tell where he lives.

Adverbs likewise qualify adjectives, and sometimes other adverbs; as,
_more_ wise, _most_ wise; or _more wisely, most wisely_. When an adverb
is joined to an adjective or adverb, it generally expresses _the degree_
of comparison; for adverbs, like adjectives, have degrees of comparison.
Thus, in the phrase, A skilful artist, you know the adjective _skilful_
is in the positive degree; but, by placing the adverb _more_ before the
adjective, we increase the degree of quality denoted by the adjective to
the comparative; as, A _more_ skilful artist: and _most_ renders it
superlative; as, A _most_ skilful artist. And if we place more and most
before other adverbs, the effect is the same; as, skilfully, _more_
skilfully, _most_ skilfully.

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS.

_Positive_    _Comparative_    _Superlative_.
soon           sooner           soonest.
often          oftener          oftenest.
much           more             most.
well           better           best.
far            farther          farthest.
wisely         more wisely      most wisely.
justly         more justly      most justly.
justly         less justly      least justly.

You will generally know an adverb at sight; but sometimes you will find
it more difficult to be distinguished, than any other part of speech in
the English language. I will, therefore, give you some _signs_ which
will assist you a little.

Most words ending in _ly_ are adverbs; such as, _politely, gracefully,
judiciously_. Any word or short phrase that will answer to any one of
the questions, _how? how much? when?_ or _where?_ is an adverb; as, The
river flows _rapidly_; He walks _very fast_; He has gone _far away;_ but
he will _soon_ return; She sings _sweetly_; They learn _none at all_.
How, or in what manner does the river flow? _Rapidly_. How does he walk?
_Very fast_. Where has he gone? _Far away_. When will he return? _Soon_.
How does she sing? _Sweetly_. How much do they learn? _None at all_.
From this illustration, you perceive, that, if you could not tell these
adverbs by the sense, you would know them by their answering to the
questions. However, your better way will be to distinguish adverbs by
considering the office they perform in the sentence; or by noticing
their grammatical relation, or their situation, with respect to other
words. To gain a thorough knowledge of their real character, is highly
important. _Rapidly, fast, far away, soon, sweetly_, &c. are known to be
adverbs by their qualifying the sense of verbs. "A _very_ good pen
writes _extremely well." Well_, in this sentence, is known to be an
adverb by its qualifying the sense of the verb _writes; extremely_, by
its ending in _ly_, or by its being joined to the adverb _well_ to
qualify it; and _very_ is known as an adverb by its joining the
adjective _good_.

Expressions like these, _none at all, a great deal, a few days ago, long
since, at length, in vain_, when they are used to denote the _manner_ or
_time_ of the action of verbs or participles, are generally termed
_adverbial phrases_.

Adverbs, though very numerous, may, for the sake of practical
convenience, be reduced to particular classes.

1. _Of Number;_ as, Once, twice, thrice, &c.

2. _Of Order;_ as, First, secondly, lastly, finally, &c.

3. _Of Place;_ as, Here, there, where, elsewhere, anywhere, somewhere,
nowhere, herein, whither, hither, thither, upward, downward, forward,
backward, whence, thence, whithersoever, &c.

4. _Of Time_. _Present_; as, Now, to-day, &c. _Past_; as, Already,
before, lately, yesterday, heretofore, hitherto, long since, long ago,
&c. _Future_; as, To-morrow, not yet, hereafter, henceforth,
henceforward, by and by, instantly, presently, immediately, ere long,
straightways, &c. _Time indefinite_; as, Oft, often, oft-times,
often-times, sometimes, soon, seldom, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly,
always, when, then, ever, never, again, &c.

5. _Of Quantity_; as, Much, little, sufficiently, how much, how great,
enough, abundantly, &c.

6. _Of Manner_ or _quality_; as, Wisely, foolishly, justly, unjustly,
quickly, slowly, &c. Adverbs of quality are the most numerous kind; and
they are generally formed by adding the termination _ly_ to an adjective
or a participle, or by changing _le_ into _ly;_ as, Bad, badly;
cheerful, cheerfully; able, ably; admirable, admirably.

7. _Of Doubt_; as, Haply, perhaps, peradventure, possibly, perchance.

8. _Of Affirmation_; as, Verily, truly, undoubtedly, doubtless,
certainly, yea, yes, surely, indeed, really, &c.

9. _Of Negation_; as, Nay, no, not, by no means, not at all, in no wise,
&c.

10. _Of Interrogation_; as, How, why, wherefore, whither, &c., and
sometimes when, whence, where.

11. _Of Comparison_; as, More, most, better, best, worse, worst, less,
least, very, almost, little, alike, &c.

    NOTES.

    1. This catalogue contains but a small portion of the adverbs in our
    language. Many adverbs are formed by a combination of prepositions
    with the adverbs of place, _here, there, where_; as, Hereof,
    thereof, whereof; hereto, thereto, whereto; hereby, thereby,
    whereby; herewith, therewith, wherewith; herein, therein, wherein;
    therefore, (i.e. there-for,) wherefore, (i.e. where-for,) hereupon,
    hereon, thereupon, thereon, whereupon, whereon, &c.

    2. Some adverbs are composed of nouns or verbs and the letter _a_,
    used instead of _at, an_, &c.; as, Aside, athirst, afoot, asleep,
    aboard, ashore, abed, aground, afloat, adrift, aghast, ago, askance,
    away, asunder, astray, &c.

You will now please to read this lecture _four_ times over, and read
slowly and carefully, for unless you understand well the nature and
character of this part of speech, you will be frequently at a loss to
distinguish it from others in composition. Now do you notice, that, in
this sentence which you have just read, the words _slowly, carefully,
well_, and _frequently_, are adverbs? And do you again observe, that, in
the question I have just put to you, the words _now_ and _just_ are
adverbs? Exercise a little sober thought. Fifteen minutes spent in
reflection, are worth whole days occupied in careless reading.

In the following exercises six parts of speech are presented, namely,
Nouns, Verbs, Articles, Adjectives, Participles, and Adverbs; and I
believe you are now prepared to parse them all agreeably to the
systematic order, _four_ times over. Those words in _italics_ are
adverbs.

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.

_The order of parsing an_ ADVERB, is--an adverb, and why?--what
sort?--what does it qualify?--RULE.

"My friend has returned _again_; but his health is _not very_ good."
_Again_, is an adverb, a word used to modify the sense of a verb--of
time indefinite, it expresses a period of time not precisely defined--it
qualifies the verb "has returned," according to

Rule 29. _Adverbs qualify verbs, participles, adjectives, and other
adverbs_.

_Not_ is an adverb, a word used to modify the sense of an adverb--of
negation, it makes the assertion negative; that is, it changes the
proposition from an affirmative to a negative--and it qualifies the
adverb "very," agreeably to Rule 29. _Adverbs qualify verbs, &c_.

_Very_ is an adverb, a word used to qualify the sense of an
adjective--of comparison, it compares the adjective "good," and
qualifies it according to Rule 29. _Adverbs qualify adjectives, &c_.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

The traveller described a lofty castle decaying _gradually. Very_ few
literary men _ever_ became distinguished poets. The great Milton excels
_not_ Homer. The Roman women, _once voluntarily_ contributed their
_most_ precious jewels to save the city.

Many small streams uniting, form _very_ large rivers. The river Funza
falling _perpendicularly_ forms a vast cataract. Attentive servants
_always_ drive horses _very carefully_; negligent servants _often_ drive
horses _very carelessly_. Assiduous scholars improve _very fast_; idle
scholars learn _none at all_. Friendship _often_ ends in love; but love
in friendship, _never_.

NOTE. Several adverbs frequently qualify one verb. Have you walked? _Not
yet quite far enough, perhaps. Not, yet, far_, and _enough_, qualify
"have walked" understood; _perhaps_ qualifies _not_; and _quite_
qualifies _far_. The adverbs _always_ and _carefully_ both qualify the
verb "drive:" the former expresses _time_, and the latter, _manner.
Once_ and _voluntarily_ qualify the verb "contributed;" the former
expresses _number_, and the latter, _manner_. The word _their_ you need
not parse. The active verb _to save_ has no nominative. The nouns _love_
and _friendship_, following _in_, are in the objective case, and
governed by that preposition.

REMARKS ON ADVERBS.

When the words _therefore, consequently, accordingly_, and the like,
are used in connexion with other conjunctions, they are _adverbs_; but
when they appear single, they are commonly considered _conjunctions_.

The words _when_ and _where_, and all others of the same nature, such as
_whence, whither, whenever, wherever, till, until, before, otherwise,
while, wherefore_, &c. may be properly called _adverbial conjunctions_,
because they participate the nature both of adverbs and conjunctions; of
adverbs, as they denote the attributes either of _time_ or _place_; of
conjunctions, as they _conjoin sentences_.

There are many words that are sometimes used as adjectives, and,
sometimes as adverbs; as, "_More_ men than women were there; I am _more_
diligent than he." In the former sentence _more_ is evidently an
adjective, for it is joined to a noun to qualify it; in the latter it is
an adverb, because it qualifies an adjective. There are others that are
sometimes used as nouns, and sometimes as adverbs; as, "_to-day's_
lesson is longer than _yesterday's_." In this example, _to-day_ and
_yesterday_ are nouns in the possessive case; but in phrases like the
following, they are generally considered adverbs of time; "He came [_to
his] home yesterday_, and will set out again _to-day_." Here they are
nouns, if we supply _on_ before them.

"Where _much [wealth, talent_, or something else] is given, _much
[increase, improvement_] will be required; _Much_ money has been
expended; It is _much_ better to write than starve." In the first two of
these examples, _much_ is an adjective, because it qualifies a noun; in
the last, an adverb, because it qualifies the adjective _better_. In
short, you must determine to what part of speech a word belongs, by its
_sense_, or by considering the _manner_ in which it is associated with
other words.

An adjective may, in general, be distinguished from an _adverb_ by this
rule: when a word qualifies a _noun_ or _pronoun_, it is an adjective,
but when it qualifies a _verb, participle, adjective_, or _adverb_, it
is an adverb.

Prepositions are sometimes erroneously called adverbs, when their nouns
are understood. "He rides _about_;" that is, about the _town, country_,
or some-_thing_ else. "She was _near_ [the _act_ or _misfortune of_]
falling;" "But do not _after_ [that _time_ or _event_] lay the blame on
me." "He came _down_ [the _ascent_] from the hill;" "They lifted him
_up_ [the _ascent_] out of the pit." "The angels _above_;"--above
_us_--"Above these lower _heavens_, to us invisible, or dimly seen."

Before you proceed to correct the following exercises in false Syntax,
you may answer these

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING.

Does an adverb ever qualify a noun?--What parts of speech does it
qualify?--When an adverb qualifies a verb or participle, what does it
express?--When an adverb qualifies an adjective or adverb, what does it
generally express?--Compare some adverbs.--By what signs may an adverb
be known?--Give examples.--Repeat some _adverbial phrases_.--Name the
different classes of adverbs.--Repeat some of each class.--Repeat the
order of parsing an adverb.--What rule do you apply in parsing an
adverb?

QUESTIONS ON THE NOTES.

Repeat some adverbs that are formed by combining prepositions with
adverbs of place.--Repeat some that are composed of the article _a_ and
nouns.--What part of speech are the words, _therefore, consequently_,
&c.?--What words are styled _adverbial conjunctions_?--Why are they so
called?--Is the same word sometimes used as an adjective, and sometimes
as an adverb?--Give examples.--What is said of _much_?--By what rule can
you distinguish an adjective from an adverb?--Do prepositions ever
become adverbs?

       *       *       *       *       *

    PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.

    As the happiness and increasing prosperity of a people essentially
    depend on their advancement in science and the arts, and as
    language, in all its sublime purposes and legitimate bearings, is
    strictly identified with these, it may naturally be supposed, that
    that nation which continues, through successive generations,
    steadily to progress in the former, will not be neglectful of the
    cultivation and refinement of the latter. The truth of this remark
    is illustrated by those who have, for many ages, employed the
    English language as their medium for the transmission of thought.
    Among its refinements may be ranked those procedures by which verbs
    and nouns have been so modified and contracted as to form what we
    call adverbs, distributives, conjunctions, and prepositions; for I
    presume it will be readily conceded, that conciseness, as well as
    copiousness and perspicuity in language, is the offspring of
    refinement. That an immense amount of time and breath is saved by
    the use of adverbs, the following development will clearly
    demonstrate. He who is successful in contracting one mode of
    expression that is daily used by thirty millions, doubtless does
    much for their benefit.

    Most adverbs express in one word what would otherwise require two or
    more words; as, "He did it _here_," for, He did it _in this place;
    there_, for, _in that place; where_, for, _in what place; now_, for,
    _at this time. Why_ means _for what reason; how--in what mind, mood,
    mode_, or _manner; exceedingly--to a great degree; very--in an
    eminent degree; often_ and _seldom_ signify _many times, few times_.

    The procedures by which words have been contracted, modified and
    combined, to form this class of words, have been various. The most
    prolific family of this illegitimate race, are those in _ly_, a
    contraction of _like. Gentleman-ly_, means _gentleman-like, like_ a
    gentleman. We do not yet say, _ladily_, but _lady-like_. The north
    Britons still say, _wiselike, manlike_, instead of, _wisely, manly_.

    _Quick_ comes from _gwick_, the past part. of the Anglo-Saxon verb
    _gwiccian_, to vivify, give life. _Quick-ly_ or _live-ly_, means, in
    a _quick-like_ or _life-like_ manner; in the manner of a creature
    that has _life. Rapid-ly--rapid-like, like a rapid_; a _quick-ly_ or
    _swift-ly_ running place in a stream.

    _Al-ways_, contraction of _in all ways_. By a slight transition, it
    means _in_ or _at all times. Al-one_, contraction of _all-one.
    On-ly--one-like. Al-so--all the same_ (thing.) _Ever_--an _age_. For
    _ever_ and _ever_--for _ages_ and _ages_. Ever is not synonymous
    with always. _Never_--_ne ever_. It signifies _no age, no period of
    time. No_, contraction of _not. Not_, a modification of _no-thing,
    noth-ing, naught_. "He is _not_ greater"--is greater _in
    naught_--_in no thing_.

    _Adrift_ is the past part. _adrifed, adrif'd, adrift_; from the
    Saxon _drifan_, or _adrifan_, to drive. _Ago_, formerly written
    _ygo, gon, agon, gone, agone_, is the past part. of the verb _to
    go_. It refers to time _gone by. Asunder_, the Saxon past part.
    _asundren_, from the verb _sondrian_ or _asondrian_, to separate.
    _Aloft--on the loft, on luft, on lyft; lyft_ being the Anglo-Saxon
    word for _air_ or _clouds. Astray_, the part. of _straegan_, to
    stray. _Awry_, part. of _wry than_, to writhe.

    _Needs_--_need-is_; anciently, _nedes_, nede is.
    To-_wit_, the infinitive of _witan_, to know. It means, _to be
    known_. _Ay_ or _yea_ signifies _have it, enjoy it. Yes_ is _ay-es_,
    have, possess, enjoy _that_. Our corrupt _o-yes_ of the crier, is
    the French imperative, _oyez_, hear, listen. _Straight way_--by a
    straight way. _While--wheel_; period in which some thing _whiles_ or
    _wheels_ itself round. _Till_--to while. _Per_, Latin,--the English
    _by_. Perhaps--per haps, per chance. These examples of derivation
    are given with the view to invite the attention of the intelligent
    pupil to the "Diversions of Purley, by John Horne Tooke."

       *       *       *       *       *

QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.

How does the use of adverbs contribute to the conciseness of
language?--Illustrate the fact.--What is said of _ly, like_, and
_quick_?--How are the following words composed, _always, alone, only,
also_?--What is the meaning of _ever, never, not, adrift, ago, asunder,
aloft, astray, awry_?--Give the signification of _needs, to-wit, ye,
yes, o-yes, straightway, while, till_, and _per_.

NOTE. Learners need not answer the questions on the Philosophical Notes,
in this or any other Lecture, unless the teacher deem it expedient.

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX.

NOTE 3, TO RULE 29, Adjectives are sometimes improperly applied as
adverbs; as, indifferent honest; excellent well; miserable poor:--She
writes elegant; He is walking slow.

The adjectives _indifferent, excellent_, and _miserable_, are here
improperly used, because adjectives do not express the degree of
adjectives or adverbs, but such modifications are denoted by adverbs.
The phrases should, therefore, be, "_indifferently_ honest,
_excellently_ well, _miserably_ poor." _Elegant_ and _slow_ are also
inaccurate, for it is not the office of the adjective to express the
manner, time, or place of the action of verbs and participles, but it is
_the office_ of the adverb. The constructions should be, "She writes
_elegantly_; He is walking _slowly_."

You may correct the following examples several times over, and explain
the principles that are violated.

FALSE SYNTAX.

He speaks fluent, and reasons coherent.

She reads proper, and writes very neat.

They once lived tolerable well, but now they are miserable poor.

The lowering clouds are moving slow.

He behaved himself submissive, and was exceeding careful not to give
offence.

NOTE 4, TO RULE 29. Adverbs are sometimes improperly used instead of
adjectives; as, "The tutor addressed him in terms rather warm, but
_suitably_ to his offence."

The adverb _suitably_ is incorrect. It does not express the manner of
the action of the verb "addressed," but it denotes the _quality_ of the
noun _terms_ understood; for which reason it should be an adjective,
_suitable_.

FALSE SYNTAX.

The man was slowly wandering about, _solitarily_ and distressed.

He lived in a manner _agreeably_ to his condition.

The study of Syntax should be _previously_ to that of Punctuation.

He introduced himself in a manner very _abruptly_.

_Conformably_ to their vehemence of thought, was their vehemence of
gesture.

I saw him _previously_ to his arrival.



LECTURE VII


OF PREPOSITIONS.

A PREPOSITION is a word which serves to connect words, and show the
relation between them.

The term _preposition_ is derived from the two Latin words, _pre_, which
signifies _before_, and _pono, to place_. Prepositions are so called,
because they are mostly placed before the nouns and pronouns which they
govern in the objective case.

The principal prepositions are presented in the following list, which
you may now commit to memory, and thus you will be enabled to
distinguish them from other parts of speech whenever you see them in
composition.

A LIST OF THE PREPOSITIONS.

of, over, at, after, betwixt,
to, under, near, about, beside,
for, through, up, against, athwart,
by, above, down, unto, towards,
with, below, before, across, notwithstanding,
in, between, behind, around, out of,
into, beneath, off, amidst, instead of,
within, from, on upon, throughout, over against,
without, beyond, among, underneath, according to.

This list contains many words that are sometimes used as conjunctions,
and sometimes as adverbs; but when you shall have become acquainted with
the _nature_ of the preposition, and of the conjunction and adverb too,
you will find no difficulty in ascertaining to which of these classes
any word belongs.

By looking at the definition of a preposition, you will notice, that it
performs a _double_ office in a sentence, namely, it _connects_ words,
and also shows a _relation_ between them. I will first show you the use
and importance of this part of speech as a connective. When corn is
ripe--October, it is gathered--the field--men--who
go--hill--hill--baskets,--which they put the ears. You perceive, that in
this sentence there is a total want of connexion and meaning; but let us
fill up each vacancy with a preposition, and the sense will be clear.
"When corn is ripe, _in_ October, it is gathered _in_ the field _by_
men, who go _from_ hill _to_ hill _with_ baskets, _into_ which they put
the ears."

From this illustration you are convinced, no doubt, that our language
would be very deficient without prepositions to connect the various
words of which it is composed. It would, in fact, amount to nothing but
nonsense. There is, however, another part of speech that performs this
office, namely, the conjunction. This will be explained in Lecture IX.;
in which lecture you will learn, that the nature of a preposition, as a
connective particle, is nearly allied to that of a conjunction. In the
next place I will show you how prepositions express a _relation_ between
words.

The boy's hat is _under_ his arm. In this expression, what relation does
the preposition _under_ show? You know that _hat_ and _arm_ are words
used as signs of two objects, or ideas; but _under_ is _not_ the sign of
a thing you can think of: it is merely the sign of the _relation_
existing between the two objects. Hence you may perceive, that since the
word _under_ is the sign of the _relation_ existing between particular
_ideas_, it also expresses a relation existing between the words _hat_
and _arm_, which words are the representatives of those ideas.

The boy holds his hat _in_ his hand. In this sentence the preposition
_in_ shows the relation existing between _hat_ and _hand_, or the
situation, or relative position, each has in regard to the other. And,
if I say, The boy's hat is _on_ his head, you perceive that _on_ shows
the relation between _hat_ and _head_. Again, in the expressions, The
boy threw his hat _up stairs_--_under_ the bed--_behind_ the
table--_through_ the window--_over_ the house--_across_ the
street--_into_ the water--and so on, you perceive that the several
prepositions express the different relations existing between the _hat_
and the other nouns, _stairs, bed, table, window, house, street_, and
_water_.

A preposition tells _where_ a thing is: thus, "The pear is on the
ground, _under_ the tree."

Prepositions govern the objective case, but they do _not_ express an
action done to some object, as an active-transitive verb or participle
does. When a noun or pronoun follows a preposition, it is in the
objective case, because it is the object of the _relation_ expressed by
the preposition, and _not_ the object of an _action_.

I can now give you a more extensive explanation of the _objective case_,
than that which was given in a former lecture. I have already informed
you, that the objective case expresses the object of an action _or_ of a
relation; and, also, that there are _three_ parts of speech which govern
nouns and pronouns in the objective case, namely, _active-transitive
verbs, participles derived from transitive verbs_, and _prepositions_. A
noun or pronoun in the objective case, cannot be, at the same time, the
object of an action _and_ of a relation. It must be either the object of
an action _or_ of a relation. And I wish you particularly to remember,
that whenever a noun or pronoun is governed by a transitive verb or
participle, it is the object of an _action_; as, The tutor _instructs_
his _pupils_; or, The tutor is _instructing_ his _pupils_; but whenever
a noun or pronoun is governed by a preposition, it is the object of a
_relation_; as, The tutor gives good instruction _to_ his _pupils_.

Before you proceed to parse the following examples, please to review
this lecture, and then the whole seven in the manner previously
recommended, namely, read one or two sentences, and then look off your
book and repeat them two or three times over in your mind. This course
will enable you to retain the most important ideas advanced. If you wish
to proceed with ease and advantage, you must have the subject-matter of
the preceding lectures stored in your mind. Do not consider it an
unpleasant task to comply with my requisitions, for when you shall have
learned thus far, you will understand _seven_ parts of speech; and only
_three_ more will remain to be learned.

If you have complied with the foregoing request, you may commit the
following _order_, and then proceed in parsing.

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.

_The order of parsing a_ PREPOSITION, is--a preposition, and why?--what
does it connect?--what relation does it show?

"He saw an antelope _in_ the _wilderness."_

_In_ is a preposition, a word which serves to connect words, and show
the relation between them--it connects the words "antelope" and
"wilderness"--and shows the relation between them.

_Wilderness_ is a noun, the name of a place--com. the name of a sort or
species--neut. gend. it denotes a thing without sex--third pers. spoken
of--sing. num. it implies but one--and in the objective case, it is the
object of a _relation_ expressed by the preposition "in," and governed
by it, according to

RULE 31. _Prepositions govern the objective case_.

The genius of our language will not allow us to say, Stand before _he_;
Hand the paper to _they_. Prepositions _require_ the pronoun following
them to be in the objective form, position, or case; and this
requisition amounts to _government_. Hence we say, "Stand before _him_;"
"Hand the paper to _them_." Every preposition expresses a relation, and
every relation must have an _object_: consequently, every preposition
must be followed by a noun or pronoun in the objective case.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

The all-wise Creator bestowed the power of speech upon man, for the most
excellent uses. Augustus heard the orator pleading the client's cause,
in a flow of most powerful eloquence. Fair Cynthia smiles serenely over
nature's soft repose. Life's varying schemes no more distract the
laboring mind of man. Septimius stabbed Pompey standing on the shore of
Egypt.

A beam of tranquillity often plays round the heart of the truly pious
man. The thoughts of former years glide over my soul, like
swift-shooting meteors over Ardven's gloomy vales.

At the approach of day, night's swift dragons cut the clouds full fast;
and ghosts, wandering here and there, troop home to church-yards.

  Love still pursues an ever devious race,
  True to the winding lineaments of grace.

       *       *       *       *       *

NOTE.--The words _my_ and _and_ you need not parse. The noun "meteors,"
following the adverb "like," is in the objective case, and governed by
_unto_ understood, according to NOTE 2, under Rule 32. The noun "home"
is governed by _to_ understood, according to Rule 32.

REMARKS ON PREPOSITIONS AND VERBS.

A noun or pronoun in the objective case, is often governed by a
preposition understood; as, "Give _him_ that book;" that is, "Give that
book _to_ him;" "Ortugrul was one _day_ wandering," &c. that is, _on_
one day. "Mercy gives _affliction_ a grace;" that is, Mercy gives a
grace _to_ affliction. See Note 1, under Rule 32.

To be able to make a proper use of prepositions, particular attention is
requisite. There is a peculiar propriety to be observed in the use of
_by_ and _with;_ as, "He walks _with_ a staff _by_ moonlight;" "He was
taken _by_ stratagem, and killed _with_ a sword." Put the one
preposition for the other, and say, "He walks _by_ a staff _with_
moonlight;" "He was taken _with_ stratagem, and killed _by_ a sword;"
and it will appear, that the latter expressions differ from the former
in signification, more than one, at first view, would be apt to imagine.

Verbs are often compounded of a verb and a _preposition;_ as, to
_up_hold, to _with_stand, to _over_look; and this composition gives a
new meaning to the verb; as, to _under_stand, to _with_draw, to
_for_give. But the preposition is more frequently placed after the verb,
and separately from it, like an adverb; in which situation it does not
less affect the sense of the verb, and give it a new meaning; and in all
instances, whether the preposition is placed either before or after the
verb, if it gives a new meaning to the verb, it may be considered as _a
part of the verb_. Thus, _to cast_ means _to throw_; but _to cast up_ an
account, signifies _to compute_ it; therefore _up_ is a part of the
verb. The phrases, _to fall on, to bear out, to give over_, convey very
different meanings from what they would if the prepositions _on, out_
and _over_, were not used. Verbs of this kind are called _compound_
verbs.

You may now answer the following

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING.

From what words is the term _preposition_ derived?--Why is it thus
named?--Repeat the list of prepositions.--Name the three parts of speech
that govern nouns and pronouns in the objective case.--When is a noun or
pronoun in the objective case, the object of an action?--When is it the
object of a relation?--Repeat the order of parsing a preposition.--What
rule do you apply in parsing a noun or pronoun governed by a
preposition?--Does every preposition require an objective case after
it?--Is a noun or pronoun ever governed by a preposition
understood?--Give examples.--What is said of verbs compounded of a verb
and preposition?--Give the origin and meaning of the prepositions
explained in the Philosophical Notes.


       *       *       *       *       *


    PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.

    _From_, according to H. Tooke, is the Anglo-Saxon and Gothic noun
    _frum_, beginning, source, author. "He came _from (beginning_)
    Rochester." _Of_, he supposes to be a fragment of the Gothic and
    Saxon noun _afora_, consequence, offspring, follower. "Solomon, the
    son _of (offspring_) David." _Of_ or _off_, in its modern
    acceptation, signifies _disjoined, sundered_: A piece _of (off_) the
    loaf, is, a piece _disjoined_, or _separated_ from the loaf. The
    fragrance _of_ or _off_ the rose.

    _For_ signifies _cause_. "I write _for_ your satisfaction;" i.e.
    your satisfaction being the _cause. By_ or _be_ is the imperative
    _byth_, of the Saxon _beon_, to be. _With_, the imperative of
    _withan_, to join; or, when equivalent to _by_, of _wyr-than_, to
    be. "I will go _with_ him." "I, _join_ him, will go." _In_ comes
    from the Gothic noun _inna_, the interior of the body; a cave or
    cell. _About_, from _boda_, the first outward boundary. _Among_ is
    the past part. of _gamaengan_, to mingle. _Through_ or _thorough_ is
    the Gothic substantive _dauro_, or the Teutonic _thuruh_. It means
    passage, gate, door.

    _Before_--_be-fore, be-hind, be-low, be-side, be-sides, be-neath_
    are formed by combining the imperative, _be_, with the nouns _fore,
    hind, low, side, neath. Neath_--Saxon _neothan, neothe_, has the
    same signification as _nadir. Be-tween, be-twixt_--_be_ and _twain_.
    A dual preposition. _Be-yond_--_be-passed. Beyond_ a place, means,
    _be passed_ that place.
    _Notwithstanding--not-stand-ing-with, not-withstanding_. "Any order
    to the contrary not-withstanding," (this order;) i.e. _not_
    effectually _withstanding_ or _opposing_ it.


       *       *       *       *       *


LECTURE VIII.

OF PRONOUNS.

A PRONOUN is a word used instead of a noun, and generally to avoid the
too frequent repetition of the same word. A pronoun is, likewise,
sometimes a substitute for a sentence, or member of a sentence.

The word _pronoun_ comes from the two Latin words, _pro_, which means
_for_, or _instead of_, and _nomen_, a _name_, or _noun._ Hence you
perceive, that _pronoun_ means _for a noun_, or _instead of a noun_.

In the sentence, "The man is happy; _he_ is benevolent; _he_ is useful;"
you perceive, that the word _he_ is used instead of the noun _man;_
consequently _he_ must be a _pronoun_. You observe, too, that, by making
use of the pronoun _he_ in this sentence, we avoid the _repetition_ of
the _noun_ man, for without the pronoun, the sentence would be rendered
thus, "The man is happy; _the man_ is benevolent; _the man_ is useful."

By looking again at the definition, you will notice, that pronouns
always _stand for_ nouns, but they do not always _avoid the repetition_
of nouns. _Repetition_ means _repeating_ or mentioning the same thing
again. In the sentence, "I come to die for my country," the pronouns,
_I_ and _my, stand_ for the name of the person who speaks; but they do
not _avoid the repetition_ of that name, because the name or noun for
which the pronouns are used, is not mentioned at all. Pronouns of the
_third_ person, generally avoid the repetition of the nouns for which
they stand; but pronouns of the _first_ and _second_ person, sometimes
avoid the repetition of nouns, and sometimes they do not.

A little farther illustration of the pronoun will show you its
importance, and, also, that its nature is very easily comprehended. If
we had no pronouns in our language, we should be obliged to express
ourselves in this manner: "A woman went to a man, and told the man that
the man was in danger of being murdered by a gang of robbers; as a gang
of robbers had made preparations for attacking the man. The man thanked
the woman for the woman's kindness, and, as the man was unable to defend
the man's self, the man left the man's house, and went to a neighbor's."

This would be a laborious style indeed; but, by the help of pronouns, we
can express the same ideas with far greater ease and conciseness: "A
woman went to a man, and told _him_, that _he_ was in great danger of
being murdered by a gang of robbers, _who_ had made preparations for
attacking _him. He_ thanked _her_ for _her_ kindness, and, as _he_ was
unable to defend _himself_, _he_ left _his_ house and went to a
neighbor's."

If you look at these examples a few moments, you cannot be at a loss to
tell which words are pronouns; and you will observe too, that they all
stand for nouns.

Pronouns are generally divided into three kinds, the _Personal_, the
_Adjective_, and the _Relative_ pronouns. They are all known by the
_lists_.

1. OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. Personal Pronouns are distinguished from the
relative, by their denoting the _person_ of the nouns for which they
stand. There are five of them; _I_, _thou, he, she, it_; with their
plurals, _We, ye_ or _you, they_.

To pronouns belong gender, person, number, and case.

GENDER. When we speak of a _man_, we say, _he, his, him_; when we speak
of a _woman_, we say, _she, hers, her_; and when we speak of a _thing_,
we say _it_. Hence you perceive, that gender belongs to pronouns as well
as to nouns. Example; "The general, in gratitude to the lady, offered
_her his_ hand; but _she_, not knowing _him_, declined accepting _it_."
The pronouns _his_ and _him_, in this sentence, personate or represent
the noun _general_; they are, therefore, of the masculine gender: _her_
and _she_ personate the _lady_; therefore, they are feminine: and _it_
represents _hand_; for which reason it is of the neuter gender. This
illustration shows you, then, that pronouns must be of the same gender
as the nouns are for which they stand. But, as it relates to the
variation of the pronouns to express the sex,

Gender has respect only to the third person singular of the pronouns,
_he, she, it. He_ is masculine; _she_ is feminine; _it_ is neuter.

You may naturally inquire, why pronouns of the first and second persons
are not varied to denote the gender of their nouns, as well as of the
third. The reason is obvious. The first person, that is, the person
speaking, and the second person, or the person spoken to, being at the
same time the subjects of the discourse, are supposed to be present;
from which, and other circumstances, their sex is commonly known, and,
therefore, the pronouns that represent these persons, need not be marked
by a distinction of gender; but the third person, that is, the person or
thing spoken of, being absent, and in many respects unknown, necessarily
requires the pronoun that stands for it, to be marked by a distinction
of gender.

In parsing, we sometimes apply gender to pronouns of the first and
second person, and also to the plural number of the third person; but
these have no peculiar form to denote their gender; therefore they have
no agreement, in this respect, with the nouns which they represent.

PERSON. Pronouns have three persons in each number.

_I_, is the first person                     }
_Thou_, is the second person                 }  Singular.
_He, she_, or _it_, is the third person      }

_We_, is the first person                    }
_Ye_ or _you_, is the second person          }  Plural.
_They_, is the third person                  }

This account of persons will be very intelligible, when you reflect,
that there are three persons who may be the subject of any discourse:
first, the person who speaks, may speak of himself; secondly, he may
speak of the person to whom he addresses himself; thirdly, he may speak
of some other person; and as the speakers, the persons spoken to, and
the persons spoken of, may be many, so each of these persons must have a
plural number.

Pronouns of the second and third person, always agree, in person with
the nouns they represent; but pronouns of the first person, do not.
Whenever a pronoun of the first person is used, it represents a noun;
but nouns are _never_ of the first person, therefore these pronouns
cannot agree in person with their nouns.

NUMBER. Pronouns, like nouns, have two numbers, the singular and the
plural; as, _I, thou, he_; _we, ye_ or _you, they_.

CASE. Pronouns have three cases, the nominative, the possessive, and the
objective.

In the next place I will present to you the _declension_ of the personal
pronouns, which declension you must commit to memory before you proceed
any farther.

The advantages resulting from the committing of the following
declension, are so great and diversified, that you cannot be too
particular in your attention to it. You recollect, that it is sometimes
very difficult to distinguish the nominative case of a noun from the
objective, because these cases of nouns are not marked by a difference
in termination; but this difficulty is removed in regard to the personal
pronouns, for their cases are always known by their termination. By
studying the declension you will learn, not only the cases of the
pronouns, but, also, their genders, persons, and numbers.

DECLENSION OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

                    FIRST PERSON.
_Sing.                            _Plur_.
_Nom_. I,                         we,
_Poss_. my _or_ mine,        our _or_ ours,
_Obj_. me.                        us.

SECOND PERSON.
_Sing_.                           _Plur_.
_Nom_. thou,                      ye _or_ you,
_Poss_. thy _or_ thine,      your _or_ yours,
_Obj_. thee.                      you.

THIRD PERSON.
_Mas. Sing._                      _Plur_.
_Nom_, he,                        they,
_Poss_. his,                      their _or_ theirs,
_Obj_. him.                       them.

THIRD PERSON.
_Fem. Sing._                      _Plur_.
_Nom_. she,                       they,
_Poss_. her _or_ hers,       their _or_ theirs.
_Obj_. her.                       them.

THIRD PERSON.
_Neut. Sing._                     _Plur_.
_Nom_. it,                        they,
_Poss_. its,                      their _or_ theirs,
_Obj._ it.                        them.

       *       *       *       *       *

    NOTES.

    1. When _self_ is added to the personal pronouns, as himself,
    myself, itself, themselves, &c. they are called _compound personal
    pronouns_, and are used in the nominative or objective case, but not
    in the possessive.

    2. In order to avoid the disagreeable harshness of sound, occasioned
    by the frequent recurrence of the terminations _est, edst_, in the
    adaptation of our verbs to the nominative _thou_, a modern
    innovation which substitutes _you_ for _thou_, in familiar style,
    has generally been adopted. This innovation contributes greatly to
    the harmony of our colloquial style. _You_ was formerly restricted
    to the plural number; but now it is employed to represent either a
    singular or a plural noun. It ought to be recollected, however, that
    when used as the representative of a singular noun, this word
    retains its original _plural form_; and, therefore, the verb
    connected with it, should always be plural. Inattention to this
    peculiarity, has betrayed some writers into the erroneous
    conclusion, that, because _you_ implies unity when it represents a
    singular noun, it ought, when thus employed, to be followed by a
    singular verb; as, "When _was you_ there?" "How far _was you_ from
    the parties?" Such a construction, however, is not supported by
    _good_ usage, nor by analogy. It is as manifest a solecism as to
    say, We _am_, or we _is_. Were it, in any case, admissible to
    connect a singular verb with _you_, the use of _was_ would still be
    ungrammatical, for this form of the verb is confined to the first and
    third persons, and _you_ is second person. _Wast_ being second
    person, it would approximate nearer to correctness to say, you
    _wast_. We never use the singular of the present tense with
    you:--you _art_, you _is_; you _walkest_, you _walks_. Why, then,
    should any attempt be made to force a usage so unnatural and
    gratuitous as the connecting of the singular verb in the past tense
    with this pronoun? In every point of view, the construction, "When
    _were_ you there?" "How far _were_ you from the parties?" is
    preferable to the other.

    3. The words _my, thy, his, her, our, your, their_, are, by many,
    denominated _possessive adjective pronouns_; but they always _stand
    for_ nouns in the possessive case. They ought, therefore, to be
    classed with the _personal_ pronouns. That principle of
    classification which ranks them with the adjective pronouns, would
    also throw all nouns in the possessive case among the adjectives.
    Example: "The lady gave the gentleman _her_ watch for _his_ horse."
    In this sentence _her_ personates, or stands for, the noun "lady,"
    and _his_ represents "gentleman." This fact is clearly shown by
    rendering the sentence thus, "The lady gave the gentleman the
    _lady's_ watch for the _gentleman's_ horse." If _lady's_ and
    _gentleman's_ are nouns, _her_ and _his_ must be personal pronouns.
    The same remarks apply to _my, thy, our, your, their_ and _its_.
    This view of these words may be objected to by those who speculate
    and refine upon the principles of grammar until they prove their
    non-existence, but it is believed, nevertheless, to be based on
    sound reason and common sense.

    4. _Mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs_, have, by many
    respectable grammarians, been considered merely the possessive cases
    of personal pronouns, whilst, by others, they have been denominated
    pronouns or nouns in the nominative or objective case. It is
    believed, however, that a little attention to the meaning and office
    of these words, will clearly show the impropriety of both these
    classifications. Those who pursue the former arrangement, allege,
    that, in the examples, "You may imagine what kind of faith _theirs_
    was; My pleasures are past; _hers_ and _yours_ are to come; they
    applauded his conduct, but condemned _hers_ and _yours_," the words
    _theirs, hers_, and _yours_, are personal pronouns in the possessive
    case, and governed by their respective nouns understood. To prove
    this, they construct the sentence thus, "You may imagine what kind
    of faith _their faith_ was;--_her pleasures_ and _your pleasures_
    are to come;--but condemned _her conduct_ and _your conduct_;" or
    thus, "You may imagine what kind of faith the faith of them
    was;--the pleasures of her and the pleasures of you, are to come;--
    but condemned the conduct of her and the conduct of you." But these
    constructions, (both of which are correct,) prove too much for their
    purpose; for, as soon as we supply the nouns after these words, they
    are resolved into personal pronouns of kindred meaning, and the
    nouns which we supply: thus, _theirs_ becomes, their faith: _hers_,
    her pleasures; and _yours_, your pleasures. This evidently gives us
    two words instead of, and altogether distinct from, the first; so
    that, in parsing, _their faith_, we are not, in reality, analyzing
    _theirs_, but two other words of which _theirs_ is the proper
    representative. These remarks also prove, with equal force, the
    impropriety of calling these words merely simple pronouns or nouns
    in the nominative or objective case. Without attempting to develop
    the original or intrinsic meaning of these pluralizing adjuncts,
    _ne_ and _s_, which were, no doubt, formerly detached from the
    pronouns with which they now coalesce, for all practical purposes,
    it is sufficient for us to know, that, in the present application of
    these pronouns, they invariably stand for, not only the person
    possessing, but, also the thing possessed, which gives them a
    _compound_ character. They may, therefore, be properly denominated
    COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS; and, as they always perform a double
    office in a sentence by representing two other words, and,
    consequently, including two cases, they should, like the compound
    relative _what_, be parsed as two words. Thus, in the example, "You
    may imagine what kind of faith theirs was," _theirs_ is a compound
    personal pronoun, equivalent to _their faith. Their_ is a pronoun, a
    word used instead of a noun; personal, it personates the persons
    spoken of, understood; third pers. plur. numb., &c.--and in the
    possessive case, and governed by "faith," according to Rule 12.
    _Faith_ is a noun, the name of a thing, &c. &c.--and in the
    nominative case to "was," and governs it; Rule 3. Or, if we render
    the sentence thus, "You may imagine what kind of faith _the faith of
    them[4]_ was," _faith_ would be in the nominative case to "was," and
    _them_ would be in the objective case, and governed by "of:" Rule
    31.

[4] In the note next preceding, it is asserted, that my, thy, his,
her, our your, and their, are personal pronouns. What can more
clearly demonstrate the correctness of that assertion, than this
latter construction of the word theirs? All admit, that, in the
construction, "The faith _of them_," the word _them_, is a personal
pronoun: and for this conclusive reason:--it represents a noun
understood. What, then, is _their_, in the phrase, "their faith?" Is
it not obvious, that, if _them_ is a personal pronoun, _their_ must
be, also? for the latter represents the same noun as the former.

    Objections to this method of treating these pronouns, will doubtless
    be preferred by those who assert, that a noun is understood after
    these words, and not represented by them. But this is assertion
    without proof; for, if a noun were understood, it might be supplied.
    If the question be put, whose book? and the answer be, _mine, ours,
    hers_, or _theirs_, the word book is included in such answer. Were
    it not included, we might supply it, thus, mine _book_, ours _book_,
    hers _book_, and so on. This, however, we cannot do, for it would be
    giving a _double_ answer: but when the question is answered by a
    noun in the possessive case, the word book is not included, but
    implied; as, Whose book? John's, Richard's; that is, John's _book_;
    Richard's _book_.

    This view of the subject, without a parallel, except in the
    compounds _what, whoever_, and _others_, is respectfully submitted
    to the public; believing, that those who approve of a critical
    analysis of words, will coincide with me. Should any still be
    disposed to treat these words so superficially as to rank them among
    the simple pronouns, let them answer the following interrogatory: If
    _what_, when compound, should be parsed as two words, why not _mine,
    thine, his, hers, ours, yours_, and _theirs_?

    5. _Mine_ and _thine_, instead of _my_ and _thy_, are used in solemn
    style, before a word beginning with a vowel or silent _h_; as, "Blot
    out all _mine_ iniquities;" and when thus used, they are not
    compound. _His_ always has the same form, whether simple or
    compound; as, "Give John _his_ book; That desk is _his." Her_, when
    placed before a noun, is in the possessive case; as, Take _her_ hat:
    when standing alone, it is in the objective case; as, Give the hat
    to _her_.

When you shall have studied this lecture attentively, and committed the
_declension_ of the personal pronouns, you may commit the following
SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.

_The order of parsing a_ PERSONAL PRONOUN, is--a pronoun, and
why?--personal, and why?--person, and why?--gender and number, and
why?--RULE: case, and why?--RULE.--Decline it.

There are many peculiarities to be observed in parsing personal pronouns
in their different persons; therefore, if you wish ever to parse them
correctly, you must pay particular attention to the manner in which the
following are analyzed. Now notice, particularly, and you will perceive
that we apply only _one_ rule in parsing _I_ and _my_, and _two_ in
parsing _thou, him_, and _they_.

    "_I_ saw _my_ friend."

_I_ is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun--personal, it represents
the person speaking, understood--first person, it denotes the
speaker--singular number, it implies but one--and in the nominative
case, it represents the actor and subject of the verb "saw," and governs
it, agreeably to RULE 3. _The nom. case gov. the verb_. Declined--first
pers. sing. num. nom. I, poss. my or mine, obj. me. Plur. nom. we, poss.
our or ours, obj. us.

_My_ is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun--personal, it
personates the person speaking, understood--first pers. it denotes the
speaker--sing. num. it implies but one--and in the possessive case, it
denotes possession; it is governed by the noun "friend", agreeably to
RULE 12. _A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the
noun it possesses_. Declined--first pers. sing. nom. I, poss. my or
mine, obj. me. Plur. nom. we, poss. our or ours, obj. us.

    "Young man, _thou_ hast deserted thy companion, and left _him_ in
    distress."

_Thou_ is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun--personal, it
personates "man"--second person, it represents the person spoken
to--mas. gend. sing. num. because the noun "man" is for which it stands,
according to RULE 13. _Personal pronouns must agree with the nouns for
which they stand in gender and number_.

_Thou_ is in the nom. case, it represents the actor and subject of the
verb "hast deserted," and governs it agreeably to RULE 3. _The nom. case
governs the verb._ Declined--sec. pers. sing. num. nom. thou, poss. thy
or thine, obj. thee. Plur. nom. ye or you, poss. your or yours, obj.
you.

_Him_ is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun--personal, it
personates "companion"--third pers. it represents the person spoken
of--mas. gend. sing. num. because the noun "companion" is for which it
stands: RULE 13. _Pers. pro. &c_. (Repeat the Rule.)--_Him_ is in the
objective case, the object of the action expressed by the
active-transitive verb "hast left," and gov. by it: RULE 20.
_Active-trans. verbs gov. the obj. case_. Declined--third pers. mas.
gend. sing. num. nom. he, poss. his, obj. him. Plur. nom. they, poss.
their or theirs, obj. them.

    "Thrice I raised my voice, and called the chiefs to combat, but
    _they_ dreaded the force of my arm."

_They_ is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun--personal, it
represents "chiefs"--third pers. it denotes the persons spoken of--mas.
gend. plur. num. because the noun "chiefs" is for which it stands: RULE
13. _Pers. Pron. &c_. (Repeat the Rule.) It is the nom. case, it
represents the actors and subject of the verb "dreaded," and governs it:
RULE 3. _The nom. case, gov. the verb_. Declined--third pers. mas. gend.
sing. num. nom. he, poss. his, obj. him. Plur. nom. they, poss. their or
theirs, obj. them.

NOTE. We do not apply gender in parsing the personal pronouns,
(excepting the third person singular,) if the nouns they represent are
understood; and therefore we do not, in such instances, apply Rule 13.
But when the noun is expressed, gender should be applied, and _two_
Rules.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

I saw a man leading his horse slowly over the new bridge. My friends
visit me very often at my father's office. We improve ourselves by close
application. Horace, thou learnest many lessons. Charles, you, by your
diligence, make easy work of the task given you by your preceptor. Young
ladies, you run over your lessons very carelessly. The stranger drove
his horses too far into the water, and, in so doing, he drowned them.

Gray morning rose in the east. A green narrow vale appeared before us:
its winding stream murmured through the grove. The dark host of Rothmar
stood on its banks, with their glittering spears. We fought along the
vale. They fled. Rothmar sunk beneath my sword. Day was descending in
the west, when I brought his arms to Crothar. The aged hero felt them
with his hands: joy brightened his thoughts.

NOTE. _Horace, Charles_, and _ladies_, are of the second person, and
nom. case _independent_: see RULE 5, and NOTE. The first _you_ is used
in the nom. poss. and obj. case.--It represents Charles, therefore it is
_singular_ in sense, although plural in form. In the next example, _you_
personifies _ladies_, therefore it is _plural. Given_ is a perfect
participle. _You_ following given, is governed by _to_ understood,
according to NOTE 1, under Rule 32. _Run over_ is a compound verb. _And_
is a conjunction. The first _its_ personates vale; the second _its_
represents stream.

You may now parse the following examples three times over.

COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

    "Juliet, retain her paper, and present _yours_."

_Yours_ is a compound personal pronoun, representing both the possessor
and the thing possessed, and is equivalent to _your paper_. _Your_ is a
pronoun, a word used instead of a noun--personal, it personates
"Juliet"--second person, it represents the person spoken to--fem.
gender, sing. number, (singular in sense, but _plural_ in form,) because
the noun Juliet is for which it stands: Rule 13. _Pers. Pron.
&c_.--_Your_ is in the possessive case, it denotes possession, and is
governed by "paper," according to Rule 12. _A noun or pron. &c._ (Repeat
the Rule, and decline the pronoun.) _Paper_ is a noun, the name of a
thing--common, the name of a sort of things--neuter gender, it denotes a
thing without sex--third person, spoken of--sing. number, it implies but
one--and in the obj. case, it is the object of the action expressed by
the transitive verb "present," and governed by it: Rule 20.
_Active-transitive verbs govern the obj. case_.

NOTE. Should it be objected, that _yours_ does not mean _your paper_,
any more than it means _your book, your house, your_ any thing, let it
be borne in mind, that pronouns have no _definite_ meaning, like other
words; but their _particular_ signification is always determined by the
nouns they represent.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

Julia injured her book, and soiled mine: hers is better than mine. My
friend sacrificed his fortune to secure yours: his deeds deserve reward;
yours merit disgrace. Henry's labors are past; thine are to come. We
leave your forests of beasts for ours of men. My sword and yours are
kin.

NOTE. _She_ understood, is nominative to _soiled_, in the first example;
and the substantive part of _mine_, after than, is nom. to _is_,
understood: Rule 35. The verbs _to secure_ and _to come_ have no
nominative. The pronouns _mine, my, yours, thine, we, your, ours, my_,
and _yours_, personate nouns understood.

REMARKS ON _IT_.

For the want of a proper knowledge of this little pronoun _it_, many
grammarians have been greatly puzzled how to dispose of it, or how to
account for its multiform, and, seemingly, contradictory characters. It
is in great demand by writers of every description. They use it without
ceremony; either in the nominative or objective case; either to
represent one person or thing, or more than one. It is applied to nouns
in the masculine, feminine, or neuter gender, and, very frequently, it
represents a member of a sentence, a whole sentence, or a number of
sentences taken in a mass.

A little attention to its true character, will, at once, strip it of all
its mystery. _It_, formerly written _hit_, according to H. Tooke, is the
past participle of the Moeso-Gothic verb _haitan_. It means, _the said_,
and, therefore, like its near relative _that_, meaning, _the assumed_,
originally had no respect, in its application, to number, person, or
gender. "_It_ is a wholesome law;" i.e. _the_ _said_ (law) is a
wholesome law; or, _that_ (law) is a wholesome law;--_the assumed_ (law)
is a wholesome law. "_It_ is the man; I believe _it_ to be them:"--_the
said_ (man) is the man; _that_ (man) is the man: I believe _the said_
(persons) to be them; I believe _that_ persons (according to the ancient
application of _that_) to be them. "_It_ happened on a summer's day,
that many people were assembled," &c.--Many people were assembled: _it,
that_, or _the said_ (fact or circumstance) happened on a summer's day.

_It_, according to its accepted meaning in modern times, is not referred
to a noun understood after it, but is considered a substitute. "How is
_it_ with you?" that is, "How is your _state_ or _condition_?" "_It_
rains; _It_ freezes; _It_ is a hard winter;"--_The rain_ rains; _The
frost_ frosts or freezes; _The said_ (winter) is a hard winter. "_It_ is
delightful to see brothers and sisters living in uninterrupted love to
the end of their days." What is delightful? _To see brothers and sisters
living in uninterrupted love to the end of their days. It, this thing_,
is delightful. _It_, then, stands for all that part of the sentence
expressed in italics; and the sentence will admit of the following
construction; "To see brothers living in uninterrupted love to the end
of their days, is delightful."

       *       *       *       *       *

OF ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.

ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS, PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES, or, more properly, SPECIFYING
ADJECTIVES, are a kind of adjectives which point out nouns by some
distinct specification.

Pronouns and adjectives are totally distinct in their character. The
former _stand for_ nouns, and never belong to them; the latter _belong
to_ nouns, and never stand for them. Hence, such a thing as an
_adjective-pronoun_ cannot exist. _Each, every, either, this, that,
some, other_, and the residue, are pure adjectives.

Those specifying adjectives commonly called Adjective Pronouns, may be
divided into three sorts; the _distributive_, the _demonstrative_, and
the _indefinite_. They are all known by the _lists_.

I. The _distributive adjectives_ are those that denote the persons or
things that make up a number, each taken separately and singly. _List:
each, every, either_, and sometimes _neither_; as, "_Each_ of his
brothers is in a favorable situation;" "_Every_ man must account for
himself;" "_Neither_ of them is industrious."

These distributives are words which are introduced into language in its
refined state, in order to express the nicest shades and colors of
thought. "_Man_ must account for himself;" "_Mankind_ must account for
themselves;" "_All men_ must account for themselves;" "_All men, women,_
and _children,_ must account for themselves;" "_Every man_ must account
for himself." Each of these assertions conveys the same fact or truth.
But the last, instead of presenting the whole human family for the mind
to contemplate in a mass, by the peculiar force of _every, distributes_
them, and presents each separately and singly; and whatever is affirmed
of one individual, the mind instantaneously transfers to the whole human
race.

_Each_ relates to two or more persons or things, and signifies either of
the two, or every one of any number taken separately.

_Every_ relates to several persons or things, and signifies each one of
them all taken separately.

_Either_ relates to _two_ persons or things taken separately, and
signifies the one or the other. "_Either_ of the _three_," is an
improper expression. It should be, "any of the three."

_Neither_ imports _not either_; that is, not one nor the other; as,
"_Neither_ of my friends was there." When an allusion is made to more
than _two, none_ should be used instead of _neither_; as, "_None_ of my
friends was there."

       *       *       *       *       *

II. The _demonstrative_ are those which precisely point out the subject
to which they relate. _List: this_ and _that_, and their plurals,
_these_ and _those_, and _former_ and _latter_; as, "_This_ is true
charity; "_that_ is only its image."

There is but a slight shade of difference in the meaning and application
of _the_ and _that_. When reference is made to a particular book, we
say, "Take _the_ book;" but when we wish to be very pointed and precise,
we say, "Take _that_ book;" or, if it be near by, "Take _this_ book."
You perceive, then, that these demonstratives have all the force of the
definite article, and a little more.

_This_ and _these_ refer to the nearest persons or things, _that_ and
_those_ to the most distant; as, "_These_ goods are superior to those."
_This_ and _these_ indicate the latter, or last mentioned; _that_ and
_those_, the former, or first mentioned; as, "Both _wealth_ and
_poverty_ are temptations; _that_ tends to excite pride, _this_,
discontent."

  "_Some_ place the bliss in action, _some_ in ease;
   _Those_ call it pleasure, and contentment, _these_."

_They, those_. As it is the office of the personal _they_ to represent a
noun previously introduced to our notice, there appears to be a slight
departure from analogy in the following application of it: "_They_ who
seek after wisdom, are sure to find her: _They_ that sow in tears,
sometimes reap in joy." This usage, however, is well established, and
_they_, in such constructions, is generally employed in preference to
_those_.

       *       *       *       *       *

III. The _indefinite_ are those which express their subjects in an
indefinite or general manner. _List: some, other, any, one, all, such,
both, same, another none_. Of these, _one_ and _other_ are declined like
nouns. _Another_ is declined, but wants the plural.

The indefinite adjectives, like the indefinite article, leave the
meaning unfixed, or, in some degree, vague. With a slight shade of
difference in meaning, we say, Give me _a_ paper, _one_ paper, _any_
paper, _some_ paper, and so on. Though these words restrict the meaning
of the noun, they do not fix it to a _particular_ object. We therefore
call them indefinite.

These adjectives, or adjective pronouns, frequently belong to nouns
understood, in which situation they should be parsed accordingly; as
"You may take _either_; He is pleased with _this_ book, but dislikes
_that_ (book;) _All_ (men) have sinned, but _some_ (men) have repented."

The words, _one, other_, and _none_, are used in both numbers; and, when
they _stand for_ nouns, they are not adjectives, but indefinite
_pronouns_; as, "The great _ones_ of the world have their failings;"
"Some men increase in wealth, while _others_ decrease;" "_None_ escape."

The word "ones," in the preceding example, does not belong to a noun
understood. If it did, we could supply the noun. The meaning is not "the
great one men, nor ones men," therefore _one_ is not an adjective
pronoun; but the meaning is, "The great _men_ of the world," therefore
_ones_ is a pronoun of the indefinite kind, representing the noun _men_
understood, and it ought to be parsed like a personal pronoun. The word
_others_, in the next example, is a compound pronoun, equivalent to
_other men_; and should be parsed like _mine, thine_, &c. See Note 4th,
page 100.

I will now parse two pronouns, and then present some examples for you to
analyze. If, in parsing the following exercises, you should be at a loss
for definitions and rules, please to refer to the compendium. But before
you proceed, you may commit the following

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.

The order of parsing an ADJECTIVE PRONOUN, is--an adjective pronoun, and
why?--distributive, demonstrative, or indefinite, and why?--to what
noun does it belong, or with what does it agree?--RULE.

"_One_ man instructs many _others." One_ is an adjective pronoun, or
specifying adjective, it specifically points out a noun--indefinite, it
expresses its subject in an indefinite or general manner, and belongs to
the noun "man," according to RULE 19. _Adjective pronouns belong to
nouns, expressed or understood_.

_Others_ is a compound pronoun, including both an adjective pronoun and
a noun, and is equivalent to _other men_. _Other_ is an adjective
pronoun, it is used specifically to describe its noun--indefinite, it
expresses its subject in an indefinite manner, and belongs to _men_:
Rule 19. (Repeat the rule.) _Men_ is a noun, a name denoting
persons--common, &c. (parse it in full;) and in the objective case, it
is the object of the action expressed by the transitive verb
"instructs," and gov. by it: Rule 20. _Active-transitive verbs, &c_.

    "_Those_ books are _mine_."

_Those_ is an adjective pronoun, it specifies what noun is referred
to--demonstrative, it precisely points out the subject to which it
relates--and agrees with the noun "books" in the plural number,
according to NOTE 1, under Rule 19. _Adjective pronouns must agree in
number with their nouns_.

_Mine_ is a compound personal pronoun, including both the possessor and
the thing possessed, and is equivalent to _my books_. _My_ is a pron. a
word used instead of a noun--personal, it stands for the name of the
person speaking--first person, it denotes the speaker--sing. number, it
implies but one--and in the poss. case, it denotes possession, and is
gov. by "books," according to Rule 12. (Repeat the rule, and decline
the pronoun.) _Books_ is a noun, the name of a thing--common, &c. (parse
it in full;)--and in the nominative case after "are," according to RULE
21. _The verb_ to be _admits the same case after it as before it_.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

Each individual fills a space in creation. Every man helps a little.
These men rank among the great ones of the world. That book belongs to
the tutor, this belongs to me. Some men labor, others labor not; the
former increase in wealth, the latter decrease. The boy wounded the old
bird, and stole the young ones. None performs his duty too well. None of
those poor wretches complain of their miserable lot.

NOTE. In parsing the distributive pronominal adjectives, NOTE 2, undo
Rule 19, should be applied.

       *       *       *       *       *

III. OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

Relative Pronouns are such as relate, in general, to some word or phrase
going before, which is called the antecedent. They are _who, which_, and
_that_.

The word _antecedent_, comes from the two Latin words, _ante, before_,
and _cedo, to go_. Hence you perceive, that antecedent means going
before; thus, "The _man_ is happy _who_ lives virtuously; This is the
_lady who_ relieved my wants; _Thou who_ lovest wisdom, &c. _We who_
speak from experience," &c. The relative who, in these sentences,
relates to the several words, _man, lady, thou_, and _we_, which words,
you observe, come before the relative: they are, therefore, properly
called antecedents.

The relative is not varied on account of gender, person, or number, like
a personal pronoun. When we use a personal pronoun, in speaking of a
man, we say _he_, and of a woman, _she_; in speaking of one person or
thing, we use a singular pronoun, of more than one, a plural, and so on;
but there is no such variation of the relative. _Who_, in the first of
the preceding examples, relates to an antecedent of the mas. gend. third
pers. sing.; in the second, the antecedent is of the fem. gend.; in the
third, it is of the second pers.; and in the fourth, it is of the first
pers. plur. num.; and, yet, the relative is in the same form in each
example. Hence you perceive, that the relative has no peculiar _form_ to
denote its gend. pers. and num., but it always agrees with its
antecedent _in sense_. Thus, when I say, The _man who_ writes, _who_ is
mas. gend. and sing.; but when I say, The _ladies who_ write, _who_ is
feminine, and plural. In order to ascertain the gend. pers. and num. of
the relative, you must always look at its antecedent.

WHO, WHICH, and THAT.

_Who_ is applied to _persons, which_ to _things_ and _brutes_; as, "He
is a _friend who_ is faithful in adversity; The _bird which_ sung so
sweetly, is flown; This is the _tree which_ produces no fruit."

_That_ is often used as a relative, to prevent the too frequent
repetition of _who_ and _which_. It is applied both to persons and
things; as, "_He that_ acts wisely, deserves praise; Modesty is a
_quality that_ highly adorns a woman."

    NOTES.

    1. _Who_ should never be applied to animals. The following
    application of it is erroneous:--"He is like a _least_ of prey,
    _who_ destroys without pity." It should be, _that_ destroys, &c.

    2. _Who_ should not be applied to children. It is incorrect to say,
    "The _child whom_ we have just seen," &c. It should be, "The child
    _that_ we have just seen."

    3. _Which_ may be applied to persons when we wish to distinguish one
    person of two, or a particular person among a number of others; as,
    "_Which_ of the two? _Which_ of them is he?"

    4. _That_, in preference to _who_ or _which_, is applied to persons
    when they are qualified by an adjective in the superlative degree,
    or by the pronominal adjective _same_; as, "Charles XII., king of
    Sweden, was one of the _greatest_ madmen _that_ the world ever
    saw;--He is the _same_ man _that_ we saw before."

    5. _That_ is employed after the interrogative _who_, in cases like
    the following; "Who _that_ has any sense of religion, would have
    argued thus?"

When the word _ever_ or _soever_ is annexed to a relative pronoun, the
combination is called a _compound pronoun_; as, _whoever_ or _whosoever,
whichever_ or _whichsoever, whatever_ or _whatsoever_.

DECLENSION OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

SINGULAR AND PLURAL.

_Nom._ who,        _Poss._ whose,       _Obj._ whom.
 "   whoever,      "   whosever,     "   whomever.
 "   whosoever,    "   whosesoever,  "   whomsoever.

_Which_ and _that_ are indeclinable, except that _whose_ is sometimes
used as the possessive case of _which_; as, "Is there any other doctrine
_whose_ followers are punished;" that is, the followers _of which_ are
punished. The use of this license has obtained among our best writers;
but the construction is not to be recommended, for it is a departure
from a plain principle of grammar, namely, who, whose, whom, in their
applications, should be confined to rational beings.

_That_ may be used as a pronoun, an adjective, and a conjunction,
depending on the office which it performs in the sentence.

_That_ is a relative only when it can be changed to _who_ or _which_
without destroying the sense; as, "They _that_ (who) reprove us, may be
our best friends; From every thing _that_ (which) you see, derive
instruction." _That_ is a demonstrative adjective, when it belongs to,
or points out, some particular noun, either expressed or implied; as,
"Return _that_ book; _That_ belongs to me; Give me _that_." When _that_
is neither a relative nor an adjective pronoun, it is a conjunction; as,
"Take care _that_ every day be well employed." The word _that_, in this
last sentence, cannot be changed to _who_ or _which_ without destroying
the sense, therefore you know it is not a relative pronoun; neither does
it point out any particular noun, for which reason you know it is not an
adjective pronoun; but it connects the sentence, therefore it is a
conjunction.

If you pay particular attention to this elucidation of the word _that_,
you will find no difficulty in parsing it. When it is a relative or an
adjective pronoun, it may be known by the signs given; and whenever
these signs will not apply to it, you know it is a conjunction.

Some writers are apt to make too free use of this word. I will give you
one example of affronted _that_, which may serve as a caution. The tutor
said, in speaking of the word that, that that that that that lady
parsed, was not the that that that gentleman requested her to analyze.
This sentence, though rendered inelegant by a bad choice of words, is
strictly grammatical. The first _that_ is a noun; the second, a
conjunction; the third, an adjective pronoun; the fourth, a noun; the
fifth, a relative pronoun; the sixth, an adjective pronoun; the seventh,
a noun; the eighth, a relative pronoun; the ninth, an adjective pronoun.
The meaning of the sentence will be more obvious, if rendered thus; The
tutor said, in speaking of the word that, that that that _which_ that
lady parsed, was not the that _which_ that gentleman requested her to
analyze.

WHAT.

_What_ is generally a compound relative, including both the antecedent
and the relative, and is equivalent to _that which_; as, "This is _what_
I wanted;" that is, _that which_, or, _the thing which_ I wanted.

_What_ is compounded of _which that_. These words have been contracted
and made to coalesce, a part of the orthography of both being still
retained: _what--wh[ich--t]hat_; (_which-that_.) Anciently it appeared
in the varying forms, _tha qua, qua tha, qu'tha, quthat, quhat, hwat_,
and finally, _what_.

_What_ may be used as three kinds of a pronoun, and as an interjection.
When it is equivalent to _that which, the thing which_, or _those things
which_, it is a compound relative, because it includes both the
antecedent and the relative; as, "I will try _what_ (that which) can be
found in female delicacy; _What_ you recollect with most pleasure, are
the virtuous actions of your past life;" that is, _those things which_
you recollect, &c.

When _what_ is a compound relative, you must always parse it as two
words; that is, you must parse the antecedent part as a noun, and give
it a case; the relative part you may analyze like any other relative,
giving it a case likewise. In the first of the preceding examples,
_that_, the antecedent part of _what_, is in the obj. case, governed by
the verb "will try;" _which_, the relative part, is in the nom. case to
"can be found." "I have heard _what_ (i.e. _that which_, or _the thing
which_) has been alleged."

_Whoever_ and _whosoever_ are also compound relatives, and should be
parsed like the compound _what_; as, "_Whoever_ takes that oath, is
bound to enforce the laws." In this sentence, _whoever_ is equivalent to
_he who_, or, _the man who_; thus, "_He who_ takes that oath, is bound,"
&c.

_Who, which_, and _what_, when used in asking questions, are called
interrogative pronouns, or relatives of the interrogative kind; as,
_"Who_ is he? _Which_ is the person? _What_ are you doing?"

Interrogative pronouns have no antecedent; but they relate to the word
or phrase which is the answer to the question, for their subsequent; as,
"_Whom_ did you see? The _preceptor. What_ have you done? _Nothing_."
Antecedent and subsequent are opposed to each other in signification.
Antecedent means preceding, or going before; and subsequent means
following, or coming after. _What_, when used as an interrogative, is
never compound.

_What, which_, and _that_, when joined to nouns, are specifying
adjectives, or adjective pronouns, in which situation they have no case,
but are parsed like adjective pronouns of the demonstrative or
indefinite kind; as, "Unto _which_ promise our twelve tribes hope to
come;" "_What_ misery the vicious endure! _What_ havock hast thou made,
foul monster, sin!"

_What_ and _which_, when joined to nouns in asking questions, are
denominated interrogative pronominal adjectives; as, "_What man_ is
that? _Which road_ did he take?"

_What, whatever_, and _whatsoever, which, whichever_, and _whichsoever_,
in constructions like the following, are compound pronouns, but not
compound relatives; as, "In _what_ character Butler was admitted, is
unknown; Give him _what_ name you choose; Nature's care largely endows
_whatever_ happy man will deign to use her treasures; Let him take
_which_ course, or, _whichever_ course he will." These sentences may be
rendered thus; "_That_ character, or, _the_ character in _which_ Butler
was admitted, is unknown; Give him _that_ name, or, _the_ name _which_
you choose; Nature's care endows _that_ happy man _who_ will deign, &c.;
Let him take _that_ course, or _the_ course _which_ he will." A compound
relative necessarily includes both an antecedent and a relative. These
compounds, you will notice, do not include antecedents, the first part
of each word being the article _the_, or the adjective pronoun, _that_;
therefore they cannot properly be denominated compound relatives.--With
regard to the word _ever_ annexed to these pronouns, it is a singular
fact, that, as soon as we analyze the word to which it is subjoined,
_ever_ is entirely excluded from the sentence.

_What_ is sometimes used as an interjection; as, "But _what!_ is thy
servant a dog, that he should do this? _What!_ rob us of our right of
suffrage, and then shut us up in dungeons!"

You have now come to the most formidable obstacle, or, if I may so
speak, to the most rugged eminence in the path of grammatical science;
but be not disheartened, for, if you can get safely over this, your
future course will be interrupted with only here and there a gentle
elevation. It will require close application, and a great deal of sober
thinking, to gain a clear conception of the nature of the relative
pronouns, particularly the compound relatives, which are not easily
comprehended by the young learner. As this eighth lecture is a very
important one, it becomes necessary for you to read it carefully four or
five times over before you proceed to commit the following order.
Whenever you parse, you may spread the Compendium before you, if you
please.

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.

_The order of parsing a_ RELATIVE PRONOUN, is--a pronoun, and
why?--relative, and why?--gender, person, and number, and
why?--RULE:--case, and why?--RULE.--Decline it.

    "This is the man _whom_ we saw."

_Whom_ is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun--relative, it relates
to "man" for its antecedent--mas. gend. third pers. sing. num. because
the antecedent "man" is with which it agrees, according to

RULE 14. _Relative pronouns agree with their antecedents in gender,
person, and number. Whom_ is in the objective case, the object of the
action expressed by the active-transitive verb "saw," and governed by
it, agreeably to

RULE 16. _When a nominative comes between the relative and the verb, the
relative is governed by the following verb, or some other word in its
own member of the sentence_.

_Whom_, in the objective case, is placed before the verb that governs
it, according to NOTE 1, under Rule 16. (Repeat the Note, and decline
_who_.)

    "From _what_ is recorded, he appears," &c.

_What_ is a comp. rel. pron. including both the antecedent and the
relative, and is equivalent to _that which_, or the _thing
which_--_Thing_, the antecedent part of _what_, is a noun, the name of a
thing--com. the name of a species--neuter gender, it has no sex--third
person, spoken of--sing. number, it implies but one--and in the obj.
case, it is the object of the relation expressed by the prep. "from,"
and gov. by it: RULE 31. (Repeat the Rule, and every other Rule to which
I refer.) _Which_, the relative part of _what_, is a pronoun, a word
used instead of a noun--relative, it relates to "thing" for its
antecedent--neut. gender, third person, sing. number, because the
antecedent "thing" is with which it agrees, according to RULE 14. _Rel
pron_. &c. _Which_ is in the nom. case to the verb "is recorded,"
agreeably to

RULE 15. _The relative is the nominative case to the verb, when no
nominative comes between it and the verb_.

    "_What_ have you learned? Nothing."

_What_ is a pron. a word used, &c.--relative of the interrogative kind,
because it is used in asking a question--it refers to the word "nothing"
for its _subsequent_, according to

RULE 17. _When the rel. pron. is of the interrog. kind, it refers to the
word or phrase containing the answer to the question, for its
subsequent, which subsequent must agree in case with the interrogative.
What_ is of the neut. gend. third pers. sing. because the subsequent
"nothing" is with which it agrees; RULE 14. _Rel. pron. agree_, &c.--It
is in the obj. case, the object of the action, of the active-transitive
verb "have learned," and gov. by it, agreeably to RULE 16. _When a nom_.
&c. See NOTE 1, under the Rule.

NOTE. 1. You need not apply gend. pers. and numb, to the interrogative
when the answer to the question is _not_ expressed.

WHO, WHICH, WHAT.

Truth and simplicity are twin sisters, and generally go hand in hand.
The foregoing exposition of the "relative pronouns," is in accordance
with the usual method of treating them; but if they were unfolded
according to their true character, they would be found to be very
simple, and, _doubtless_, much labor and perplexity, on the part of the
learner, would thereby be saved.

Of the words called "relatives," _who_, only, is a pronoun; and this is
strictly _personal_; more so, indeed, if we except _I_ and _we_, than
any other word in our language, for it is always restricted to persons.
It ought to be classed with the personal pronouns. _I, thou, he, she,
it, we, ye, you_, and _they, relate_ to antecedents, as well as _who.
Which, that_, and _what_, are always adjectives. They never _stand for_,
but always _belong_ to nouns, either expressed or implied. They
_specify_, like many other adjectives, and _connect_ sentences.

_Who_ supplies the place of _which_ or _what_ and its _personal noun_.
_Who_ came? i.e. _what man, what woman, what person;--which man, woman_,
or _person_, came? "They heard _what_ I said"--they heard _that_ (thing)
_which_ (thing) I said. "Take _what_ (or _whichever_) course you
please;"--take _that_ course _which_ (course) you please to take.
"_What_ have you done?" i.e. _what thing, act_, or _deed_ have you
done? "_Which thing_ I also did at Jerusalem." "_Which_ will you
take?"--_which book, hat_, or something else? "This is the tree _which_
(tree) produces no fruit." "He _that_ (man, or _which_ man) acts wisely,
deserves praise."

They who prefer this method of treating the "relatives," are at liberty
to adopt it, and parse accordingly.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

The man who instructs you, labors faithfully. The boy whom I instruct,
learns well. The lady whose house we occupy, bestows many charities.
That modesty which highly adorns a woman, she possesses. He that acts
wisely deserves praise. This is the tree which produces no fruit. I
believe what He says. He speaks what he knows. Whatever purifies the
heart, also fortifies it. What doest[5] thou? Nothing. What book
have you? A poem. Whose hat have you? John's. Who does that work? Henry.
Whom seest thou? To whom gave you the present? Which pen did he take?
Whom ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you. I heard what he
said. George, you may pursue whatever science suits your taste. Eliza,
take whichever pattern pleases you best. Whoever lives to see this
republic forsake her moral and literary institutions, will behold her
liberties prostrated. Whosoever, therefore, will be a friend of the
world, is the enemy of God.

[5] The second person singular of _do_, when used as a principal
verb, is spelled with an _e_; thus, "What thou _doest_, do quickly;"
but when employed as an auxiliary, the _e_ should be omitted; as,
"_Dost_ thou not _behold_ a rock with its head of heath?"

    NOTE. The nominative case is frequently placed after the verb, and
    the objective case, before the verb that governs it. _Whom_, in
    every sentence except one, _house, modesty, book, hat, pen, him_,
    the third _what_ and _which_, the relative part of the first _two
    whats_, are all in the _objective_ case, and governed by the several
    verbs that follow them. See RULE 16, and NOTE 1. _Tree_ is nom.
    after is, according to RULE 21. Thing, the antecedent part of
    _whatever_, is nom. to "fortifies;" _which_, the relative part, is
    nom. to "purifies." _Nothing_ is governed by _do_, and _poem_, by
    _have_, understood. _Henry_ is nominative to _does_, understood.
    _Whose_ and _John's_ are governed according to RULE 12. _I, thou,
    you, him_, &c. represent nouns understood. _Him_, in the last
    sentence but five, is governed by _declare_, and _I_ is nominative
    to _declare. George_ and _Eliza_ are in the nominative case
    independent: Rule 5. "_Whatever_ science," &c. is equivalent to,
    _that_ science _which_ suits your taste;--"_whichever_ pattern;"
    i.e. _that_ pattern _which_ pleases you best. _Whoever_ is a
    compound relative; _he_, the antecedent part, is nominative to "will
    behold." _Take_ agrees with _you_ understood. _Forsake_ is in the
    infinitive mood after "see:" Rule 25.

REMARKS ON RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

_Which_ sometimes relates to a member of a sentence, or to a whole
sentence, for its antecedent: as, "We are required to fear God and keep
his commandments, _which_ is the whole duty of man." What is the whole
duty of man? "To fear God and keep his commandments:" therefore, this
phrase is the antecedent to _which_.

The conjunction _as_, when it follows _such, many_, or _same_, is
frequently denominated a relative pronoun; as, "I am pleased with _such
as_ have a refined taste;" that is, with _those who_, or _them who
have_, &c. "Let _such as_ presume to advise others, look well to their
own conduct;" that is, Let _those_, or _them who_ presume, &c. "_As many
as_ were ordained to eternal life, believed;" that is, _they, those_, or
_all who_ were ordained, believed. "He exhibited the _same_ testimonials
_as_ were adduced on a former occasion;" that is, _those_ testimonials
_which_ were adduced, &c. But, in examples like these, if we supply the
ellipsis which a critical analysis requires us to do, _as_ will be found
to be a conjunction; thus, "I am pleased with _such persons, as those
persons are who_ have a refined taste; Let _such persons, as those
persons are who_ presume," &c.

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING.

From what words is the term pronoun derived?--Do pronouns always avoid
the repetition of nouns?--Name the three kinds of pronouns.--What
distinguishes the personal from the relative pronouns?--How many
personal pronouns are there?--Repeat them.--What belong to pronouns?--Is
gender applied to all the personal pronouns?--To which of them is it
applied?--Which of the personal pronouns have no peculiar termination to
denote their gender?--How many persons have pronouns?--Speak them in
their different persons.--How many numbers have pronouns?--How many
cases?--What are they?--Decline all the personal pronouns.--When _self_
is added to the personal pronouns, what are they called, and how are
they used?--When is _you_ singular in sense?--Is it ever singular in
form?--Why are the words, _my, thy, his, her, our, your, their_, called
personal pronouns?--Why are the words, _mine, thine, his, hers, ours,
yours, theirs_, denominated compound pers. pron.?--How do you parse
these compounds?--What is said of _others_?--Repeat the order of parsing
a personal pronoun.--What rule do you apply in parsing a pronoun of the
first person, and in the nom. case?--What rule when the pronoun is in
the possessive case?--What Rules apply in parsing personal pronouns of
the second and third person?--What Rules in parsing the compounds,
_yours, ours, mine_, &c.?--What is said of the pronoun _it_?

What are adjective pronouns?--Name the three kinds.--What does _each_
relate to?--To what does _every_ relate?--To what does _either_
relate?--What does _neither_ import?--To what do _this_ and _these_
refer?--Give examples.--To what do _that_ and _those_ refer?--Give
examples.--Repeat all the adjective pronouns.--When adj. pronouns belong
to nouns understood, how are they parsed?--When they stand for, or
represent nouns, what are they called?--Give examples.--Repeat the
order of parsing an adj. pronoun.--What Rule do you apply in parsing
the indefinite adjective pronouns?--What Notes, in parsing the
distributives and demonstratives?

What are relative pronouns?--Repeat them.--From what words is the term
antecedent derived?--What does _antecedent_ mean?--Are relatives varied
on account of gender, person, or number?--To what are _who_ and _which_
applied?--To what is _that_ applied?--Should _who_ ever be applied to
irrational beings or children?--In what instances may _which_ be applied
to persons?--Decline the rel. pronouns.--Can _which_ and _that_ be
declined?--Is _that_ ever used as three parts of speech?--Give
examples.--What part of speech is the word _what_?--Is _what_ ever used
as three kinds of a pronoun?--Give examples.--What is said of
_whoever_?--What words are used as interrogative pronouns?--Give
examples.--When are the words, _what, which_, and _that_, called adj.
pron.?--When are they called interrogative pronominal adjectives?--What
is said of _whatever_ and _whichever_?--Is _what_ ever used as an
interjection?--Give examples.--Repeat the order of parsing a rel.
pron.--What Rules do you apply in parsing a relative?--What Rules in
parsing a compound relative?--What Rules in parsing an
interrogative?--Does the relative _which_ ever relate to a sentence for
its antecedent?--When does the conjunction _as_ become a relative?--Give
examples.

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX.

NOTE 1, to RULE 13. When a noun or pronoun is the subject of a verb, it
must be in the nominative case.

Who will go? Him and I. How does thee do? Is thee well?

"Him and I;" not proper, because the pronoun _him_ is the subject of the
verb _will go_ understood, therefore him should be in the nominative
case, _he_, according to the above NOTE. (Repeat the NOTE.) _Him_ and I
are connected by the conjunction _and_, and _him_ is in the obj. case,
and I in the nom., therefore RULE 33d, is violated. (Repeat the Rule.)
In the second and third examples, _thee_ should be _thou_, according to
the NOTE. The verbs, _does_ and _is_, are of the third person, and the
nom. _thou_ is second, for which reason the verbs should be of the
second person, _dost do_ and _art_, agreeably to RULE 4. You may correct
the other examples, _four_ times over.

FALSE SYNTAX.

Him and me went to town yesterday. Thee must be attentive. Him who is
careless, will not improve. They can write as well as me. This is the
man whom was expected. Her and I deserve esteem. I have made greater
proficiency than him. Whom, of all my acquaintances, do you think was
there? Whom, for the sake of his important services, had an office of
honor bestowed upon him.

NOTE 2, to RULE 13. Personal pronouns being used to supply the place of
nouns, should not be employed in the same member of the sentence with
the noun which they represent.

FALSE SYNTAX.

The men they are there. I saw him the king. Our cause it is just. Many
words they darken speech. That noble general who had gained so many
victories, he died, at last, in prison. Who, instead of going about
doing good, they are continually doing evil.

In each of the preceding examples, the personal pronoun should be
omitted, according to Note 2.

NOTE 3, to RULE 13. A personal pronoun in the objective case, should not
be used instead of _these_ and _those_.

FALSE SYNTAX.

Remove them papers from the desk. Give me them books. Give them men
their discharge. Observe them three there. Which of them two persons
deserves most credit?

In all these examples, _those_ should be used in place of _them_. The
use of the personal, _them_, in such constructions, presents two
objectives after one verb or preposition. This is a solecism which may
be avoided by employing an adjective pronoun in its stead.

       *       *       *       *       *

LECTURE IX.

OF CONJUNCTIONS.

A CONJUNCTION is a part of speech that is chiefly used to connect
sentences, joining two or more simple sentences into one compound
sentence: it sometimes connects only words; as, "Thou _and_ he are
happy, _because_ you are good."

Conjunctions are those parts of language, which, by joining sentences in
different ways, mark the connexions and various dependances of human
thought. They belong to language only in its refined state.

The term CONJUNCTION comes from the two Latin words, _con_, which
signifies _together_, and _jungo_, to _join_. A conjunction, then, is a
word that conjoins, or joins together something. Before you can fully
comprehend the nature and office of this sort of words, it is requisite
that you should know what is meant by a sentence, a simple sentence, and
a compound sentence, for conjunctions are chiefly used to connect
sentences.

A SENTENCE is an assemblage of words forming complete sense.

A SIMPLE SENTENCE contains but one subject, or nominative, and one verb
which agrees with that nominative; as, "_Wheat grows_ in the field."

You perceive that this sentence contains several words besides the
nominative and the verb, and you will often see a simple sentence
containing many parts of speech; but, if it has only one nominative and
one _finite_ verb, (that is, a verb _not_ in the infinitive mood,) it is
a simple sentence, though it is longer than many compound sentences.

A COMPOUND SENTENCE is composed of two or more simple sentences
connected together; as, "_Wheat grows_ in the field, and _men reap_ it."

This sentence is compound, because it is formed of two simple sentences
joined together by the word _and_; which word, on account of its
connecting power, is called a conjunction. If we write this sentence
without the conjunction, it becomes two simple sentences: thus, "Wheat
grows in the field. Men reap it."

The nature and importance of the conjunction, are easily illustrated.
After expressing one thought or sentiment, you know we frequently wish
to _add_ another, or several others, which are closely connected with
it. We generally effect this addition by means of the conjunction: thus,
"The Georgians cultivate rice _and_ cotton;" that is, "They cultivate
rice _add_ cotton." This sentence is compound, and without the use of
the conjunction, it would be written in two separate, simple sentences:
thus, "The Georgians cultivate rice. They cultivate cotton." The
conjunction, though chiefly used to connect sentences, sometimes
connects only words; in which capacity it is nearly allied to the
preposition; as, "The sun _and (add)_ the planets constitute the solar
system." In this, which is a simple sentence, _and_ connects two
_words_.

A few more examples will illustrate the nature, and exhibit the use of
this part of speech so clearly, as to enable you fully to comprehend it.
The following simple sentences and members of sentences, have no
relation to each other until they are connected by conjunctions. He
labors harder--more successfully--I do. That man is healthy--he is
temperate. By filling up the vacancies in these sentences with
conjunctions, you will see the importance of this sort of words: thus,
He labors harder _and_ more successfully _than_ I do. That man is
healthy _because_ he is temperate.

Conjunctions are divided into two sorts, the Copulative and Disjunctive.

I. The Conjunction _Copulative_ serves to connect and continue a
sentence by joining on a member which expresses an addition, a
supposition, or a cause; as, "Two _and_ three are five; I will go _if_
he will accompany me; You are happy _because_ you are good."

In the first of these examples, _and_ joins on a word that expresses an
_addition_; in the second, _if_ connects a member that implies a
_supposition_ or _condition_; and in the third, _because_ connects a
member that expresses a _cause_.

II. The Conjunction _Disjunctive_ serves to connect and continue a
sentence by joining on a member that expresses opposition of meaning;
as, "They came with her, _but_ they went away without her."

_But_ joins on a member of this sentence which expresses, not only
something added, but, also, _opposition_ of meaning.

The principal conjunctions, may be known by the following _lists_, which
you may now commit to memory. Some words in these lists, are, however,
frequently used as adverbs, and sometimes as prepositions; but if you
study well the nature of all the different sorts of words, you cannot be
at a loss to tell the part of speech of any word in the language.

LISTS OF THE CONJUNCTIONS.

_Copulative_. And, if, that, both, then, since, for, because, therefore,
wherefore, provided, besides.

_Disjunctive_. But, or, nor, as, than, lest, though, unless, either,
neither, yet, notwithstanding, nevertheless, except, whether, whereas,
as well as.

Some conjunctions are followed by corresponding conjunctions, so that,
in the subsequent member of the sentence, the latter answers to the
former; as,

1. _Though_--_yet_ or _nevertheless_; as, "_Though_ he was rich, _yet_
for our sakes he became poor."

2. _Whether_--_or_; as, "_Whether_ he will go, _or_ not, I cannot tell."
It is improper to say, "Whether he will go or _no_."

3. _Either_--_or_; as, "I will _either_ send it, _or_ bring it myself."

4. _Neither--nor_; as, "_Neither_ thou _nor_ I can comprehend it."

5. _As_--_as_; as, "She is _as_ amiable _as_ her sister."

6. _As_--_so_; as, "_As_ the stars, _so_ shall thy seed be."

7. _So_--_as_; as, "To see thy glory, _so as_ I have seen thee in the
sanctuary."

8. _So_--_that_; as, "He became _so_ vain, _that_ everyone disliked
him."

    NOTES.

    1. Some conjunctions are used to connect simple _sentences_ only,
    and form them into compound _sentences_; such as, further, again,
    besides, &c. Others are employed to connect simple _members_ only,
    so as to make them compound _members_; such as, than, lest, unless,
    that, so that, if, though, yet, because, as well as, &c. But, and,
    therefore, or, nor, for, &c., connect either whole sentences, or
    simple members.

    2. Relative pronouns, as well as conjunctions, serve to connect
    sentences; as, "Blessed is the man _who_ feareth the Lord, _and_
    keepeth his commandments."

You will now please to turn back and read this lecture four or five
times over; and then, after committing the following order, you may
parse the subsequent exercises.

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.

_The order of parsing a_ CONJUNCTION, is--a conjunction, and
why?--copulative or disjunctive, and why?--what does it connect?

"Wisdom _and_ virtue _form_ the good man's character." _And_ is a
conjunction, a word that is chiefly used to connect sentences; but in
this example it connects only words--copulative, it serves to connect
and continue the sentence by joining on a member which expresses an
addition--it connects the words "wisdom and virtue."

_Wisdom_ is a noun, the name of a thing--(You may parse it in
full.)--_Wisdom_ is one of the nominatives to the verb "form."

_Virtue_ is a noun, the name, &c.--(Parse it in full:)--and in the nom.
case to the verb "form," and connected to the noun "wisdom" by and,
according to RULE 33. _Conjunctions connect nouns and pronouns in the
same case_.

_Form_ is a verb, a word which signifies to do, &c.--of the third
person, _plural_, because its two nominatives, "wisdom and virtue," are
connected by a copulative conjunction, agreeably to RULE 8. _Two or more
nouns in the singular number, joined by_ copulative _conjunctions, must
have verbs, nouns, and pronouns agreeing with them in the_ plural.

"Wisdom _or_ folly _governs_ us." _Or_ is a conjunction, a word that is
chiefly used to connect sentences: it sometimes connects
words--disjunctive, it serves not only to connect and continue the
sentence, but also to join on a member which expresses opposition of
meaning--it connects the nouns "wisdom and folly."

_Governs_ is a verb, a word that signifies, &e.--of the third person,
singular number, agreeing with "wisdom or folly," according to
RULE 9. _Two or more nouns singular, joined by_ disjunctive
_conjunctions, must have verbs, nouns, and pronouns agreeing with them
in the_ singular:

If you reflect, for a few moments, on the meaning of me last two Rules
presented, you will see, at once, their propriety and importance. For
example; in the sentence, "Orlando _and_ Thomas, _who study their
lessons, make_ rapid progress," you notice that the two singular nouns,
_Orlando_ and _Thomas_, are connected by the copulative conjunction
_and_, therefore the verb _make_, which agrees with them, is plural,
because it expresses the action of _both_ its nominatives or actors. And
you observe, too, that the pronouns _who_ and _their_, and the noun
_lessons_, are _plural_, agreeing with the nouns _Orlando_ and _Thomas_,
according to RULE 8. The verb _study_ is plural, agreeing with _who_,
according to RULE 4.

But let us connect these two nouns by a disjunctive conjunction, and see
how the sentence will read: "Orlando _or_ Thomas, _who studies his
lesson, makes_ rapid progress." Now, you perceive, that a different
construction takes place, for the latter expression does not imply, that
Orlando and Thomas, _both_ study and make rapid progress; but it
asserts, that either the one _or_ the other studies, and makes rapid
progress. Hence the verb _makes_ is singular, because it expresses the
action of the one _or_ the other of its nominatives. And you observe,
too, that the pronouns _who_ and _his_, and the noun _lesson_, are
likewise in the singular, agreeing with Orlando _or_ Thomas, agreeably
to RULE 9. _Studies_ is also singular, agreeing with _who_, according to
RULE 4.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

Joseph and his brother reside in New York. The Sun, moon, and stars,
admonish us of a superior and superintending Power. I respect my friend,
because he is upright and obliging. Henry and William, who obey their
teacher, improve rapidly. Henry or William, who obeys his teacher,
improves very fast. Neither rank nor possession makes the guilty mind
happy. Wisdom, virtue, and meekness, form the good man's happiness and
interest: they support him in adversity, and comfort him in prosperity.
Man is a little lower than the angels. The United States, as justly as
Great Britain, can now boast of their literary institutions.

NOTE. The verb _form_ is plural, and agrees with three nouns singular,
connected by copulative conjunctions, according to RULE 8. The verb
_comfort_ agrees with _they_ for its nominative. It is connected to
_support_ by the conjunction _and_, agreeably to RULE 34. _Angels_ is
nom. to _are_ understood, and _Great Britain_ is nom. to _can boast_
understood, according to RULE 35.

REMARKS ON CONJUNCTIONS AND PREPOSITIONS.

The same word is occasionally employed, either as a conjunction, an
adverb, or a preposition. "I submitted, _for_ it was in vain to resist;"
in this example, _for_ is a conjunction, because it connects the two
members of a compound sentence. In the next it is a preposition, and
governs _victory_ in the objective case: "He contended _for_ victory
only."

In the first of the following sentences, _since_ is a conjunction; in
the second, it is a preposition, and in the third, an adverb; "_Since_
we must part, let us do it peaceably; I have not seen him _since_ that
time; Our friendship commenced long _since._"

"He will repent _before_ he dies; Stand _before_ me; Why did you not
return _before_" [that or this _time_;] in the first of these three
examples, _before_ is an adverbial conjunction, because it expresses
time and connects; and in the second and third, it is a preposition.

As the words of a sentence are often transposed, so are also its
members. Without attending to this circumstance, the learner may
sometimes be at a loss to perceive the _connecting_ power of a
preposition or conjunction, for every preposition and every conjunction
connects either words or phrases, sentences or members of sentences.
Whenever a sentence begins with a preposition or conjunction, its
members are transposed; as, "_In_ the days of Joram, king of Israel,
flourished the prophet Elisha;" "_If_ thou seek the Lord, he will be
found of thee; but, _if_ thou forsake him, he will cast thee off for
ever."

  "_When_ coldness wraps this suffering clay,
  "Ah, whither strays the immortal mind?"

That the words _in, if_, and _when_, in these examples, connect the
members of the respective sentences to which they are attached, will
obviously appear if we restore these sentences to their natural order,
and bring these particles _between_ the members which they connect:
thus, "Elisha the prophet flourished _in_ the days of Joram, king of
Israel;" "The Lord will be found of thee _if_ thou seek him; but he will
cast thee off for ever _if_ thou forsake him:"

  "Ah, whither strays the immortal mind,
  "_When_ coldness wraps this suffering clay?"

As an exercise on this lecture, you may now answer these QUESTIONS NOT
ANSWERED IN PARSING.

From what words is the term conjunction derived?--What is a
sentence?--What is a simple sentence?--What is a compound
sentence?--Give examples.--In what respect do conjunctions and
prepositions agree in their nature?--How many sorts of conjunctions are
there?--Repeat the lists of conjunctions.--Repeat some conjunctions with
their corresponding conjunctions.--Do relative pronouns ever connect
sentences?--Repeat the order of parsing a conjunction.--Do you apply any
Rule in parsing a conjunction?--What Rule should be applied in parsing
a noun or pronoun connected with another?--What Rule in parsing a verb
agreeing with two or more nouns singular, connected by a copulative
conjunction?--What Rule when the nouns are connected by a
disjunctive?--In parsing a verb connected to another by a conjunction,
what Rule do you apply?--Is a conjunction ever used as other parts of
speech?--Give examples.--What is said of the words _for, since_, and
_before?_--What is said of the transposition of sentences?

       *       *       *       *       *

    PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.

    On scientific principles, our _connectives_, commonly denominated
    prepositions and conjunctions, are but one part of speech, the
    distinction between them being merely technical. Some conjunctions
    unite only words, and some prepositions connect sentences. They are
    derived from nouns and verbs; and the time has been, when, perhaps,
    in our language, they did not perform the office of connectives.

    "I wish you to believe, _that_ I would not wilfully hurt a fly."
    Here, in the opinion of H. Tooke, our modern conjunction _that_, is
    merely a demonstrative adjective, in a disguised form; and he
    attempts to prove it by the following resolution: "I would not
    wilfully hurt a fly. I wish you to believe _that [assertion_."] Now,
    if we admit, that _that_ is an adjective in the latter construction,
    it does not necessarily follow, that it is the same part of speech,
    nor that its associated meaning is precisely the same, in the former
    construction. Instead of expressing our ideas in two detached
    sentences, by the former phraseology we have a quicker and closer
    transition of thought, and both the mode of employing _that_, and
    its _inferential_ meaning, are changed. Moreover, if we examine the
    meaning of each of these constructions, taken as a whole, we shall
    find, that they do not both convey the same ideas. By the latter, I
    assert, positively, that "I would not wilfully hurt a fly:" whereas,
    by the former, I merely _wish you to believe_ that "I would not
    wilfully hurt a fly;" but I do not _affirm_, that as a fact.

    _That_ being the past part, of _thean_, to get, take, assume, by
    rendering it as a _participle_, instead of an adjective, we should
    come nearer to its primitive character. Thus, "I would not wilfully
    hurt a fly. I wish you to believe the _assumed [fact_ or
    _statement_;] or, the fact _assumed_ or _taken_."

    _If_, (formerly written _gif, give, gin_,) as previously stated, is
    the imperative of the Anglo-Saxon verb _gifan_, to give. In
    imitation of Horne Tooke, some of our modern philosophical writers
    are inclined to teach pupils to render it as a verb. Thus, "I will
    go, _if_ he will accompany me:"--"He will accompany me.
    _Grant_--_give_ that [fact] I will go." For the purpose of
    ascertaining the _primitive_ meaning of this word, I have no
    objection to such a resolution; but, by it, do we get the exact
    meaning and force of _if_ as it is applied in our modern, refined
    state of the language? I _trow_ not. But, admitting we do, does this
    prove that such a mode of resolving sentences can be advantageously
    adopted by learners in common schools? I presume it can not be
    denied, that instead of teaching the learner to express himself
    correctly in modern English, such a resolution is merely making him
    familiar with an ancient and barbarous construction which modern
    refinement has rejected. Our forefathers, I admit, who were governed
    by those laws of necessity which compel all nations in the early and
    rude state of their language, to express themselves in short,
    detached sentences, employed _if_ as a verb when they used the
    following circumlocution: "My son will reform. _Give that fact_. I
    will forgive him." But in the present, improved state of our
    language, by using _if_ as a _conjunction_, (for I maintain that it
    is one,) we express the same thought more briefly; and our modern
    mode of expression has, too, a decisive advantage over the ancient,
    not only in point of elegance, but also in perspicuity and force. In
    Scotland and the north of England, some people still make use of
    _gin_, a contraction of _given:_ thus, "I will pardon my son, _gin_
    he reform." But who will contend, that they speak pure English?

    But perhaps the advocates of what _they_ call a philosophical
    development of language, will say, that by their resolution of
    sentences, they merely supply an ellipsis. If, by an ellipsis, they
    mean such a one as is necessary, to the grammatical construction, I
    cannot accede to their assumption. In teaching grammar, as well as
    in other things, we ought to avoid extremes:--we ought neither to
    pass superficially over an ellipsis necessary to the sense of a
    phrase, nor to put modern English to the blush, by adopting a mode
    of resolving sentences that would entirely change the character of
    our language, and carry the learner back to the Vandalic age.

    _But_ comes from the Saxon verb, _beon-utan_, to be-out. "All were
    well _but (be-out, leave-out)_ the stranger." "Man is _but_ a reed,
    floating on the current of time." Resolution: "Man is a reed,
    floating on the current of time; _but (be-out_ this fact) he is not
    a stable being."

    _And--aned, an'd, and_, is the past part. of _ananad_, to add, join.
    _A, an, ane_, or _one_, from the same verb, points out whatever is
    _aned, oned_, or made _one. And_ also refers to the thing that is
    _joined_ to, _added_ to, or _made one_ with, some other person or
    thing mentioned. "Julius _and_ Harriet will make a happy pair."
    Resolution: "Julius, Harriet _joined, united_, or _aned_, will make
    a happy pair;" i.e. Harriet _made one_ with Julius; will make a
    happy pair.

    _For_ means _cause_.

    _Because_--_be-cause_, is a compound of the verb _be_, and the noun
    _cause_. It retains the meaning of both; as, "I believe the maxim,
    _for_ I know it to be true;"--"I believe the maxim, _be-cause_ I
    know it to be true;" i.e. the _cause_ of my belief, _be_, or _is_, I
    know it to be true.

    _Nor_ is a contraction of _ne or. Ne_ is a contraction of _not_, and
    _or_, of _other. Nor_ is, _not other_-wise: _not_ in the _other_ way
    or manner.

    _Else_ is the imperative of _alesan, unless_, of _onlesan_, and
    _lest_, the past part. of _lesan_, all signifying to dismiss,
    release, loosen, set free. "He will be punished, _unless_ he
    repent;"--"_Unless, release, give up_, (the fact) he repents he will
    be punished." _Though_ is the imperative of the Saxon verb
    _thafigan_, to allow, and _yet_ of _getan_, to get. _Yet_ is simply,
    _get_; ancient _g_ is the modern _y_. "_Though_ he slay me, _yet_
    will I trust in him:--_Grant_ or _allow_ (the fact) he slay me,
    _get_, or _retain_ (the opposite fact) I will trust in
    him."

       *       *       *       *       *

QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.

From what parts of speech are prepositions and conjunctions
derived?--What is Horne Tooke's opinion of that?--From what is each of
the following words derived, _that, if, but, and, because, nor, else,
unless, lest, though_, and _yet?_



LECTURE X.


OF INTERJECTIONS.--CASES OF NOUNS.

INTERJECTIONS are words which express the sudden emotions of the
speaker; as, "_Alas!_ I fear for life;" "_O_ death! where is thy sting?"

Interjections are not so much the signs of thought, as of feeling.
Almost any word may be used as an interjection; but when so employed, it
is not the representative of a _distinct_, idea. A word which denotes a
distinct conception of the mind, must necessarily belong to some other
part of speech. They who wish to speak often, or rather, to make
_noises_, when they have no useful information to communicate, are apt
to use words very freely in this way; such as the following expressions,
_la, la me, my, O my, O dear, dear me, surprising, astonishing_, and the
like.

Interjections not included in the following list, are generally known by
their taking an exclamation point after them.

A LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL INTERJECTIONS.

1. Of _earnestness_ or _grief_; as, O! oh! ah! alas!
2. _Contempt;_ as, Pish! tush!
3. _Wonder;_ as, Heigh! really! strange!
4. _Calling;_ as, Hem! ho! halloo!
5. _Disgust_ or _aversion;_ as, Foh! fy! fudge! away!
6. _Attention_; as, Lo! behold! hark!
7. _Requesting silence_; as, Hush! hist!
8. _Salutation_; as, Welcome! hail! all hail!

    NOTE. We frequently meet with what some call an _interjective
    phrase_; such as, Ungrateful wretch! impudence of hope! folly in the
    extreme! what ingratitude! away with him!

As the interjection is the least important part of speech in the English
language, it will require but little attention. You may, however, make
yourself well acquainted with what has been said respecting it, and then
commit the

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.

_The order of parsing an_ INTERJECTION, is--an interjection, and
why?

    "O virtue! how amiable thou art!"

_O_ is an interjection, a word used to express some passion or emotion
of the speaker.

The ten parts of speech have now been unfolded and elucidated, although
some of them have not been fully explained. Before you proceed any
farther, you will please to begin again at the first lecture, and read
over, attentively, the whole, observing to parse every example in the
exercises systematically. You will then be able to parse the following
exercises, which contain all the parts of speech. If you study
faithfully _six_ hours in a day, and pursue the directions given, you
may become, if not a critical, at least, a good, practical grammarian,
in _six weeks_; but if you study only _three_ hours in a day, it will
take you nearly _three months_ to acquire the same knowledge.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

True cheerfulness makes a man happy in himself, and promotes the
happiness of all around him.

Modesty always appears graceful in youth: it doubles the lustre of every
virtue which it seems to hide.

He who, every morning, plans the transactions of the day, and follows
out that plan, carries on a thread that will guide him through the
labyrinth of the most busy life.

The king gave me a generous reward for committing that barbarous act;
but, alas! I fear the consequence.

  E'en now, where Alpine solitudes ascend,
  I set me down a pensive hour to spend;
  And, placed on high, above the storm's career,
  Look downward where a hundred realms appear:--
    Alas! the joys that fortune brings,
      Are trifling, and decay;
    And those who mind the paltry things,
      More trifling still than they.

    NOTE. In the second sentence of the foregoing exercises, _which_ is
    governed by the verb _to hide_, according to RULE 16. _He_ is nom.
    to _carries; who_ is nom. to _plans. Follows_ agrees with _who_
    understood, and is connected to _plans_ by _and_; RULE 34. What did
    the king give? A _reward to_ me. Then _reward_ is in the _obj_.
    case, gov. by _gave_; RULE 20. _Me_ is gov. by _to_ understood; NOTE
    1, RULE 32. The phrase, _committing that barbarous act_, is gov. by
    _for_; NOTE 2, under RULE 28. _Hour_ is in the _obj_. case, gov. by
    _to spend_; RULE 20. _Look_ is connected to _set_ by _and_; RULE 34.
    _Joys_ is nom. to _are. That_ is gov. by _brings_; RULE 16. _Those_
    is nom. to _are_ understood. _They_ is nom. to _are_ understood;
    RULE 35.

CASES OF NOUNS.

In a former lecture, I promised to give you a more extensive explanation
of the cases of nouns; and, as they are, in many situations, a little
difficult to be ascertained, I will now offer some remarks on this
subject. But before you proceed, I wish you to parse all the examples in
the exercises just presented, observing to pay particular attention to
the remarks in the subjoined NOTE. Those remarks will assist you much in
analyzing.

A noun is sometimes nominative to a verb placed many lines after the
noun. You must exercise your judgment in this matter. Look at the
sentence in the preceding exercises beginning with, "He who, every
morning," &c. and see if you can find the verb to which _he_ is
nominative. What does _he_ do? He carries on a thread, &c. _He_, then,
is nominative to the verb _carries_. What does _who_ do? Who _plans_,
and who _follows_, &c. Then _who_ is nom. to _plans_, and _who_
understood, is nominative to _follows_.

  "A soul without reflection, like a pile
  Without inhabitant, to ruin runs."

In order to find the verb to which the noun _soul_, in this sentence, is
the nominative, put the question; What does a _soul_ without reflection
do? Such, a soul _runs_ to ruin, like a pile without inhabitant. Thus
you discover, that _soul_ is nominative to _runs_.

When the words of a sentence are arranged according to their natural
order, the nominative case, you recollect, is placed before the verb,
and the objective, after it; but when the words of a sentence are
transposed; that is, not arranged according to their natural order, it
frequently happens, that the nominative comes _after_, and the
objective, _before_ the verb; especially in poetry, or when a question
is asked: as, "Whence _arises_ the _misery_ of the present world?" "What
good _thing shall_ I _do_ to inherit eternal life?" Put these
expressions in the declarative form, and the nominative will _precede_,
and the objective _follow_ its verb: thus, "The _misery_ of the present
world _arises_ whence; I _shall do_ what good _thing_ to inherit eternal
life."

  "Now came still _evening_ on, and twilight gray
  Had, in her sober livery, all _things_ clad."

  "Stern rugged nurse, thy rigid _lore_
  With patience many a _year_ she bore."

What did the _evening_ do? The evening _came on_. Gray _twilight_ had
clad what? Twilight had clad all _things_ in her sober livery.
_Evening_, then, is nom. to _came_, and the noun _things_ is in the
objective case, and gov. by _had clad_: RULE 20. What did _she_ bear?
She bore thy rigid _lore_ with patience, _for_, or _during_, many a
year. Hence you find, that _lore_ is in the objective case, and governed
by _bore_, according to RULE 20. _Year_ is gov. by _during_ understood:
RULE 32.

A noun is frequently nominative to a verb understood, or in the
objective, and governed by a verb understood; as, "Lo, [_there is_] the
poor _Indian!_ whose untutored mind." "O, the _pain_ [_there is!_] the
_bliss_ [_there is_] in dying!" "All were sunk, but the wakeful
_nightingale_ [_was not sunk_."] "He thought as a _sage_ [_thinks_,]
though he felt as a _man_ [_feels_."] "His hopes, immortal, blow them
by, as _dust_ [_is blown by_."] Rule 35 applies to these last three
examples.

In the next place I will explain several cases of nouns and pronouns
which have not yet come under our notice. Sometimes a noun or pronoun
may be in the nominative case when it has no verb to agree with it.

OF THE NOMINATIVE CASE INDEPENDENT.

Whenever a direct address is made, the person or thing spoken to, is in
the _nominative case independent_; as, "_James_, I desire you to study."

You notice that, in this expression, I address myself to _James_ that
is, I speak to him; and you observe, too, that there is no verb, either
expressed or implied, to which James can be the nominative; therefore
you know that _James_ is in the nom. case independent, according to Rule
5. Recollect, that _whenever a noun is of the second person_, it is in
the nom. case independent; that is, independent of any verb; as,
_Selma_, thy halls are silent; Love and meekness, my _lord_, become a
churchman, better than ambition; O _Jerusalem, Jerusalem_, how often
would I have gathered thy children together, even as a hen gathereth her
chickens under her wings, but ye would not!--For a farther illustration
of this case, see Note 2, under the 5th Rule of Syntax.

    NOTE. When a pronoun of the _second_ person is in apposition with a
    noun independent, it is in the same case; as, "_Thou traitor_, I
    detest thee."

OF THE NOMINATIVE CASE ABSOLUTE.

A noun or pronoun placed before a participle, without any verb to agree
with it, is in the nominative case _absolute_; as, "The _sun being
risen_, we pursued our journey."

_Sun_ is here placed before the participle "being risen," and has no
verb to agree with it; therefore it is in the nominative case absolute,
according to RULE 6.

NOTE 1. A noun or pronoun in the nominative case independent, is always
of the _second_ person; but, in the case absolute, it is generally of
the _third_ person.

2. The case absolute is always nominative; the following sentence is
therefore incorrect; "Whose top shall tremble, _him_ descending," &c.;
it should be, _he_ descending.

OF NOUNS IN APPOSITION.

Two or more nouns or pronouns signifying the same person or thing, are
put, by _apposition_, in the same case; as, "_Cicero_, the great
_orator, philosopher_, and _statesman_ of Rome, was murdered by Antony."

_Apposition_, in a grammatical sense, means something added, or names
added, in order more fully to define or illustrate the sense of the
first name mentioned.

You perceive that _Cicero_, in the preceding example, is merely the
proper name of a man; but when I give him the three additional
appellations, and call him a great _orator, philosopher_, and
_statesman_, you understand what kind of a man he was; that is, by
giving him these three additional names, his character and abilities as
a man are more fully made known. And, surely, you cannot be at a loss to
know that these four nouns must be in the same case, for they are all
names given to the same person; therefore, if _Cicero_ was murdered, the
_orator_ was murdered, and the _philosopher_ was murdered, and the
_statesman_ was murdered, because they all mean one and the same person.

Nouns and pronouns in the objective case, are frequently in
_apposition_; as, He struck _Charles_ the _student_. Now it is obvious,
that, when he struck _Charles_, he struck the _student_, because Charles
was the _student_, and the _student_ was _Charles_; therefore the noun
_student_ is in the objective case, governed by "struck," and put by
apposition with Charles, according to RULE 7.

Please to examine this lecture very attentively. You will then be
prepared to parse the following examples correctly and systematically.

PARSING.

    "Weep on the rocks of roaring winds, O _maid_ of Inistore."

_Maid_ is a noun, the name of a person--- com. the name of a sort--fem.
gender, it denotes a female--second pers. spoken to--sing. num. it
implies but one--and in the nominative case independent, because it is
addressed, and has no verb to agree with it, according to

RULE 5. _When an address is made, the noun or pronoun addressed, is put
in the nominative case independent_.

    "The _general_ being ransomed, the barbarians permitted him to
    depart."

_General_ is a noun, the name, &c. (parse it in full:)--and in the
nominative case absolute, because it is placed before the participle
"being ransomed," and it has no verb to agree with it, agreeably to

RULE 6. _A noun or pronoun placed before a participle, and being
independent of the rest of the sentence, is in the nominative case
absolute_.

    _"Thou man_ of God, flee to the land of Judah."

_Thou_ is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun--personal, it
personates "man"--second pers. spoken to--mas. gender, sing. num.
because the noun "man" is for which it stands; RULE 13 (Repeat the
Rule.)--_Thou_ is in the nominative case independent and put by
_apposition_ with _man_, because it signifies the same thing, according
to

RULE 7. _Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, signifying the same
thing, are put, by apposition, in the same case_.

_Man_ is in the nominative case independent, according to Rule 5. _Flee_
agrees with _thou_ understood.

    "Lo! _Newton, priest_ of Nature, shines afar,
    Scans the wide world, and numbers every star."

_Newton_ is a noun, (parse it in full,) and in the nominative case to
"shines." RULE 3.

_Priest_ is a noun, (parse it in full,) and in the nom. case, it is the
actor and subject of the verb "shines," and put by apposition with
"Newton," because it signifies the same thing, agreeably to Rule 7.
(Repeat the Rule.)

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

_Turn_ from your evil ways, O house of Israel! Ye fields of light,
celestial plains, ye scenes divinely fair! proclaim your Maker's
wondrous power. O king! _live_ for ever. The murmur of thy streams, O
Lora, brings back the memory of the past. The sound of thy woods,
Garmallar, is lovely in my ear. Dost thou not behold, Malvina, a rock
with its head of heath? Three aged pines bend from its face; green is
the plain at its feet; there the flower of the mountain grows, and
shades its white head in the breeze.

The General being slain, the army was routed. Commerce having thus got
into the legislative body, privilege must be done away. Jesus had
conveyed himself away, a multitude being in that place. I being in great
haste, he consented. The rain having ceased, the dark clouds rolled
away. The Son of God, while clothed in flesh, was subject to all the
frailties and inconveniences of human nature, sin excepted; (that is,
sin being excepted.)

In the days of Joram, king of Israel, flourished the prophet Elisha.
Paul the apostle suffered martyrdom. _Come_, peace of mind, delightful
guest! and _dwell_ with me. Friends, Romans, countrymen, _lend_ me your
ears.

  Soul of the just, companion of the dead!
  Where is thy home, and whither art thou fled?
  Till Hymen brought his love-delighted hour,
  There dwelt no joy in Eden's rosy bower:--
  The world was sad, the garden was a wild,
  And man the hermit sighed, till woman smiled.

    NOTE. Those verbs in _italics_, in the preceding examples, are all
    in the imperative mood, and _second_ person, agreeing with _thou,
    ye_, or _you_, understood. _House of Israel_ is a noun of multitude.
    _Was routed_ and _must be done_ are passive verbs. _Art fled_ is a
    neuter verb in a passive form. _Clothed_ is a perfect participle.
    _Till_ is an adverbial conjunction.

When you shall have analyzed, systematically, every word in the
foregoing exercises, you may answer the following

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING.

Repeat the list of interjections.--Repeat some interjective
phrases.--Repeat the order of parsing an interjection.--In order to
find the verb to which a noun is nom. what question do you put?--Give
examples.--Is the nominative case ever placed after the
verb?--When?--Give examples.--Does the objective case ever come before
the verb?--Give examples.--Is a noun ever nom. to a verb
understood?--Give examples.--When is a noun or pronoun in the nom. case
independent?--Give examples.--Are nouns of the _second_ person always in
the nom. case independent?--When a pronoun is put by apposition with a
noun independent, in what case is it?--When is a noun or pronoun in the
nom. case absolute?--Give examples.--When are nouns or nouns and
pronouns put, by apposition, in the same case?--Give examples.--In
parsing a noun or pronoun in the nom. case independent, what Rule should
be applied?--In parsing the nom. case absolute, what Rule?--What Rule in
parsing nouns or pronouns in apposition?--Do real interjections belong
to written language?--(_Phil. Notes_.)--From what are the following
words derived, _pish, fy, lo, halt, farewell, welcome, adieu!_

       *       *       *       *       *

    PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.

    The term INTERJECTION is applied to those _inarticulate_ sounds
    employed both by men and brutes, not to express distinct ideas, but
    emotions, passions, or feelings. The sounds employed by human beings
    in groaning, sighing, crying, screaming, shrieking, and laughing, by
    the dog in barking, growling, and whining, by the horse in snorting
    and neighing, by the sheep in bleating, by the cat in mewing, by the
    dove in cooing, by the duck in quacking, and by the goose in
    hissing, we sometimes attempt to represent by words; but, as
    _written_ words are the ocular representatives of _articulate_
    sounds, they cannot be made clearly to denote _inarticulate_ or
    _indistinct noises_. Such indistinct utterances belong to natural
    language; but they fall below the bounds of regulated speech. Hence,
    _real_ interjections are not a part of written language.

    The meaning of those words commonly called interjections, is easily
    shown by tracing them to their roots.

    _Pish_ and _pshaw_ are the Anglo-Saxon _paec, paeca_; and are
    equivalent to _trumpery_! i.e. _tromperie_, from _tromper_.

    _Fy_ or _fie_ is the imperative, _foe_, the past tense, and _foh_ or
    _faugh_, the past part. of the Saxon verb _fian_, to hate.
    _Lo_ is the imperative of _look. Halt_ is the imperative of
    _healden_, to hold. _Farewell--fare-well_, is a compound of _faran_,
    to go, and the adverb _well_. It means, to _go well.
    Welcome--well-come_, signifies, it is _well_ that you are _come.
    Adieu_ comes from the French _a Dieu_, to God; meaning, I commend
    you _to God_.

       *       *       *       *       *


LECTURE XI.


OF THE MOODS AND TENSES OF VERBS.

You have now acquired a general, and, I may say, an extensive, knowledge
of nine parts of speech; but you know but little, as yet, respecting the
most important one of all; I mean the VERB. I will, therefore, commence
this lecture by giving you an explanation of the Moods and Tenses of
verbs. Have the goodness, however, first to turn back and read over
Lecture II., and reflect well upon what is there said respecting the
verb; after which I will conduct you so smoothly through the moods and
tenses, and the conjugation of verbs, that, instead of finding yourself
involved in obscurities and deep intricacies, you will scarcely find an
obstruction to impede your progress.

I. OF THE MOODS.

The MOOD or MODE of a verb means the _manner_ in which its action,
passion, or being, is represented.

When I wish to assert a thing, positively, I use the _declarative_ or
_indicative_ mode; as, The man _walks_; but sometimes the action or
occurrence of which I wish to speak, is doubtful, and then I must not
declare it positively, but I must adopt another _mode_ of expression;
thus, _If_ the man _walk_, he will refresh himself with the bland
breezes. This second mode or manner of representing the action, is
called the _subjunctive_ or _conditional_ mode.

Again, we sometimes employ a verb when we do not wish to _declare_ a
thing, nor to represent the action in a _doubtful_ or _conditional_
manner; but we wish to _command_ some one to act. We then use the
_imperative_ or _commanding_ mode, and say, _Walk_, sir. And when we do
not wish to command a man to act, we sometimes allude to his _power_ or
_ability_ to act. This fourth mode of representing action, is called the
_potential_ mode; as, He _can walk_; He _could walk_. The fifth and last
mode, called the _infinitive_ or _unlimited_ mode, we employ in
expressing action in an unlimited manner; that is, without confining it,
in respect to number and person, to any particular agent; as, _To walk,
to ride_. Thus you perceive, that the mood, mode, or manner of
representing the action, passion, or being of a verb, must vary
according to the different intentions of the mind.

Were we to assign a particular name to _every_ change in the mode or
manner of representing action or being, the number of moods in our
language would amount to many hundreds. But this principle of division
and arrangement, if followed out in detail, would lead to great
perplexity, without producing any beneficial result. The division of Mr.
Harris, in his Hermes, is much more curious than instructive. He has
fourteen moods; his _interrogative, optative, hortative, promissive,
precautive, requisitive, enunciative_, &c. But as far as philosophical
accuracy and the convenience and advantage of the learner are concerned,
it is believed that no arrangement is preferable to the following. I am
not unaware that plausible objections may be raised against it; but what
arrangement cannot be objected to?

There are five moods of verbs, the Indicative, the Subjunctive, the
Imperative, the Potential, and the Infinitive.

The INDICATIVE MOOD simply indicates or declares a thing; as, "He
_writes_;" or it asks a question; as, "_Does_ he _write_? Who _wrote_
that?"

The term _indicative_, comes from the Latin _indico_, to _declare_.
Hence, the legitimate province of the indicative mood, is to _declare_
things, whether positively or negatively; thus, _positively_, He _came_
with me; _negatively_, He _came not_ with me. But in order to avoid a
multiplication of moods, we extend its meaning, and use the indicative
mood in asking a question; as, Who _came_ with you?

The subjunctive mood being more analogous to the indicative in
conjugation, than any other, it ought to be presented next in order.
This mood, however, differs materially from the indicative in sense;
therefore you ought to make yourself well acquainted with the nature of
the indicative, before you commence with the subjunctive.

The SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD expresses action, passion, or being, in a doubtful
or conditional manner or,

When a verb is preceded by a word that expresses a condition, doubt,
motive, wish, or supposition, it is in the SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD; as, "_If_
he _study_, he will improve; I will respect him, _though_ he _chide_ me;
He will not be pardoned, _unless_ he _repent; _Had_ he _been_ there, he
would have conquered;" (that is, _if_ he _had been_ there.)

The conjunctions _if, though, unless_, in the preceding examples,
express condition, doubt, &c.; therefore, the verbs _study, chide,
repent_, and _had been_, are in the subjunctive mood.

    NOTE 1. A verb in this mood is generally attended by another verb in
    some other mood. You observe, that each of the first three of the
    preceding examples, contains a verb in the indicative mood, and the
    fourth, a verb in the potential.

    2. Whenever the conjunctions _if, though, unless, except, whether,
    lest_, or any others, denote contingency or doubt, the verbs that
    follow them are in the subjunctive mood; as, "_If_ he _ride_ out
    every day, his health will probably improve;" that is, if he _shall_
    or _should_ ride out hereafter. But when these conjunctions do not
    imply doubt, &c. the verbs that follow them are in the indicative,
    or some other mood; as, "_Though_ he _rides_ out daily, his health
    is no better." The conjunctive and indicative forms of this mood,
    are explained in the conjugation of the verb to _love_. See page.

The IMPERATIVE MOOD is used for commanding, exhorting, entreating, or
permitting; as, _"Depart_ thou; _Remember_ my admonitions; _Tarry_
awhile longer; _Go_ in peace."

The verb _depart_ expresses a command; _remember_ exhorts; _tarry_
expresses entreaty; and _go_, permission; therefore they are all in the
imperative mood.

The _imperative_, from _impero_, to command, is literally that mood of
the verb used in _commanding;_ but its technical meaning in grammar is
extended to the use of the verb in exhorting, entreating, and
permitting.

A verb in the imperative mood, is always of the second person, though
never varied in its terminations, agreeing with _thou, ye_, or _you_,
either expressed or implied. You may know a verb in this mood by the
sense; recollect, however, that the nominative is always _second_
person, and frequently understood; as, George, _give_ me my hat; that
is, give thou, or give you. When the nominative is expressed, it is
generally placed after the verb; as, Go _thou_; Depart _ye_; or between
the auxiliary and the verb; as, Do _thou_ go; Do _ye_ depart. (_Do_ is
the auxiliary.)

The POTENTIAL MOOD implies possibility, liberty, or necessity, power,
will, or obligation; as, "It _may rain_; He _may go_ or _stay_; We _must
eat_ and _drink_; I _can ride_; He _would walk_; They _should learn_."

In the first of these examples, the auxiliary _may_ implies possibility;
in the second it implies liberty; that is, he is at liberty to go or to
stay; in the third, _must_ denotes necessity; _can_ denotes power or
ability; _would_ implies will or inclination; that is, he had a _mind_
to walk; and _should_ implies obligation. Hence you perceive, that the
verbs, may rain, may go, must eat, must drink, can ride, world walk, and
should learn, are in the _potential_ mood.

    NOTE 1. As a verb in the indicative mood is converted into the
    subjunctive when it is preceded by a conjunction expressing doubt,
    contingency, supposition, &c., so a verb in the potential mood, may,
    in like manner, be turned into the subjunctive; as, "_If_ I _could
    deceive_ him, I should abhor it; _Though_ he _should increase_ in
    wealth, he would not be charitable." I _could deceive_, is in the
    potential; _If_ I _could deceive_, is in the subjunctive mood.

    2. The potential mood, as well as the indicative, is used in asking
    a question; as, "May I go? Could you understand him? Must we die?"

The INFINITIVE MOOD expresses action, passion, or being, in a general
and unlimited manner, having no nominative, consequently, neither person
nor number; as, _"To speak, to walk_."

_Infinitive_ means _unconfined_, or _unlimited_. This mood is called the
infinitive, because its verb is not confined or limited to a nominative.
A verb in any other mood is limited; that is, it must agree in number
and person with its nominative; but a verb in this mood has _no_
nominative, therefore, it never changes its termination, except to form
the perfect tense. Now you understand why all verbs are called _finite_
or _limited_, excepting those in the infinitive mood.

    NOTE. _To_, the sign of the infinitive mood, is often understood
    before the verb; as, "Let me proceed;" that is, Let me _to_ proceed.
    See RULE 25. _To_ is not a preposition when joined to a verb in this
    mood; thus, _to_ ride, _to_ rule; but it should be parsed with the
    verb, and as a part of it.

If you study this lecture attentively, you will perceive, that when I
say, I _write_, the verb is in the indicative mood; but when I say, _if_
I write, or, _unless_ I write, &c. the verb is in the subjunctive mood;
_write_ thou, or _write_ ye or you, the imperative; I _may write_, I
_must write_, I _could write, &c._ the potential; and _to write_, the
infinitive. Any other verb (except the defective) may be employed in the
same manner.

       *       *       *       *       *

II. OF THE TENSES.

TENSE means time.

Verbs have six tenses, the Present, the Imperfect, the Perfect, the
Pluperfect, and the First and Second Future tenses.

The PRESENT TENSE represents an action or event as taking place at the
time in which it is mentioned; as, "I _smile_; I _see_; I _am seen_."

    NOTE 1. The present tense is also used in speaking of actions
    continued, with occasional intermissions, to the present time; as,
    "He _rides_ out every morning."

    2. This tense is sometimes applied to represent the actions of
    persons long since dead; as, "Seneca _reasons_ and _moralizes_ well;
    An honest man _is_ the noblest work of God."

    3. When the present tense is preceded by the words, _when, before,
    after, as soon as_, &c. it is sometimes used to point out the
    relative time of a future action; as, "_When_ he _arrives_ we shall
    hear the news."

The IMPERFECT TENSE denotes a past action or event, however distant;
or,

The IMPERFECT TENSE represents an action or event as past and finished,
but without defining the precise time of its completion; as, "I _loved_
her for her modesty and virtue; They _were_ travelling post when he
_met_ them."

In these examples, the verbs _loved_ and _met_ express past and
_finished_ actions, and therefore constitute a _perfect_ tense as
strictly as any form of the verb in our language; but, as they do not
define the precise time of the completion of these actions, their tense
may properly be denominated an _indefinite past_. By defining the
present participle in conjunction with the verb, we have an _imperfect_
tense in the expression, _were travelling_. This course, however, would
not be in accordance with the ordinary method of treating the
participle. Hence it follows, that the terms _imperfect_ and _perfect_,
as applied to this and the next succeeding tense, are not altogether
significant of their true character; but if you learn to apply these
tenses _correctly_, the propriety or impropriety of their names is not a
consideration of very great moment.

The PERFECT TENSE denotes past time, and also conveys an allusion to the
present; as, "I _have_ finished my letter."

The verb _have finished_, in this example, signifies that the action,
though past, was perfectly finished at a point of time immediately
preceding, or in the course of a period which comes to the present.
Under this view of the subject, the term _perfect_ may be properly
applied to this tense, for it specifies, not only the completion of the
action, but, also, alludes to the particular period of its
accomplishment.

The PLUPERFECT TENSE represents a past action or event that transpired
before some other past time specified; as, "I _had finished_ my letter
before my brother arrived."

You observe that the verb _had finished_, in this example, represents
one _past_ action, and the arrival of my brother, another _past_ action;
therefore _had finished_ is in the pluperfect tense, because the action
took place prior to the taking place of the other past action specified
in the same sentence.

The FIRST FUTURE TENSE denotes a future action or event; as "I _will
finish_; I _shall finish_ my letter."

The SECOND FUTURE TENSE represents a future action that will be fully
accomplished, at or before the time of another future action or event;
as, "I _shall have finished_ my letter when my brother arrives."

This example clearly shows you the meaning and the proper use of the
second future tense. The verb "shall have finished" implies a future
action that will be completely finished, at or before the time of the
other future event denoted by the phrase, "_when_ my brother _arrives_."

    NOTE. What is sometimes called the _Inceptive_ future, is expressed
    thus, "I am going _to write_;" "I am about _to write_." Future time
    is also indicated by placing the infinitive present immediately
    after the indicative present of the verb _to be_; thus, "I am _to
    write_;" "Harrison is _to be_, or ought _to be_, commander in
    chief;" "Harrison is _to command_ the army."

You may now read what is said respecting the moods and tenses several
times over, and then you may learn to _conjugate_ a verb. But, before
you proceed to the conjugation of verbs, you will please to commit the
following paragraph on the _Auxiliary_ verbs and, also, the _signs_ of
the moods and tenses; and, in conjugating, you must pay particular
attention to the manner in which these signs are applied.

OF THE AUXILIARY VERBS.

AUXILIARY or HELPING VERBS are those by the help of which the English
verbs are principally conjugated. _May, can, must, might, could, would,
should,_ and _shall_, are always auxiliaries; _do, be, have_, and
_will_, are sometimes auxiliaries, and sometimes principal verbs.

The use of the auxiliaries is shown in the following conjugation.

SIGNS OF THE MOODS.

The _Indicative_ Mood is known by the _sense_, or by its having _no
sign_, except in asking a question; as, "Who _loves_ you?"

The conjunctions _if, though, unless, except, whether_, and _lest_, are
generally signs of the _Subjunctive_; as, "_If_ I _love; unless_ I
_love_," &c.

A verb is generally known to be in, the _Imperative_ Mood by its
agreeing with _thou_, or _ye_ or _you_, understood; as, _"Love_ virtue,
_and follow_ her steps;" that is, love _thou_, or love _ye_ or _you_;
follow _thou_, &c.

_May, can_, and _must, might, could, would_, and _should_, are signs of
the _Potential_ Mood; as, "I _may_ love; I _must_ love; I _should_
love," &c.

_To_ is the sign of the _Infinitive_; as, "_To_ love, _to_ smile, _to_
hate, _to_ walk."

SIGNS OF THE TENSES.

The first form of the verb is the sign of the present tense; as, _love,
smile, hate, walk_.

_Ed_--the imperfect tense of regular verbs; as, _loved, smiled, hated,
walked_.

_Have_--the perfect; as, _have_ loved.

_Had_--the pluperfect; as, _had_ loved. _Shall_ or _will_--the first
future; as, _shall_ love, or _will_ love; _shall_ smile, _will_ smile.

_Shall_ or _will have_--the second future; as, _shall have_ loved, or
_will have_ loved.

    NOTE. There are some exceptions to these signs, which you will
    notice by referring to the conjugation in the potential mood.

Now, I hope you will so far consult your own ease and advantage, as to
commit, perfectly, the signs of the moods and tenses before you proceed
farther than to the subjunctive mood. If you do, the supposed Herculean
task of learning to conjugate verbs, will be transformed into a few
hours of pleasant pastime.

The Indicative Mood has _six_ tenses.
The Subjunctive has also _six_ tenses.
The Imperative has only _one_ tense.
The Potential has _four_ tenses.
The Infinitive has _two_ tenses.

CONJUGATION OF VERBS.

The CONJUGATION of a verb is the regular combination and arrangement of
its several numbers, persons, moods, and tenses.

The Conjugation of an active verb, is styled the _active voice_; and
that of a passive verb, the _passive voice_.

Verbs are called Regular when they form their imperfect tense of the
indicative mood, and their perfect participle, by adding to the present
tense _ed_, or _d_ only when the verb ends in _e_; as,

Pres. Tense.      Imp. Tense.         Perf. Participle
I favor.          I favor_ed_.        favor_ed_.
I love.           I love_d_,          love_d_.

A Regular Verb is conjugated in the following manner.

TO LOVE.--INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present Tense.

_Singular_.                                _Plural_.
1. _Pers_. I love,                         1. We love,
2. _Pers_. Thou lovest,                    2. Ye _or_ you love,
3. _Pers_. He, she, _or_ it, loveth        3. They love.
             _or_ loves.

When we wish to express energy or positiveness, the auxiliary _do_
should precede the verb in the present tense: thus,

_Singular_.                    _Plural_.
1. I do love,                       1. We do love,
2. Thou dost love,                  2. Ye _or_ you do love,
3. He doth _or_ does love.          3. They do love.

Imperfect Tense.

_Singular_.                  _Plural_.
1. I loved,                       1. We loved,
2. Thou lovedst,                  2. Ye _or_ you loved,
3. He loved.                      3. They loved.

Or by-prefixing _did_ to the present: thus,

_Singular_.                    _Plural_.
1. I did love                       1. We did love,
2. Thou didst love,                 2. Ye _or_ you did love,
3. He did love.                     3. They did love.

Perfect Tense.

   _Singular_.                    _Plural_.
1. I have loved,                    1. We have loved,
2. Thou hast loved,                 2. Ye _or_ you have loved,
3. He hath _or_ has loved.          3. They have loved.

Pluperfect Tense.

_Singular_.                       _Plural_.
1. I had loved,                     1. We had loved,
2. Thou hadst loved,                2. Ye _or_ you had loved,
3. He had loved.                    3. They had loved.

First Future Tense.

_Singular_.                       _Plural_.
1. I shall _or_ will love,     1. We shall _or_ will love,
2. Thou shalt _or_ wilt love,  2. Ye _or_ you shall _or_ will
                                           love,
3. He shall _or_ will love,    3. They shall _or_ will love.

Second Future Tense.

_Singular_.                       _Plural_.
1. I shall have loved,              1. We shall have loved,
2. Thou wilt have loved,            2. Ye _or_ you will have loved,
3. He will have loved,              3. They will have loved.

    NOTE. Tenses formed without auxiliaries, are called _simple_ tenses;
    as, I _love;_ I _loved;_ but those formed by the help of
    auxiliaries, are denominated _compound_ tenses; as, I _have loved;_
    I _had loved_, &c.

This display of the verb shows you, in the clearest light, the
application of the _signs_ of the _tenses_, which signs ought to be
perfectly committed to memory before you proceed any farther. By looking
again at the conjugation, you will notice, that _have_, placed before
the perfect participle of any verb, forms the perfect tense; _had_, the
pluperfect; _shall_ or _will_, the first future, and so on.

Now speak each of the verbs, _love, hate, walk, smile, rule_, and
_conquer_, in the first person of each tense in this mood, with the
pronoun _I_ before it; thus, indicative mood, pres. tense, first pers.
sing. I love; imperf. I loved; perf. I have loved; and so on, through
all the tenses. If you learn thoroughly the conjugation of the verb in
the indicative mood, you will find no difficulty in conjugating it
through those that follow, for in the conjugation through all the moods,
there is a great similarity.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

Present Tense, or elliptical future.--_Conjunctive form_.

  _Singular_.                    _Plural_.
1. If I love,                   1. If we love,
2. If thou love,                2. If ye _or_ you love,
3. If he love.                  3. If they love.

Look again at the conjugation in the indicative present, and you will
observe, that the form of the verb differs from this form in the
subjunctive. The verb in the present tense of this mood, does not vary
its termination on account of number or person. This is called the
_conjunctive_ form of the verb; but sometimes the verb in the
subjunctive mood, present tense, is conjugated in the same manner as it
is in the indicative, with this exception, _if, though, unless_, or some
other conjunction, is prefixed; as,

_Indicative form_.

_Singular_.                      _Plural_.
1. If I love,                   1. If we love,
2. If thou lovest,              2. If ye _or_ you love,
3. If he loves,                 3. If they love.

The following general rule will direct you when to use the _conjunctive_
form of the verb, and when the _indicative_. When a verb in the
subjunctive mood, present tense, has a _future_ signification, or a
reference to _future_ time, the conjunctive form should be used; as, "If
thou _prosper_, thou shouldst be thankful;" "He will maintain his
principles, though he _lose_ his estate;" that is, If thou _shalt_ or
_shouldst_ prosper; though he _shall_ or _should_ lose, &c. But when a
verb in the subjunctive mood, present tense, has _no_ reference to
future time, the indicative form ought to be used; as, "Unless he
_means_ what he says, he is doubly faithless." By this you perceive,
that when a verb in the present tense of the subjunctive mood, has a
future signification, an _auxiliary_ is always understood before it, for
which reason, in this construction, the termination of the principal
verb never varies; us, "He will not become eminent, unless he _exert_
himself;" that is, unless he _shall_ exert, or _should_ exert himself.
This tense of the subjunctive mood ought to be called the _elliptical
future_.

The imperfect, the perfect, the pluperfect, and the first future tenses
of this mood, are conjugated, in every respect, like the same tenses of
the indicative, with this exception; in the subjunctive mood, a
conjunction implying doubt, &c. is prefixed to the verb. In the second
future tense of this mood, the verb is conjugated thus:

Second Future Tense.

   _Singular._                  _Plural_.

1. If I shall have loved,     1. If we shall have loved,
2. If thou shalt have loved,  2. If you shall have loved,
3. If he shall have loved.    3. If they shall have loved.

Look at the same tense in the indicative mood, and you will readily
perceive the distinction between the two conjugations.

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

_Singular._                                 _Plural_.
2. Love, _or_ love thou, _or_ do   2. Love, _or_ love ye _or_ you, _or_
   thou love.                                   do ye _or_ you love.

    NOTE. We cannot command, exhort, &c. either in _past_ or _future_
    time; therefore a verb in this mood is always in the _present_
    tense.

POTENTIAL MOOD.

Present Tense.

   _Singular._                       _Plural_.

1. I may, can, _or_ must love,   1. We may, can, or must love,
2. Thou mayst, canst, _or_ must  2. Ye _or_ you may, can, _or_
   love,                                 must love,
3. He may, can, _or_ must love.  3. They may, can, _or_ must love.

Imperfect Tense.

_Singular._                         _Plural_.

1. I might, could, would, _or_  1. We might, could, would, _or_
   should love,                         should love,
2. Thou mightst, couldst,       2. Ye _or_ you might, could,
   wouldst, _or_ shouldst love,    would, _or_ should love,
3. He might, could, would, _or_ 3. They might, could, would,
   should love,                         _or_ should love.

Perfect Tense.

_Singular._                         _Plural_.

1. I may, can, _or_ must have    1. We may, can, _or_ must have
   loved,                                loved,
2. Thou mayst, canst, _or_ must  2. Ye _or_ you may, can, _or_
   have loved,                           must have loved,
3. He may, can, _or_ must        3. They may, can, _or_ must
   have loved.                           have loved.

Pluperfect Tense.

_Singular._                         _Plural_.

1. I might, could, would,           1. We might, could, would,
      _or_ should have loved,           _or_ should have loved,
2. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst,  2. Ye _or_ you might, could,
      _or_ shouldst have loved,         would, _or_ should have loved,
3. He might, could, would,          3. They might, could, would,
      _or_ should have loved,            _or_ should have loved.

By examining carefully the conjugation of the verb through this mood,
you will find it very easy; thus, you will notice, that whenever any of
the auxiliaries, _may, can_, or _must_, is placed before a verb, that
verb is in the potential mood, _present_ tense; _might, could, would_,
or _should_, renders it in the potential mood, _imperfect_ tense; _may,
can_, or _must have_, the _perfect_ tense; and _might, could, would_, or
_should have_, the _pluperfect_ tense.

INFINITIVE MOOD.

Pres. Tense. To love. Perf. Tense. To have loved.

PARTICIPLES.

Present _or_ imperfect, Loving.
Perfect _or_ passive, Loved.
Compound, Having loved.

    NOTE. The perfect participle of a regular verb, corresponds exactly
    with the imperfect tense; yet the former may, at all times, be
    distinguished from the latter, by the following rule: In
    composition, the imperfect tense of a verb _always_ has a
    nominative, either expressed or implied: the perfect participle
    _never_ has.

For your encouragement, allow me to inform you, that when you shall have
learned to conjugate the verb _to love_, you will be able to conjugate
all the regular verbs in the English language, for they are all
conjugated precisely in the same manner. By pursuing the following
direction, you can, in a very short time, learn to conjugate any verb.
Conjugate the verb _love_ through all the moods and tenses, in the first
person singular, with the pronoun _I_ before it, and speak the
Participles: thus, Indicative mood, pres. tense, first pers. sing. I
_love_, imperf. tense, I _loved_; perf. tense, I _have loved_; and so
on, through every mood and tense. Then conjugate it in the second pers.
sing, with the pronoun _thou_ before it, through all the moods and
tenses; thus, Indic. mood, pres. tense, second pers. sing, thou
_lovest_; imperf. tense, thou _lovedst_; and so on, through the whole.
After that, conjugate it in the third pers. sing, with _he_ before it;
and then in the first pers. plural, with _we_ before it, in like manner
through all the moods and tenses. Although this mode of procedure may,
at first, appear to be laborious, yet, as it is necessary, I trust you
will not hesitate to adopt it. My confidence in your perseverance,
induces me to recommend any course which I know will tend to facilitate
your progress.

When you shall have complied with my requisition, you may conjugate the
following verbs in the same manner; which will enable you, hereafter, to
tell the mood and tense of any verb without hesitation: _walk, hate,
smile, rule, conquer, reduce, relate, melt, shun, fail_.

       *       *       *       *       *


    PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.

    The changes in the termination of words, in all languages, have been
    formed by the _coalescence_ of words of appropriate meaning. This
    subject was approached on page 49. It is again taken up for the
    purpose of showing, that the moods and tenses, as well as the number
    and person, of English verbs, do not solely depend on inflection.

    The coalescing syllables which form the number and person of the
    Hebrew verb, are still considered pronouns; and, by those who have
    investigated the subject, it is conceded, that the same plan has
    been adopted in the formation of the Latin and Greek verbs, as in
    the Hebrew. Some languages have carried this process to a very great
    extent. Ours is remarkable for the small number of its inflections.
    But they who reject the passive verb, and those moods and tenses
    which are formed by employing what are called "auxiliary verbs,"
    _because they are formed of two or more verbs_, do not appear to
    reason soundly. It is inconsistent to admit, that walk-_eth_, and
    walk-_ed_, are tenses, because each is but one word, and to reject
    _have_ walked, and _will_ walk, as tenses, because each is composed
    of two words. _Eth_, as previously shown, is a contraction of
    _doeth_, or _haveth_, and _ed_, of _dede, dodo, doed_, or _did_;
    and, therefore, walk-_eth_; i.e. walk-_doeth_, or _doeth_-walk, and
    walk-_ed_; i.e. walk-_did_, or _doed_ or _did_-walk, are, when
    analyzed, as strictly compound, as _will_ walk, _shall_ walk, and
    _have_ walked. The only difference in the formation of these tenses,
    is, that in the two former, the associated verbs have been
    contracted and made to coalesce with the main verb, but in the two
    latter, they still maintain their ground as separate words.

    If it be said that _will walk_ is composed of two words, each of
    which conveys a distinct idea, and, therefore, should be analyzed by
    itself, the same argument with all its force, may be applied to
    walk-_eth_, walk-_ed_, walk-_did_, or _did_ walk. The result of all
    the investigations of this subject, appears to settle down into the
    hackneyed truism, that the passive verbs, and the moods and tenses,
    of some languages, are formed by inflections, or terminations either
    prefixed or postfixed, and of other languages, by the association of
    auxiliary verbs, which have not yet been contracted and made to
    coalesce as _terminations_. The auxiliary, when contracted into a
    _terminating syllable,_ retains its distinct and intrinsic meaning,
    as much as when associated with a verb by juxtaposition:
    consequently, an "auxiliary verb" may form a part of a mood or
    tense, or passive verb, with as much propriety as a _terminating
    syllable_. They who contend for the ancient custom of keeping the
    auxiliaries distinct, and parsing them as primary verbs, are, by the
    same principle, bound to extend their dissecting-knife _to every
    compound word in the language_.

    Having thus attempted briefly to prove the philosophical accuracy of
    the theory which recognises the tenses, moods, and passive verbs,
    formed by the aid of auxiliaries, I shall now offer one argument to
    show that this theory, and this _only_, will subserve the purposes
    of the practical grammarian.

    As it is not so much the province of philology to instruct in the
    exact meaning of single and separate words, as it is to teach the
    student to combine and employ them properly in framing sentences,
    and as those _combinations_ which go by the name of compound tenses
    and passive verbs, are necessary in writing and discourse, it
    follows, conclusively, that that theory which does not explain these
    verbs in their _combined_ state, cannot teach the student the
    correct use and application of the verbs of our language. By such an
    arrangement, he cannot learn when it is proper to use the phrases,
    _shall have walked, might have gone, have seen_, instead of, _shall
    walk, might go_, and _saw_; because this theory has nothing to do
    with the combining of verbs. If it be alleged, that the speaker or
    writer's own good sense must guide him in combining these verbs,
    and, therefore, that the directions of the grammarian are
    unnecessary, it must be recollected, that such an argument would
    bear, equally, against every principle of grammar whatever. In
    short, the theory of the compound tenses, and of the passive verb,
    appears to be so firmly based in the genius of our language, and so
    practically important to the student, as to defy all the engines of
    the paralogistic speculator, and the philosophical quibbler, to
    batter it down.

    But the most plausible objection to the old theory is, that it is
    encumbered with much useless technicality and tedious prolixity,
    which are avoided by the _simple_ process of exploding the passive
    verb, and reducing the number of the moods to three, and of the
    tenses to two. It is certain, however, that if we reject the _names_
    of the perfect, pluperfect, and future tenses, the _names_ of the
    potential and subjunctive moods, and of the passive verb, in writing
    and discourse we must still employ those _verbal combinations_ which
    form them; and it is equally certain, that the proper mode of
    employing such combinations, is as easily taught or learned by the
    old theory, which _names_ them, as by the new, which gives them _no
    name_.

    On philosophical principles, we might, perhaps, dispense with the
    _future_ tenses of the verb, by analyzing each word separately; but,
    as illustrated on page 79, the combined words which form our perfect
    and pluperfect tenses have an _associated_ meaning, which is
    destroyed by analyzing each word separately. That arrangement,
    therefore, which rejects these tenses, appears to be, not only
    _unphilosophical_, but inconsistent and inaccurate.

    For the satisfaction of those teachers who prefer it, and for their
    adoption, too, a modernized _philosophical_ theory of the moods and
    tenses is here presented. If it is not quite so convenient and
    useful as the old one, they need not hesitate to adopt it. It has
    the advantage of being _new_; and, moreover, it sounds _large_, and
    will make the _commonalty stare_. Let it be distinctly understood,
    that you teach _"philosophical grammar, founded on reason and common
    sense_," and you will pass for a very learned man, and make all the
    good housewives wonder at the rapid march of intellect, and the vast
    improvements of the age.

    MOOD.

    Verbs have three moods, the indicative, (embracing what is commonly
    included under the _indicative_, the _subjunctive_, and the
    _potential_,) the imperative, and the infinitive.--For definitions,
    refer to the body of the work.

    TENSE OR TIME.

    Verbs have only two tenses, the present and the past. A verb
    expressing action commenced and not completed, is in the present
    tense; as, "Religion _soars_: it _has_ gained many victories: it
    _will_ [to] _carry_ its votaries to the blissful regions."

    When a verb expresses finished action, it is in the past tense; as,
    "This page (the Bible) God _hung_ out of heaven, and _retired_."

    A verb in the imperative and infinitive moods, is always in the
    _present_ tense, high authorities to the contrary notwithstanding.
    The _command_ must _necessarily_ be given in time present, although
    its _fulfilment_ must be future. John, what are you doing? Learning
    my task. Why do you learn it? Because my preceptor _commanded_ me to
    do so. When _did_ he command you? _Yesterday_.--Not _now_, of
    course.

    That it is inconsistent with the nature of things for a command to
    be given in _future_ time, and that the _fulfilment_ of the command,
    though future, has nothing to do with the tense or time of the
    command itself, are truths so plain as to put to the blush the gross
    absurdity of those who identify the time of the fulfilment with
    that of the command.

       *       *       *       *       *

    EXERCISES IN PARSING.

    You _may read_ the book which I _have printed_. _May_, an irregular
    active verb, signifying "to have and to exercise might or strength,"
    indic. mood, pres. tense, second pers. plur. agreeing with its nom.
    _you. Read_, an irregular verb active, infinitive mood, pres. tense,
    with the sign _to_ understood, referring to _you_ as its agent.
    _Have_, an active verb, signifying to _possess_, indic. present, and
    having for its object, book understood after "which." _Printed_, a
    perf. participle, referring to book understood.

    Johnson, and Blair, and Lowth, _would have been laughed at, had_
    they _essayed_ to _thrust_ any thing like our modernized
    philosophical grammar down the throats of their contemporaries.

    _Would_, an active verb, signifying "to exercise volition," in the
    past tense of the indicative. _Have_, a verb, in the infinitive,
    _to_ understood. _Been_, a perfect part. of to _be_, referring to
    Johnson, Blair, and Lowth. _Laughed at_, perf. part, of to _laugh
    at_, referring to the same as _been. Had_, active verb, in the past
    tense of the indicative, agreeing with its nom. _they. Essayed_,
    perf. part, referring to they.
    Call this "_philosophical_ parsing, on reasoning principles,
    according to the original laws of nature and of thought," and the
    _pill_ will be swallowed, by pedants and their dupes, with the
    greatest ease imaginable.


       *       *       *       *       *


LECTURE XII.

OF IRREGULAR VERBS.

Irregular verbs are those that do not form
their imperfect tense and perfect participle by the
addition of _d_ or _ed_ to the present tense; as,

_Pres. Tense.    Imperf. Tense.    Perf. or Pass. Part._
I write            I wrote           written
I begin            I began           begun
I go               I went            gone

The following is a list of the _irregular_ verbs. Those marked with an R
are sometimes conjugated _regularly_.

_Pres. Tense.          Imperf. Tense.  Perf. or Pass. Part._
Abide                    abode          abode
Am                       was            been
Arise                    arose          arisen
Awake                    awoke, R.      awaked
Bear, _to bring forth_   bare           born
Bear, _to carry_         bore           borne
Beat                     beat           beaten, beat
Begin                    began          begun
Bend                     bent           bent
Bereave                  bereft, R.     bereft, R.
Beseech                  besought       besought
Bid                      bade, bid      bidden, bid
Bind                     bound          bound
Bite                     bit            bitten, bit
Bleed                    bled           bled
Blow                     blew           blown
Break                    broke          broken
Breed                    bred           bred
Bring                    brought        brought
Build                    built          built
Burst                    burst, R.      burst, R.
Buy                      bought         bought
Cast                     cast           cast
Catch                    caught, R.     caught, R.
Chide                    chid           chidden, chid
Choose                   chose          chosen
Cleave, _to adhere_      clave, R.      cleaved
Cleave, _to split_       cleft          cleft,
                         _or_
                         clove          cloven
Cling                    clung          clung
Clothe                   clothed        clad, R.
Come                     came           come
Cost                     cost           cost
Crow                     crew, R.       crowed
Creep                    crept          crept
Cut                      cut            cut
Dare, _to venture_       durst          dared
Dare, _to challenge_     REGULAR
Deal                     dealt, R.      dealt, R.
Dig                      dug, R.        dug, R.
Do                       did            done
Draw                     drew           drawn
Drive                    drove          driven
Drink                    drank          drunk, drank[6]
Dwell                    dwelt, R.      dwelt, R.
Eat                      eat, ate       eaten
Fall                     fell           fallen
Feed                     fed            fed
Feel                     felt           felt
Fight                    fought         fought
Find                     found          found
Flee                     fled           fled
Fling                    flung          flung
Fly                      flew           flown
Forget                   forgot         forgotten
Forsake                  forsook        forsaken
Freeze                   froze          frozen
Get                      got            got[7]
Gild                     gilt, R.       gilt, R.
Gird                     girt, R.       girt, R.
Give                     gave           given
Go                       went           gone
Grave                    graved         graven, R.
Grind                    ground         ground
Grow                     grew           grown
Have                     had            had
Hang                     hung, R.       hung, R.
Hear                     heard          heard
Hew                      hewed          hewn, R.
Hide                     hid            hidden, hid
Hit                      hit            hit
Hold                     held           held
Hurt                     hurt           hurt
Keep                     kept           kept
Knit                     knit, R.       knit, R.
Know                     knew           known
Lade                     laded          laden
Lay                      laid           laid
Lead                     led            led
Leave                    left           left
Lend                     lent           lent
Let                      let            let
Lie, _to lie down_       lay            lain
Load                     loaded         laden, R.
Lose                     lost           lost
Make                     made           made
Meet                     met            met
Mow                      mowed          mown, R.
Pay                      paid           paid
Put                      put            put
Read                     read           read
Rend                     rent           rent
Rid                      rid            rid
Ride                     rode           rode, ridden[8]
Ring                     rung, rang     rung
Rise                     rose           risen
Rive                     rived          riven
Run                      ran            run
Saw                      sawed          sawn, R.
Say                      said           said
See                      saw            seen
Seek                     sought         sought
Sell                     sold           sold
Send                     sent           sent
Set                      set            set
Shake                    shook          shaken
Shape                    shaped         shaped, shapen
Shave                    shaved         shaven, R.
Shear                    sheared        shorn
Shed                     shed           shed
Shine                    shone, R.      shone, R.
Show                     showed         shown
Shoe                     shod           shod
Shoot                    shot           shot
Shrink                   shrunk         shrunk
Shred                    shred          shred
Shut                     shut           shut
Sing                     sung, sang[9]  sung
Sink                     sunk, sank[9]  sunk
Sit                      sat            set
Slay                     slew           slain
Sleep                    slept          slept
Slide                    slid           slidden
Sling                    slung          slung
Slink                    slunk          slunk
Slit                     slit, R.       slit
Smite                    smote          smitten
Sow                      sowed          sown, R.
Speak                    spoke          spoken
Speed                    sped           sped
Spend                    spent          spent
Spill                    spilt, R.      spilt, R.
Spin                     spun           spun
Spit                     spit, spat     spit, spitten [10]
Split                    split          split
Spread                   spread         spread
Spring                   sprung, sprang sprung
Stand                    stood          stood
Steal                    stole          stolen
Stick                    stuck          stuck
Sting                    stung          stung
Stink                    stunk          stunk
Stride                   strode, strid  stridden
Strike                   struck         struck _or_ stricken
String                   strung         strung
Strive                   strove         striven
Strow                    strowed        strown,
_or_                     _or_           strowed _or_
strew                    strewed        strewed
Sweat                    swet, R.       swet, R.
Swear                    swore          sworn
Swell                    swelled        swollen, R.
Swim                     swum, swam     swum
Swing                    swung          swung
Take                     took           taken
Teach                    taught         taught
Tear                     tore           torn
Tell                     told           told
Think                    thought        thought
Thrive                   throve, R.     thriven
Throw                    threw          thrown
Thrust                   thrust         thrust
Tread                    trod           trodden
Wax                      waxed          waxen, R.
Wear                     wore           worn
Weave                    wove           woven
Wet                      wet            wet, R.
Weep                     wept           wept
Win                      won            won
Wind                     wound          wound
Work                     wrought,       wrought,
                         worked         worked
Wring                    wrung          wrung
Write                    wrote          written

[6] The men were drunk; i.e. inebriated. The toasts were drank.

[7] Gotten is nearly obsolete. Its compound forgotten, is still in
good use.

[8] Ridden is nearly obsolete.

[9] Sang and sank should not be used in familiar style.

[10] Spitten is nearly obsolete.

In familiar writing and discourse, the following, and some other verbs,
are often improperly terminated by _t_ instead of _ed_; as, "learnt,
spelt, spilt, stopt, latcht." They should be, "learned, spelled, spilled,
stopped, latched."

You may now conjugate the following irregular verbs, in a manner similar
to the conjugation of regular verbs: _arise, begin, bind, do, go, grow,
run, lend, teach, write_. Thus, to _arise_--Indicative mood, pres.
tense, first person, sing. I arise; imperf. tense, I arose; perf. tense,
I have arisen, and so on, through all the moods, and all the tenses of
each mood; and then speak the participles: thus, pres. arising, perf.
arisen, comp. having arisen. In the next place, conjugate the same verb
in the second person sing. through all the moods and tenses; and then in
the third person sing. and in the first pers. plural. After that, you
may proceed in the same manner with the words _begin, bind_, &c.

Now read the eleventh and twelfth lectures _four_ or _five_ times over,
and learn the order of parsing a verb. You will then be prepared to
parse the following verbs in full; and I presume, all the other parts of
speech. Whenever you parse, you must refer to the Compendium for
definitions and rules, if you cannot repeat them without, I will now
parse a verb, and describe all its properties by applying the
definitions and rules according to the systematic order.

    "We _could_ not _accomplish_ the business."

_Could accomplish_ is a verb, a word which signifies to do--active, it
expresses action--transitive, the action passes over from the nom. "we"
to the object "business"--regular, it will form its imperfect tense of
the indic. mood and perf. part, in _ed_--potential mood, it implies
possibility or power--imperfect tense, it denotes past time however
distant--first pers. plural, because the nom. "we" is with which it
agrees, agreeably to RULE 4. _A verb must agree_, &c. Conjugated--Indic.
mood, present tense, first pers. sing. I accomplish; imperfect tense, I
accomplished; perfect, I have accomplished; pluperfect, I had
accomplished; and so on.--Speak it in the person of each tense through
all the moods, and conjugate, in the same manner, every verb you parse.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

_These exercises contain a complete variety of Moods and Tenses_.

I learn my lesson well. Charles, thou learnest thy lesson badly. John,
do you write a good hand? Those ladies wrote a beautiful letter, but
they did not despatch it. Have you seen the gentleman to whom I gave the
book? He has gone. They had received the news before the messenger
arrived. When will those persons return? My friend shall receive his
reward. He will have visited me three times, if he come to-morrow.

If Eliza study diligently, she will improve. If Charles studies he does
not improve. Unless that man shall have accomplished his work, by
midsummer, he will receive no wages. Orlando, obey my precepts, unless
you wish to injure yourself. Remember what is told you. The physician
may administer the medicine, but Providence only can bless it. I told,
him that he might go, but he would not. He might have gone last week,
had he conducted himself properly; (that is, _if he had conducted_, &c.)
Boys, prepare to recite your lessons. Young ladies, let me hear you
repeat what you have learned. Study, diligently, whatever task may be
allotted to you. To correct the spirit of discontent, let us consider
how little we deserve. To die for one's country, is glorious. How can we
become wise? To seek God is wisdom. What is true greatness? Active
benevolence. A good man is a great man.

    NOTE 1. _Man_, following _great_, and _what_, in the last two
    examples, are nom. after _is_: RULE 21. _To seek God_, and _to die
    for one's country_, are members of sentences, each put as the nom.
    case to _is_ respectively: RULE 24. The verb _to correct_ is the
    infinitive mood absolute: NOTE under RULE 23. _May be allotted_ is a
    passive verb, agreeing with _which_, the relative part of _whatever.
    That_, the first part of whatever, is an adj. pronoun, agreeing with
    _task_; and _task_ is governed by _study._ _Hear_, following _let_,
    and _repeat_, following _hear_, are in the infinitive mood without
    the sign _to_, according to RULE 25. _To recite_ is governed by
    _prepare_: RULE 23. _Is told_, is a passive verb, agreeing with
    _which_, the relative part of _whatever_; and _you_, following, is
    governed by _to_ understood: NOTE 1, under RULE 32.

    2. In parsing a pronoun, if the noun for which it stands is not
    expressed, you must say it represents some person or thing
    understood.

LECTURE XIII.

OF THE AUXILIARY, PASSIVE, AND DEFECTIVE VERBS.

I. AUXILIARY VERBS.

Before you attend to the following additional remarks on the Auxiliary
Verbs, you will do well to read again what is said respecting them in
Lecture XI. page 140. The short account there given, and their
application in conjugating verbs, have already made them quite familiar
to you; and you have undoubtedly observed, that, without their help, we
cannot conjugate any verb in any of the tenses, except the present and
imperfect of the indicative and subjunctive moods, and the present of
the imperative and infinitive. In the formation of all the other tenses,
they are brought into requisition.

Most of the auxiliary verbs are defective in conjugation; that is, they
are used only in some of the moods and tenses; and when unconnected with
principal verbs, they are conjugated in the following manner:

MAY.
Pres. Tense _Sing_. I may, thou mayst, he may.
            _Plur_. We may, ye _or_ you may, they may.

Imperf.   _Sing_. I might, thou mightst, he might.
Tense.    _Plur_. We might, ye _or_ you might, they might.

CAN.
Pres.     _Sing_. I can, thou canst, he can.
Tense.    _Plur_. We can, ye _or_ you can, they can.

Imperf.   _Sing_. I could, thou couldst, he could.
Tense.    _Plur_. We could, ye _or_ you could, they could.

WILL.
Pres.     _Sing_. I will, thou wilt, he will.
Tense.    _Plur_. We will, ye _or_ you will, they will.

Imperf.   _Sing_. I would, thou wouldst, he would.
Tense.    _Plur_. We would, ye _or_ you would, they would.

SHALL.
Pres.     _Sing_. I shall, thou shalt, he shall.
Tense.    _Plur_. We shall, ye _or_ you shall, they shall.

Imperf.   _Sing_. I should, thou shouldst, he should.
Tense.    _Plur_. We should, ye _or_ you should, they should.

TO DO.
Pres.     _Sing_. I do, thou dost _or_ doest, he doth _or_ does.
Tense.    _Plur_. We do, ye _or_ you do, they do.

Imperf.   _Sing_. I did, thou didst, he did.
Tense.    _Plur_. We did, ye _or_ you did, they did.
          _Participles_. Pres. doing. Perf. done.

TO BE.
Pres.     _Sing_. I am, thou art, he is.
Tense.    _Plur_. We are, ye _or_ you are, they are.

Imperf.   _Sing_. I was, thou wast, he was.
Tense.    _Plur_. We were, ye _or_ you were, they were.
          _Participles_. Pres. being. Perf. been.

TO HAVE.
Pres.     _Sing_. I have, thou hast, he hath _or_ has.
Tense.    _Plur_. We have, ye _or_ you have, they have.

Imperf.   _Sing_. I had, thou hadst, he had.
Tense.    _Plur_. We had, ye _or_ you had, they had.
          _Participles_. Pres. having. Perf. had.

_Do, be, have_, and _will_, are sometimes used as principal verbs; and
when employed as such, _do, be_, and _have_, may be conjugated, by the
help of other auxiliaries, through all the moods and tenses.

DO. The different tenses of _do_, in the several moods, are thus formed:
Indicative mood, pres. tense, first pers. sing. I do; imperfect tense, I
did; perf. I have done; pluperfect, I had done; first future, I shall or
will do; sec. fut. I shall have done. Subjunctive mood, pres. tense, If
I do; imperf. if I did; and so on. Imperative mood, do thou. Potential,
pres. I may, can, or must do, &c. Infinitive, present, to do; perf. to
have done. Participles, pres. doing; perf. done; compound, having done.

HAVE. _Have_ is in great demand. No verb can be conjugated through all
the moods and tenses without it. _Have_, when used as a principal verb,
is doubled in some of the past tenses, and becomes an auxiliary to
itself; thus, Indic. mood, pres. tense, first pers. sing. I have;
imperf. tense, I had; perf. I have had; pluperf. I had had; first fut. I
shall or will have; sec. fut. I shall have had. Subjunctive, present, if
I have; imperf. if I had; perf. if I have had; pluperf. if I had had;
first fut. if I shall or will have; sec. fut. if I shall have had.
Imper. mood, have thou. Potential, present, I may, can, or must have;
imperf. I might, could, would, or should have; perf. I may, can, or must
have had; pluperf. I might, could, would, or should have had.
Infinitive, present, to have; perf. to have had. Participles, pres.
having; perf. had; compound, having had.

BE. In the next place I will present to you the conjugation of the
irregular, neuter verb, _Be_, which is an auxiliary whenever it is
placed before the perfect participle of another verb, but in every other
situation, it is a _principal_ verb.

TO BE.--INDICATIVE MOOD.
Pres. Tense.
_Sing_. I am, thou art, he, she, _or_ it is.
_Plur_. We are, ye _or_ you are, they are.

Imperf. Tense.
_Sing_. I was, thou wast, he was.
_Plur_. We were, ye _or_ you were, they were.

Perf. Tense.
_Sing_. I have been, thou hast been, he hath _or_ has been.
_Plur_. We have been, ye _or_ you have been, they have been.

Plup. Tense.
_Sing_. I had been, thou hadst been, he had been.
_Plur_. We had been, ye _or_ you had been, they had been.

First Fut. T.
_Sing_, I shall _or_ will be, thou shalt _or_ wilt be,
                              he shall _or_ will be.
_Plur_. We shall _or_ will be, you shall _or_ will be,
                              they shall _or_ will be.

Second Fut. T.
_Sing_. I shall have been, thou wilt have been, he will have been.
_Plur_. We shall have been, you will have been, they will have been.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Pres. Tense.
_Sing_. If I be, if thou be, if he be.
_Plur_. If we be, if ye _or_ you be, if they be.

Imperf. Tense.
_Sing_. If I were, if thou wert, if he were.
_Plur_. If we were, if ye _or_ you were, if they were.

The neuter verb to _be_, and all passive verbs, have two forms in the
imperfect tense of this mood, as well as in the present; therefore, the
following rule may serve to direct you in the proper use of each form.
When the sentence implies doubt, supposition, &c. and the neuter verb
_be_, or the passive verb, is used with a reference to present or future
time, and is either followed or preceded by another verb in the
imperfect of the potential mood, the _conjunctive_ form of the imperfect
tense must be employed; as, "_If_ he _were_ here, we _should_ rejoice
together;" "She _might_ go, _were_ she so disposed." But when there is
no reference to present or future time, and the verb is neither followed
nor preceded by another in the potential imperfect, the _indicative_
form of the imperfect tense must be used; as, "_If_ he _was_ ill, he did
not make it known;" "_Whether_ he _was_ absent or present, is a matter
of no consequence." The general rule for using the conjunctive form of
the verb, is presented on page 145. See, also, page 135.

The perfect, pluperfect, and first future tenses of the subjunctive
mood, are conjugated in a manner similar to the correspondent tenses of
the indicative. The second future is conjugated thus:

Second Fut. T.
_Sing_. If I shall have been, if thou shalt have been, if he shall. &c
_Plur_. If we shall have been, if you shall have been, if they, &c.

IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Pres. Tense.
_Sing_. Be, _or_ be thou, _or_ do thou be.
_Plur_. Be, _or_ be ye _or_ you, or do ye _or_ you be.

POTENTIAL MOOD.
Pres. Tense
_Sing_. I may, can, _or_ must be, thou mayst, canst, _or_ must be,
                                  he may, can, _or_ must be.
_Plur_. We may, can, _or_ must be, ye _or_ you may, can, _or_ must be,
                                  they may, can, _or_ must be.
Imperf. Tense.
_Sing_. I might, could, would, _or_ should be, thou mightest, &c.
_Plur_. We might, could, would, _or_ should be, you might, &c.

Perf. Tense
_Sing_. I may, can, _or_ must have been, thou mayst, canst, &c.
_Plur_. We may, can, _or_ must have been, you may, can, _or_ must be, &c.

Pluper. Tense.
_Sing_. I might, could, would, _or_ should have been, thou, &c.
_Plur_. We might, could, would, _or_ should have been, you, &c.

INFINITIVE MOOD.
Pres. Tense. To be. Perf. Tense. To have been.

PARTICIPLES.
Pres. Being. Perf. Been. Compound, Having been.

This verb to be, though very irregular in its conjugation, is by far the
most important verb in our language, for it is more frequently used than
any other; many rules of syntax depend on constructions associated with
it, and, without its aid, no passive verb can be conjugated. You ought,
therefore, to make yourself perfectly familiar with all its changes,
before you proceed any farther.

       *       *       *       *       *

II. PASSIVE VERBS.

The _cases of nouns_ are a fruitful theme for investigation and
discussion. In the progress of these lectures, this subject has
frequently engaged our attention; and, now, in introducing to your
notice the passive verb, it will, perhaps, be found both interesting and
profitable to present one more view of the nominative case.

Every sentence, you recollect, must have one _finite_ verb, or more than
one, and one _nominative_, either expressed or implied, for, without
them, no sentence can exist.

The _nominative_ is the _actor_ or _subject_ concerning which the verb
makes an affirmation. There are three kinds of nominatives, _active,
passive_, and _neuter_.

The nominative to an _active_ verb, is _active_, because it _produces_
an action, and the nominative to a _passive_ verb, is _passive_, because
it _receives_ or _endures_ the action expressed by the verb; for,

A Passive Verb denotes action _received_ or _endured_ by the person or
thing which is the nominative; as, "The _boy is beaten_ by his father."

You perceive, that the nominative _boy_, in this example, is not
represented as the _actor_, but as the _object_ of the action expressed
by the verb _is beaten_; that is, the boy _receives_ or _endures_ the
action performed by his father; therefore _boy_ is a _passive_
nominative. And you observe, too, that the verb _is beaten_, denotes the
_action_ received or endured by the nominative; therefore _is beaten_ is
a _passive_ verb.

If I say, John _kicked_ the horse, John is an active nominative, because
he performed or produced the action; but if I say, John _was kicked_ by
the horse, John is a passive nominative, because he received or endured
the action.

The nominative to a _neuter_ verb, is _neuter_, because it does not
produce an action nor receive one; as, John _sits_ in the chair. John is
here connected with the neuter verb _sits_, which expresses simply the
state of being of its nominative, therefore _John_ is a neuter
nominative.

I will now illustrate the active, passive, and neuter nominatives by a
few examples.

I. Of ACTIVE NOMINATIVES; as, "The _boy_ beats the dog; The _lady_
sings; The _ball_ rolls; The _man_ walks."

II. Of PASSIVE NOMINATIVES; as, "The _boy_ is beaten; The _lady_ is
loved; The _ball_ is rolled; The _man_ was killed."

III. Of NEUTER NOMINATIVES; as, "The _boy_ remains idle; The _lady_ is
beautiful; The _ball_ lies on the ground; The _man_ lives in town."
You may now proceed to the conjugation of passive verbs.

Passive Verbs are called _regular_ when they end in _ed_; as, was
_loved_; was _conquered_.

All Passive Verbs _are formed_ by adding the _perfect participle_ of an
active-transitive verb, to the neuter verb _to be_.

If you place a perfect participle of an active-transitive verb after
this neuter verb _be_, in any mood or tense, you will have a _passive_
verb in the same mood and tense that the verb _be_ would be in if the
participle were not used; as, I am _slighted_; I was _slighted_; he will
be _slighted_; If I be _slighted_; I may, can, _or_ must be _slighted_,
&c. Hence you perceive, that when you shall have learned the conjugation
of the verb _be_, you will be able to conjugate any passive verb in the
English language.

The regular passive verb to _be loved_, which is formed by adding the
perfect participle _loved_ to the neuter verb to _be_, is conjugated in
the following manner:

TO BE LOVED.--INDICATIVE MOOD.
Pres. Tense
_Sing_. I am loved, thou art loved, he is loved.
_Plur_. We are loved, ye _or_ you are loved, they are loved.

Imperf. Tense.
_Sing_. I was loved, thou wast loved, he was loved.
_Plur_. We were loved, ye _or_ you were loved, they were loved.

Perfect Tense.
_Sing_. I have been loved, thou hast been loved, he has been loved.
_Plur_. We have been loved, you have been loved, they have, &c.

Pluper. Tense
_Sing_. I had been loved, thou hadst been loved, he had been, &c.
_Plur_. We had been loved, you had been loved, they had been, &c.

First Future.
_Sing_. I shall _or_ will be loved, thou shall _or_ wilt be loved, he, &c.
_Plur_. We shall _or_ will be loved, you shall _or_ will be loved, they, &c.

First Future.
_Sing_. I shall have been loved, thou wilt have been loved, he, &c.
_Plur_. We shall have been loved, you will have been loved, &c.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Pres. Tense
_Sing_. If I be loved, if thou be loved, if he be loved.
_Plur_. If we be loved, if ye _or_ you be loved, if they be loved.

Imperf. Tense.
_Sing_. If I were loved, if thou wert loved, if he were loved.
_Plur_. If we were loved, if you were loved, if they were loved.

This mood has six tenses:--See conjugation of the verb to _be_.

IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Pres. Tense.
_Sing_. Be thou loved, _or_ do thou be loved.
_Plur_. Be ye _or_ you loved, _or_ do ye be loved.

POTENTIAL MOOD.
Pres. Tense.
_Sing_. I may, can, _or_ must be loved, thou mayst, canst, _or_ must, &c.
_Plur_. We may, can, _or_ must be loved, you may, can, _or_ must, &c.

Imperf. Tense.
_Sing_. I might, could, would, _or_ should be loved, thou mightst, &c.
_Plur_. We might, could, would, or should be loved, ye _or_ you, &c.

Perfect Tense.
_Sing_. I may, can, _or_ must have been loved, thou mayst, canst, &c.
_Plur_. We may, can, _or_ must have been loved, you may, can, &c.

Plup. Tense.
_Sing_. I might, could, would, _or_ should have been loved, thou
mightst, couldst, wouldst, _or_ shouldst have
_Plur_. We might, could, would, _or_ should have been loved, you
might, could, would, _or_ should have been loved, they, &c.

INFINITIVE MOOD.
Pres. Tense. To be loved. Perf. Tense. To have been loved.

PARTICIPLES.
Present, Being loved. Perfect _or_ Passive, Loved.
Compound, Having been loved.

    NOTE. This conjugation of the passive verb _to be loved_, is called
    the _passive, voice_ of the regular active-transitive verb _to
    love_.

Now conjugate the following passive verbs; that is, speak them in the
first pers. sing, and plur. of each tense, through all the moods, and
speak the participles; "to be loved, to be rejected, to be slighted, to
be conquered, to be seen, to be beaten, to be sought, to be taken."

    NOTE 1. When the perfect participle of an _intransitive_ verb is
    joined to the neuter verb _to be_, the combination is not a passive
    verb, but a _neuter_ verb in a _passive form_; as, "He _is gone_;
    The birds _are flown_; The boy _is_ grown_; My friend _is arrived_."
    The following mode of construction, is, in general, to be preferred;
    "He _has_ gone; The birds _have_ flown; The boy _has_ grown; My
    Friend _has_ arrived."

    2. Active and neuter verbs may be conjugated by adding their present
    participle to the auxiliary verb _to be_, through all its
    variations; as, instead of, I teach, thou teachest, he teaches, &c.,
    we may say, I am teaching, thou art teaching, he is teaching, &c.;
    and, instead of, I taught, &c.; I was teaching, &c. This mode of
    conjugation expresses the continuation of an action or state of
    being; and has, on some occasions, a peculiar propriety, and
    contributes to the harmony and precision of language. When the
    present participle of an active verb is joined with the neuter verb
    to be, the two words united, are, by some grammarians, denominated
    an active verb, either transitive or intransitive, as the case may
    be; as, "I am writing a letter; He is walking:" and when the present
    participle of a neuter verb is thus employed, they term the
    combination a neuter verb; as, "I am sitting; He is standing."
    Others, in constructions like these, parse each word separately.
    Either mode may be adopted.

       *       *       *       *       *

III. DEFECTIVE VERBS.

DEFECTIVE VERBS are those which are used only in some of the moods and
tenses.

The principal of them are these.

_Pres. Tense.     Imperf. Tense.     Perfect or Passive Participle
                                              is wanting_.

May,                     might.                ------------
Can,                     could.                ------------
Will,                    would.                ------------
Shall,                   should.               ------------
Must,                    must.                 ------------
Ought,                   ought.                ------------
-----                    quoth.                ------------

    NOTE. _Must_ and _ought_ are not varied. _Ought_ and _quoth_ are
    never used as auxiliaries. _Ought_ is always followed by a verb in
    the infinitive mood, which verb determines its tenses. _Ought_ is in
    the _present_ tense when the infinitive following it is in the
    present; as, "He _ought_ to do it;" and _ought_ is in the
    _imperfect_ tense when followed by the perfect of the infinitive;
    as, "He _ought_ to have done it."

Before you proceed to the analysis of the following examples, you may
read over the last _three_ lectures carefully and attentively; and as
soon as you become acquainted with all that has been presented, you will
understand nearly all the principles and regular constructions of our
language. In parsing a verb, or any other part of speech, be careful to
pursue the _systematic order_, and to conjugate every verb until you
become familiar with all the moods and tenses.

    "He _should have been punished_ before he committed that atrocious
    deed."

_Should have been punished_ is a verb, a word that signifies to
do--passive, it denotes action received or endured by the nom.--it is
formed by adding the perfect part, _punished_ to the neuter verb to
_be_--regular, the perf. part, ends in _ed_--potential mood, it implies
obligation, &c.--pluperfect tense, it denotes a past act which was prior
to the other past time specified by "committed"--third pers. sing.
num. because the nom. "he" is with which it agrees: RULE 4. _The verb
must agree_, &c.--Conjugated, Indic. mood, pres. tense, he is punished;
imperf. tense, he was punished; perf. tense, he has been punished; and
so on. Conjugate it through all the moods and tenses, and speak the
participles.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

Columbus discovered America. America was discovered by Columbus. The
preceptor is writing a letter. The letter is written by the preceptor.
The work can be done. The house would have been built ere this, had he
fulfilled his promise. If I be beaten by that man, he will be punished.
Young man, if you wish to be respected, you must be more assiduous.
Being ridiculed and despised, he left the institution. He is reading
Homer. They are talking. He may be respected, if he become more
ingenuous. My worthy friend ought to be honored for his benevolent
deeds. This ought ye to have done.

ADDITIONAL EXERCISES IN PARSING.

All the most important principles of the science, together with many of
the rules, have now been presented and illustrated. But before you
proceed to analyze the following exercises, you may turn over a few
pages, and you will find all the rules presented in a body. Please to
examine them critically, and parse the _examples_ under each rule and
note. The examples, you will notice, are given to illustrate the
respective rules and notes under which they are placed; hence, by paying
particular attention to them, you will be enabled fully and clearly to
comprehend the meaning and application of all the rules and notes.

As soon as you become familiarly acquainted with all the _definitions_
so that you can apply them with facility, you may omit them in parsing;
but you must always apply the rules of Syntax. When you parse without
applying the definitions, you may proceed in the following manner:

    "Mercy is the true badge of nobility."

_Mercy_ is a noun common, of the neuter gender, third person, singular
number, and in the nominative case to "is:" RULE 3. _The nominative case
governs the verb_.

_Is_ is an irregular neuter verb, indicative mood, present tense, third
person, singular number, agreeing with "mercy," according to RULE 4.
_The verb must agree_, &c.

_The_ is a definite article, belonging to "badge," in the singular
number: RULE 2. _The definite article_ the, &c.

_True_ is an adjective in the positive degree, and belongs to the noun
"badge:" RULE 18. _Adjectives belong_, &c.

_Badge_ is a noun com. neuter gender, third person, singular number, and
in the nominative case _after_ "is," and put by apposition with "mercy,"
according to RULE 21. _The verb to be may have the same case after it as
before it_.

_Of_ is a preposition, connecting "badge" and "nobility," and showing
the relation between them.

_Nobility_ is a noun of multitude, mas. and fem. gender, third person,
sing, and in the obj. case, and governed by "of:" RULE 31. _Prepositions
govern the objective case_.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

Learn to unlearn what you have learned amiss.

What I forfeit for myself is a trifle; that my indiscretions should
reach my posterity, wounds me to the heart.

Lady Jane Gray fell a sacrifice to the wild ambition of the duke of
Northumberland.

King Missipsi charged his sons to consider the senate and people of Rome
as proprietors of the kingdom of Numidia.

Hazael smote the children of Israel in all their coasts; and from what
is left on record of his actions, he plainly appears to have proved,
what the prophet foresaw him to be, a man of violence, cruelty, and
blood.

Heaven hides from brutes what men, from men what spirits know.

He that formed the ear, can he not hear?

He that hath ears to hear, let him hear.

    NOTE 1. _Learn_, in the first of the preceding examples, is a
    transitive verb, because the action passes over from the nom. _you_
    understood, to _the rest of the sentence_ for its object: RULE 24.
    In the next example, _that my indiscretions should reach my
    posterity_, is a part of a sentence put as the nominative to the
    verb _wounds_, according to the same Rule.

    2. The noun _sacrifice_, in the third example, is nom. after the
    active-intransitive verb _fell_: RULE 22. The noun _proprietors_, in
    the next sentence, is in the objective case, and put by apposition
    with _senate_ and _people_: RULE 7, or governed by _consider_,
    understood, according to RULE 35.

    3. In the fifth example, _what_, following _proved_, is a compound
    relative. _Thing_, the antecedent part, is in the nom. case after
    _to be_, understood, and put by apposition with _he_, according to
    RULE 21, and NOTE. _Which_, the relative part, is in the obj. case
    after _to be_ expressed, and put by apposition with _him_, according
    to the same RULE. _Man_ is in the obj. case, put by apposition with
    _which_: RULE 7. The latter part of the sentence may be _literally_
    rendered thus: He plainly appears to have proved _to be that base
    character which_ the prophet foresaw him to be, viz. a _man_ of
    violence, cruelty, and blood. The antecedent part of the first
    _what_, in the next sentence, is governed by _hides_; and _which_,
    the relative part, is governed by _know_ understood. The antecedent
    part of the second _what_, is governed by _hides_ understood, and
    the relative part is governed by _know_ expressed.

    4. The first _he_, in the seventh example, is, in the opinion of
    some, nom. to _can hear_ understood; but Mr. N.R. Smith, a
    distinguished and acute grammarian, suggests the propriety of
    rendering the sentence thus; "He that formed the ear, _formed it to
    hear_; can he not hear?" The first _he_, in the last example, is
    redundant; yet the construction is sometimes admissible, for the
    expression is more forcible than it would be to say, "Let him hear
    who hath ears to hear;" and if we adopt the ingenious method of Mr.
    Smith, the sentence is grammatical, and may be rendered thus; "He
    that hath ears, _hath ears_ to hear; let him hear."

EXERCISES IN PARSING.
_Idioms, anomalies, and intricacies_.

1. "The wall is three _feet_ high."
2. "His son is eight _years_ old."
3. "My knife is worth a _shilling_."
4. "She is worth _him_ and all his _connexions_."
5. "He has been there three _times_."
6. "The hat cost ten _dollars_."
7. "The load weighs a _tun_."
8. "The spar measures ninety _feet_."

REMARKS.--_Anomaly_ is derived from the Greek, _a_, without, and
_omales_, similar; that is, _without similarity_. Some give its
derivation thus; _anomaly_, from the Latin, _ab_, from, or out of, and
_norma_, a rule, or law, means an _outlaw_; a mode of expression that
departs from the rules, laws, or _general_ usages of the language; a
construction in language peculiar to itself. Thus, it is a general rule
of the language, that adjectives of one syllable are compared by adding
_r_, or _er_, and _st_, or _est_, to the positive degree; but good,
_better, best_; bad, _worse, worst_, are not compared according to the
general rule. They are, therefore, anomalies. The plural number of nouns
is generally formed by adding s to the singular: man, _men_; woman,
_women_; child, _children_; penny, _pence_, are anomalies. The use of
_news, means, alms_ and _amends_, in the singular, constitutes
anomalies. Anomalous constructions are correct according to custom; but,
as they are departures from general rules, by them they cannot be
analyzed.

An _idiom_, Latin _idioma_, a construction peculiar to a language, may
be an anomaly, or it may not. An idiomatical expression which is not an
anomaly, can be analyzed.

_Feet_ and _years_, in the 1st and 2d examples, are not in the
nominative after _is_, according to Rule 21, because they are not in
apposition with the respective nouns that precede the verb; but the
constructions are anomalous; and, therefore, no rule can be applied to
analyze them. The same ideas, however; can be conveyed by a legitimate
construction which can be analyzed; thus, "The _height_ of the wall is
three _feet_;" "The _age_ of my son is eight _years_."

An anomaly, when ascertained to be such, is easily disposed of; but
sometimes it is very difficult to decide whether a construction is
anomalous or not. The 3d, 4th, and 5th examples, are generally
considered anomalies; but if we supply, as we are, perhaps, warranted in
doing, the associated words which modern refinement has dropped, they
will cease to be anomalies; thus, "My knife is _of the_ worth _of_ a
shilling;" "--_of the_ worth _of_ him," &c. "He has been there _for_
three times;" as we say, "I was unwell _for_ three days, after I
arrived;" or, "I was unwell three days." Thus it appears, that by
tracing back, _for_ a few centuries, what the merely modern English
scholar supposes to be an anomaly, an ellipsis will frequently be
discovered, which, when supplied, destroys the anomaly.

On extreme points, and peculiar and varying constructions in a living
language, the most able philologists can never be agreed; because many
usages will always be unsettled and fluctuating, and will, consequently,
be disposed of according to the caprice of the grammarian. By some, a
sentence may be treated as an anomaly; by others who contend for, and
supply, an ellipsis, the same sentence may be analyzed according to the
ellipsis supplied; whilst others, who deny both the elliptical and
anomalous character of the sentence, construct a rule by which to
analyze it, which rule has for its foundation the principle contained in
that sentence only. This last mode of procedure, inasmuch as it requires
us to make a rule for every peculiar construction in the language,
appears to me to be the most exceptionable of the three. It appears to
be multiplying rules beyond the bounds of utility.

The verbs, _cost, weighs_, and _measures_, in the 6th, 7th, and 8th
examples, may be considered as transitive. See remarks on _resemble,
have, own_, &c., page 56.

EXAMPLES.

1. "And God said, 'Let there be light,' and there was light." "Let us
make man." "Let us bow before the Lord." "Let high-born seraphs tune the
lyre."

2. "_Be it_ enacted." "_Be it_ remembered." _"Blessed be he_ that
blesseth thee; and _cursed be he_ that curseth thee." "My soul, turn
from them:--_turn we_ to survey," &c.

3. "_Methinks_ I see the portals of eternity wide open to receive him."
"_Methought_ I was incarcerated beneath the mighty deep." "I was there
just thirty _years ago_."

4. "Their laws and their manners, generally _speaking_, were extremely
rude." "_Considering_ their means, they have effected much."

5.

  "Ah _me!_ nor hope nor life remains."
  "_Me_ miserable! which way shall I fly?"

6.

   "O _happiness!_ our being's end and aim!
  Good, pleasure, ease, content! whatever thy name,
  That something still which prompts th' eternal sigh.
  For which we bear to live, or dare to die."--

The verb _let_, in the idiomatic examples under number 1, has no
nominative specified, and is left applicable to a nominative of the
first, second, or third person, and of either number. Every action
necessarily depends on an agent or moving cause; and hence it follows,
that the verb, in such constructions, has a nominative understood; but
as that nominative is not particularly _pointed out_, the constructions
may be considered anomalous.

Instead of saying, "_Let_ it [_to_] be enacted;" or, "It _is_ or _shall_
be enacted;" "_Let_ him [_to_] be blessed;" or, "He _shall_ be blessed;"
"_Let us_ turn to survey," &c.; the verbs, _be enacted, be blessed,
turn_, &c. according to an idiom of our language, or the poet's license,
are used in the _imperative_, agreeing with a nominative of the first or
third person.

The phrases, _methinks_ and _methought_, are anomalies, in which the
objective pronoun _me_, in the _first_ person, is used in place of a
nominative, and takes a verb after it in the _third_ person. _Him_ was
anciently used in the same manner; as, "_him thute_, him thought." There
was a period when these constructions were not anomalies in our
language. Formerly, what we call the _objective_ cases of our pronouns,
were employed in the same manner as our present _nominatives_ are. _Ago_
is a contraction of _agone_, the past part. of to _go_. Before this
participle was contracted to an adverb, the noun _years_ preceding it,
was in the nominative case absolute; but now the construction amounts to
an anomaly. The expressions, "generally speaking," and "considering
their means," under number 4, are idiomatical and anomalous, the
subjects to the participles not being specified.

According to the genius of the English language, transitive verbs and
prepositions require the _objective_ case of a noun or pronoun after
them; and this requisition is all that is meant by government, when we
say, that these parts of speech govern the objective case. See pages 52,
57, and 94. The same principle applies to the interjection.
Interjections require the _objective_ case of a pronoun of the first
person after them; but the _nominative_ of a noun or pronoun of the
second or third person; as, "Ah _me!_ Oh _thou!_ O my _country!_" To
say, then, that interjections _require_ particular cases after them, is
synonymous with saying, that they _govern_ those cases; and this office
of the interjection is in perfect accordance with that which it performs
in the Latin and many other languages. In the examples under number 5,
the first _me_ is in the objective after "ah," and the second _me_,
after _ah_ understood; thus, "Ah miserable me!" according to NOTE 2,
under Rule 5.--_Happiness_, under number 6, is nom. independent; Rule 5,
or in the nom. after _O_, according to this Note. The principle
contained in the note, proves that every noun of the second person is in
the _nominative_ case; for, as the pronoun of the second person, in such
a situation, is always nominative, which is shown by its _form_, it
logically follows that the noun, under such circumstances, although it
has _no form_ to show its case, must necessarily be in the same case as
the pronoun. "Good, pleasure, ease, content, _that_," the antecedent
part of "whatever," and _which_, the relative part, are nom. after _art_
understood; Rule 21, and _name_ is nom. to _be_ understood.

The second line may be rendered thus; Whether thou art good, or whether
thou art pleasure, &c. or _be_ thy _name_ that [thing] which [ever
thing] it may be: putting _be_ in the imperative, agreeing with _name_
in the third person. _Something_ is nominative after _art_ understood.

EXAMPLES.

1. "All were well _but_ the _stranger_." "I saw nobody but the
_stranger_." "All had returned but he." "None but the _brave_ deserve
the fair." "The thing they can't _but_ purpose, they postpone." "This
life, at best, is _but_ a dream." "It affords _but_ a scanty measure of
enjoyment." "If he _but_ touch the hills, they will smoke." "Man is
_but_ a reed, floating on the current of time."

2. "Notwithstanding his poverty, he is content."

3. "Open your hand _wide_." "The apples boil _soft_." "The purest clay
is that which burns _white_." "Drink _deep_, or taste not the Pierian
spring."

4. "_What though_ the swelling surge thou see?" &c. "_What if_ the foot,
ordain'd the dust to tread?" &c.

REMARKS.--According to the principle of analysis assumed by many of our
most critical philologists, _but_ is _always_ a disjunctive conjunction;
and agreeably to the same authorities, to construe it, in any case, as a
preposition, would lead to error. See false Syntax under Rule 35. They
maintain, that its legitimate and undeviating office is, to join on a
member of a sentence which _expresses opposition of meaning_, and
thereby forms an exception to, or takes from the universality of, the
proposition contained in the preceding member of the sentence. That it
sustains its true character as a conjunction in all the examples under
number 1, will be shown by the following resolution of them.--"All were
well but the _stranger [was not well_."] "I saw nobody but [_I saw_] the
_stranger_." "None deserve the fair but the _brave_ [_deserve the
fair_."] "They postpone the thing which [_they ought to do, and do not]
but_ which [_thing_] they cannot avoid purposing to do." "This life, at
best, [_is not a reality,] but_ it is a dream. It [_affords not
unbounded fruition] but_ it affords a scanty measure of enjoyment." "If
he _touch_ the hills, _but exert no greater power upon them_, they will
smoke;"--"If _he exert no greater power upon the hills, but [be-out this
fact_] if he touch them, they will smoke." "Man _is not a stable being,
but_ he is a reed, floating on the current of time." This method of
analyzing sentences, however, if I mistake not, is too much on the plan
of our pretended philosophical writers, who, in their rage for ancient
constructions and combinations, often overlook the modern associated
meaning and application of this word. It appears to me to be more
consistent with the _modern_ use of the word, to consider it an _adverb_
in constructions like the following: "If he _but (only, merely)_ touch
the hills they will smoke."

_Except_ and _near_, in examples like the following, are generally
construed as prepositions: "All went _except him_;" "She stands _near
them_." But many contend, that when we employ _but_ instead of _except_,
in such constructions, a _nominative_ should follow: "All went _but he
[did not go_."] On this point and many others, _custom_ is _variable_;
but the period will doubtless arrive, when _but, worth_, and _like_,
will be considered prepositions, and, in constructions like the
foregoing, invariably be followed by an objective case. This will not be
the case, however, until the practice of supplying an ellipsis after
these words is entirely dropped.

_Poverty_, under number 2, is governed by the preposition
_notwithstanding_, Rule 31. The adjectives _wide, soft, white_, and
_deep_, under number 3, not only express the quality of nouns, but also
qualify verbs: Note 4, under Rule 18.--_What_, in the phrases "what
though" and "what if," is an interrogative in the objective case, and
governed by the verb _matters_ understood, or by some other verb; thus,
"What matters it--what dost thou fear, though thou see the swelling
surge?" "What would you think, if the foot, which is ordained to tread
the dust, aspired to be the head?"

In the following examples, the same word is used as several parts of
speech. But by exercising judgment sufficient to comprehend the meaning,
and by supplying what is understood, you will be able to analyze them
correctly.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

I like what you dislike.
Every creature loves its like.
Anger, envy, and like passions, are sinful.
Charity, like the sun, brightens every object around it.
Thought flies swifter than light.
He thought as a sage, though he felt as a man.
Hail often proves destructive to vegetation.
I was happy to hail him as my friend.
Hail! beauteous stranger of the wood.
The more I examine the work, the better I like it.
Johnson is a better writer than Sterne.
Calm was the day, and the scene delightful.
We may expect a calm after a storm.
To prevent passion is easier than to calm it.
Damp air is unwholesome.
Guilt often casts a damp over our sprightliest hours.
Soft bodies damp the sound much more than hard ones.
Much money has been expended.
Of him to whom much is given, much will be required.
It is much better to give than to receive.
Still water runs deep. He labored to still the tumult.
Those two young profligates remain still in the wrong.
They wrong themselves as well as their friends.

I will now present to you a few examples in poetry. Parsing in poetry,
as it brings into requisition a higher degree of mental exertion than
parsing in prose, will be found a more delightful and profitable
exercise. In this kind of analysis, in order to come at the meaning of
the author, you will find it necessary to _transpose_ his language, and
supply what is understood; and then you will have the literal meaning in
prose.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

APOSTROPHE TO HOPE.--CAMPBELL.

  Eternal Hope! when yonder spheres sublime
  Pealed their first notes to sound the march of time,
  Thy joyous youth began:--but not to fade.--
  When all the sister planets have decayed;
  When wrapt in flames the realms of ether glow,
  And Heaven's last thunder shakes the world below;
  Thou, undismay'd, shalt o'er the ruins smile,
  And light thy torch at Nature's funeral pile!

TRANSPOSED.

Eternal Hope! thy joyous youth began when yonder sublime spheres pealed
their first notes to sound the march of time:--but it began not to
fade.--Thou, undismayed, shalt smile over the ruins, when all the sister
planets shall have decayed; and thou shalt light thy torch at Nature's
funeral pile, when wrapt in flames, the realms of ether glow, and
Heaven's last thunder shakes the world below.

ADDRESS TO ADVERSITY.--GRAY.

  Daughter of heaven, relentless power,
  Thou tamer of the human breast,
  Whose iron scourge, and tort'ring hour,
  The bad affright, afflict the best!
  The gen'rous spark extinct revive;
  Teach me to love and to forgive;
  Exact my own defects to scan:
  What others are to feel; and know myself a man.

TRANSPOSED.

Daughter of heaven, relentless power, thou tamer of the human breast,
whose iron scourge and torturing hour affright the bad, and afflict the
best! Revive thou in me the generous, extinct spark; and teach thou me
to love others, and to forgive them; and teach thou me to scan my own
defects exactly, or critically: and teach thou me that which others are
to feel; and make thou me to know myself to be a man.

ADDRESS TO THE ALMIGHTY.--POPE.

  What conscience dictates to be done,
    Or warns me not to do,
  This teach me more than hell to shun,
    That more than heav'n pursue.

TRANSPOSED.

O God, teach thou me to pursue that (_the thing_) which conscience
dictates to be done, more ardently than I pursue heaven; and teach thou
me to shun this (_the thing_) which conscience warns me not to do, more
cautiously than I would shun hell.

TRIALS OF VIRTUE.--MERRICK.

  For see, ah! see, while yet her ways
    With doubtful step I tread,
  A hostile world its terrors raise,
    Its snares delusive spread.
  O how shall I, with heart prepared,
    Those terrors learn to meet?
  How, from the thousand snares to guard
    My unexperienced feet?

TRANSPOSED.

For see thou, ah! see thou a hostile world _to_ raise its terrors, and
see thou a hostile world _to_ spread its delusive snares, while I yet
tread her (_virtue's_) ways with doubtful steps.

O how shall I learn to meet those terrors with a prepared heart? How
shall I learn to guard my unexperienced feet from the thousand snares of
the world?

THE MORNING IN SUMMER.--THOMPSON.

  Short is the doubtful empire of the night;
  And soon, observant of approaching day,
  The meek-eyed morn appears, mother of dews,
  At first, faint gleaming in the dappled east,
  Till far o'er ether spreads the wid'ning glow,
  And from before the lustre of her face
  White break the clouds away.

TRANSPOSED.

The doubtful empire of the night is short; and the meek-eyed morn,
(_which is the_) mother of dews, observant of approaching day, soon
appears, gleaming faintly, at first, in the dappled east, till the
widening glow spreads far over ether, and the white clouds break away
from before the lustre of her face.

NATURE BOUNTIFUL.--AKENSIDE.

  --Nature's care, to all her children just,
  With richest treasures, and an ample state,
  Endows at large whatever happy man
  Will deign to use them.

TRANSPOSED.

Nature's care, which is just to all her children, largely endows, with
richest treasures and an ample state, that happy man who will deign to
use them.

    NOTE. _What_, in the second example, is a comp. rel. The antecedent
    part is gov. by _teach_ understood; and the relative part by _to
    feel_ expressed. _To shun_ and _to pursue_, in the third example,
    are in the infinitive mood, gov. by _than_, according to a NOTE
    under Rule 23. _Faint_ and _from_, in the 5th example, are adverbs.
    An adverb, in poetry, is often written in the form of an adjective.
    _Whatever_, in the last sentence, is a compound pronoun, and is
    equivalent to _that_ and _who. That_ is an adj. pron. belonging to
    "man;" _who_ is nom. to "will deign;" and _ever_ is excluded from
    the sentence in sense. See page 113. Parse these examples as they
    are transposed, and you will find the analysis very easy.

ADDITIONAL EXERCISES IN PARSING.

GOLD, NOT GENUINE WEALTH.

  Where, thy true treasure? Gold says, "not in me;"
  And, "not in me," the Diamond. Gold is poor.

TRANSPOSED.

Where is thy true treasure? Gold says, "It is not in me;" and the
Diamond says, "It is not in me." Gold is poor.

SOURCE OF FRIENDSHIP.--DR. YOUNG.

  Lorenzo, pride repress; nor hope to find
  A friend, but what has found a friend in thee.

TRANSPOSED.

Lorenzo, repress thou pride; nor hope thou to find a friend, only in him
who has already found a friend in thee.

TRUE GREATNESS.--POPE.

  Who noble ends by noble means obtains,
  Or, failing, smiles in exile or in chains,
  Like good Aurelius let him reign, or bleed
  Like Socrates, that man is great indeed.

TRANSPOSED.

That man is great indeed, let him _to_ reign like unto good Aurelius, or
let him _to_ bleed like unto Socrates, who obtains noble ends by noble
means; or that man is great indeed, who, failing to obtain noble ends by
noble means, smiles in exile or in chains.

INVOCATION.--POLLOK.

  Eternal Spirit! God of truth! to whom
  All things seem as they are, inspire my song;
  My eye unscale: me what is substance teach;
  And shadow what, while I of things to come,
  As past rehearsing, sing. Me thought and phrase
  Severely sifting out the whole idea, grant.

TRANSPOSED.

Eternal Spirit! God of truth! to whom all things seem to be as they
really are, inspire thou my song; and unscale thou my eyes: teach thou
_to_ me the thing which is substance; and teach thou _to_ me the thing
which is shadow, while I sing of things which are to come, as one sings
of things which are past rehearsing. Grant thou _to_ me thought and
phraseology which shall severely sift out the whole idea.

THE VOYAGE OF LIFE.

  How few, favored by ev'ry element,
  With swelling sails make good the promised port,
  With all their wishes freighted! Yet ev'n these,
  Freighted with all their wishes, soon complain.
  Free from misfortune, not from nature free,
  They still are men; and when is man secure?
  As fatal time, as storm. The rush of years
  Beats down their strength; their numberless escapes
  In ruin end: and, now, their proud success
  But plants new terrors on the victor's brow.
  What pain, to quit the world just made their own!
  Their nests so deeply downed and built so high!--
  Too low they build, who build beneath the stars.

TRANSPOSED.

How few persons, favored by every element, safely make the promised port
with swelling sails, and with all their wishes freighted! Yet even these
few persons who do safely make the promised port with all their wishes
freighted, soon complain. Though they are free from misfortunes, yet
(_though_ and _yet_, corresponding conjunctions, form only _one_
connexion) they are not free from the course of nature, for they still
are men; and when is man secure? Time is as fatal to him, as a storm is
to the mariner.--The rush of years beats down their strength; (_that is,
the strength of these few_;) and their numberless escapes end in ruin:
and then their proud success only plants new terrors on the victor's
brow. What pain it is to them to quit the world, just as they have made
it to be their own world; when their nests are built so high, and when
they are downed so deeply!--They who build beneath the stars, build too
low for their own safety.

REFLECTIONS ON A SCULL.--LORD BYRON.

    Remove yon scull from out the scattered heaps.
    Is that a temple, where a God may dwell?
  Why, ev'n the worm at last disdains her shattered cell!
    Look on its broken arch, its ruined wall,
    Its chambers desolate, and portals foul;
    Yes, this was once ambition's airy hall,
    The dome of thought, the palace of the soul.
    Behold, through each lack-lustre, eyeless hole,
    The gay recess of wisdom and of wit,
    And passion's host, that never brooked control.
    Can all, saint, sage, or sophist ever writ,
  People this lonely tower, this tenement refit?

TRANSPOSED.

Remove thou yonder scull out from the scattered heaps. Is that a temple,
where a God may dwell? Why, even the worm at last disdains her shattered
cell! Look thou on its broken arch, and look thou on its ruined wall,
and on its desolate chambers, and on its foul portals:--yes, this scull
was once ambition's airy hall; (_it was_) the dome of thought, the
palace of the soul. Behold thou, through each lack-lustre, eyeless hole,
the gay recess of wisdom and of wit, and passion's host, which never
brooked control. Can all the works which saints, or sages, or sophists
have ever written, repeople this lonely tower, or can they refit this
tenement?

For your future exercises in parsing, you may select pieces from the
English Reader, or any other grammatical work. I have already hinted,
that parsing in poetry, as it brings more immediately into requisition
the reasoning faculties, than parsing in prose, will necessarily tend
more rapidly to facilitate your progress: therefore it is advisable that
your future exercises in this way, be chiefly confined to the analysis
of poetry. Previous to your attempting to parse a piece of poetry, you
ought always to transpose it, in a manner similar to the examples just
presented; and then it can be as easily analyzed as prose.

Before you proceed to correct the following exercises in false syntax,
you may turn back and read over the whole thirteen lectures, unless you
have the subject-matter already stored in your mind.

       *       *       *       *       *




LECTURE XIV.


OF DERIVATION.

At the commencement of Lecture II., I informed you that Etymology
treats, 3dly, of derivation. This branch of Etymology, important as it
is, cannot be very extensively treated in an elementary work on grammar.
In the course of the preceding lectures, it has been frequently
agitated; and now I shall offer a few more remarks, which will doubtless
be useful in illustrating some of the various methods in which one word
is derived from another. Before you proceed, however, please to turn
back and read again what is advanced on this subject on page 27, and in
the PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.

1. Nouns are derived from verbs.
2. Verbs are derived from nouns, adjectives, and sometimes from adverbs.
3. Adjectives are derived from nouns.
4. Nouns are derived from adjectives.
5. Adverbs are derived from adjectives.

1. Nouns are derived from verbs; as, from "to love," comes "lover;" from
"to visit, visiter;" from "to survive, surviver," &c.

In the following instances, and in many others, it is difficult to
determine whether the verb was deduced from the noun, or the noun from
the verb, _viz_. "Love, to love; hate, to hate; fear, to fear; sleep, to
sleep; walk, to walk; ride, to ride; act, to act," &c.

2. Verbs are derived from nouns, adjectives, and sometimes from adverbs;
as, from the noun _salt_, comes "to salt;" from the adjective _warm_,
"to warm;" and from the adverb _forward_, "to forward." Sometimes they
are formed by lengthening the vowel, or softening the consonant; as,
from "grass, to graze;" sometimes by adding _en_; as, from "length, to
lengthen;" especially to adjectives; as, from "short, to shorten;
bright, to brighten."

3. Adjectives are derived from nouns in the following manner: adjectives
denoting plenty are derived from nouns by adding _y_; as, from "Health,
healthy; wealth, wealthy; might, mighty," &c.

Adjectives denoting the matter out of which any thing is made, are
derived from nouns by adding _en_; as, from "Oak, oaken; wood, wooden;
wool, woollen," &c.

Adjectives denoting abundance are derived from nouns by adding _ful_;
as, from "Joy, joyful; sin, sinful; fruit, fruitful," &c.

Adjectives denoting plenty, but with some kind of diminution, are
derived from nouns by adding _some_; as, from "Light, lightsome;
trouble, troublesome; toil, toilsome," &c.

Adjectives denoting want are derived from nouns by adding _less_; as,
from "Worth, worthless;" from "care, careless; joy, joyless," &c.

Adjectives denoting likeness are derived from nouns by adding _ly_; as,
from "Man, manly; earth, earthly; court, courtly," &c.

Some adjectives are derived from other adjectives, or from nouns by
adding _ish_ to them; which termination when added to adjectives,
imports diminution, or lessening the quality; as, "White, whitish;" i.e.
somewhat white. When added to nouns, it signifies similitude or tendency
to a character; as, "Child, childish; thief, thievish."

Some adjectives are formed from nouns or verbs by adding the termination
_able_; and those adjectives signify capacity; as, "Answer, answerable;
to change, changeable."

4. Nouns are derived from adjectives, sometimes by adding the
termination _ness_; as, "White, whiteness; swift, swiftness;" sometimes
by adding _th_ or _t_, and making a small change in some of the letters;
as, "Long, length; high, height."

5. Adverbs of quality are derived from adjectives, by adding _ly_, or
changing _le_ into _ly_; and denote the same quality as the adjectives
from which they are derived; as, from "base," comes "basely;" from
"slow, slowly;" from "able, ably."

There are so many other ways of deriving words from one another, that it
would be extremely difficult, if not impossible, to enumerate them. The
primitive words of every language are very few; the derivatives form
much the greater number. A few more instances only can be given here.

Some nouns are derived from other nouns, by adding the terminations
_hood_ or _head, ship, ery, wick, rick, dom, ian, ment_, and _age_.

Nouns ending in _hood_ or _head_, are such as signify character or
qualities; as, "Manhood, knighthood, falsehood," &c.

Nouns ending in _ship_, are those that signify office, employment,
state, or condition; as, "Lordship, stewardship, partnership," &c. Some
nouns in _ship_ are derived from adjectives; as, "Hard, hardship," &c.

Nouns which end in _ery_, signify action or habit; as, "Slavery,
foolery, prudery," &c. Some nouns of this sort come from adjectives; as,
"Brave, bravery," &c.

Nouns ending in _wick, rick_, and _dom_, denote dominion, jurisdiction,
or condition; as, "Bailiwick, bishopric, kingdom, dukedom, freedom," &c.

Nouns which end in _ian_, are those that signify profession; as,
"Physician, musician," &c. Those that end in _ment_ and _age_, come
generally from the French, and commonly signify the act or habit; as,
"Commandment," "usage."

Some nouns ending in _ard_, are derived from verbs or adjectives, and
denote character or habit; as, "Drunk, drunkard; dote, dotard."

Some nouns have the form of diminutives; but these are not many. They
are formed by adding the terminations _kin, ling, ing, ock, el_, and the
like; as, "Lamb, lambkin; goose, gosling; duck, duckling; hill, hillock;
cock, cockerel," &c.

OF PREPOSITIONS USED AS PREFIXES.

I shall conclude this lecture by presenting and explaining a list of
Latin and Greek prepositions which are extensively used in English as
prefixes. By carefully studying their signification, you will be better
qualified to understand the meaning of those words into the composition
of which they enter, and of which they form a material part.

I. LATIN PREFIXES.

_A, ab, abs_--signify from or away; as, _a-vert_, to turn from;
_ab-ject_, to throw away; _abs-tract_, to draw away.

_Ad_--to or at; as, _ad-here_, to stick to; _ad-mire_, to wonder at.

_Ante_--means before; as, _ante-cedent_, going before.

_Circum_--signifies round, about; as, _circum-navigate_, to sail round.

_Con, com, co, col_--together; as, _con-join_, to join together;
_com-press_, to press together; _co-operate_, to work together;
_col-lapse_, to fall together.

_Contra_--against; as, _contra-dict_, to speak against.

_De_--from, down; as, _de-duct_, to take from; _de-scend_, to go down.

_Di, dis_--asunder, away; as, _di-lacerate_, to tear asunder;
_dis-miss_, to send away.

_E, ef, ex_--out; as, _e-ject_, to throw out; _ef-flux_, to flow out;
_ex-clude_, to shut out.

_Extra_--beyond; as, _extra-ordinary_, beyond what is ordinary.

_In, im, il, ir_--(_in_, Gothic, _inna_, a cave or cell;) as, _in-fuse_,
to pour in. These prefixes, when incorporated with adjectives or nouns,
commonly reverse their meaning; as, _in-sufficient, im-polite,
il-legitimate, ir-reverence, ir-resolute_.

_Inter_--between; as, _inter-pose_, to put between.

_Intro_--within, into; _intro-vert_, to turn within; _intro-duce_, to
lead into.

_Ob, op_--denote opposition; as, _ob-ject_, to bring against; _op-pugn_,
to oppose.

_Per_--through, by; as, _per-ambulate_, to walk through; _per-haps_, by
haps.

_Post_--after; as, _post-script_, written after; _post-fix_, placed
after.

_Præ, pre_--before; as, _pre-fix_, to fix before.

_Pro_--for, forth, forward; as, _pro-noun_, for a noun; _pro-tend_, to
stretch forth; _pro-ject_, to shoot forward.

_Præter_--past, beyond; as, _preter-perfect_, pastperfect;
_preter-natural_, beyond the course of nature.

_Re_--again or back; as, _re-peruse_, to peruse again; _re-trade_, to
trade back.

_Retro--_backwards; as, _retro-spective_, looking backwards.

_Se_--aside, apart; as, _se-duce_, to draw aside.

_Sub_--under; as, _sub-scribe_, to write under, or _sub-sign_.

_Subter_--under; as, _subter-fluous_, flowing under.

_Super_--above or over; as, _super-scribe_, to write above;
_super-vise_, to overlook.

_Trans_--over, beyond, from one place to another; as, _trans-port_, to
carry over; _trans-gress_, to pass beyond.

II. GREEK PREFIXES.

_A_--signifies privation; as, _anonymous_, without name.

_Amphi_--both or two; as, _amphi-bious_, partaking of both or two
natures,

_Anti_--against; as, _anti-masonry_, against masonry.

_Dia_--through; as, _dia-meter_, line passing through a circle.

_Hyper_--over; as, _hyper-critical_, over or too critical.

_Hypo_--under, implying concealment or disguise; as, _hypo-crite_, one
dissembling his real character.

_Meta--_denotes change or transmutation; as, _meta-morphose_, to change
the shape.

_Para_--contrary or against; as, _para-dox_, a thing contrary to
received opinion.

_Peri_--round about; as, _peri-phrasis_, circumlocution.

_Syn, syl, sym_--together; as, _syn-tax_, a placing together; _syn-od_,
a meeting or coming together; _syl-lable_, that portion of a word which
is taken together; _sym-pathy_, fellow-feeling, or feeling together.



RULES OF SYNTAX,

WITH ADDITIONAL EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX.


The third part of Grammar is SYNTAX, which treats of the agreement and
government of words and of their proper arrangement in a sentence.

SYNTAX consists of two parts, _Concord_ and _Government_.

CONCORD is the agreement which one word has with another, in gender,
person, number, or case.

For the illustration of agreement and government, see pages 52, and 53.

For the definition of a sentence, and the transposition of its words and
members, see pages 119, 124, 128, and 167.

The principal parts of a simple sentence are the _nominative_ or
subject, the _verb_ or attribute, or word that makes the affirmation,
and the _object_, or thing affected by the action of the verb; as, "A
wise _man governs_ his _passions_." In this sentence, _man_ is the
subject; _governs_, the attribute; and _passions_ the object.

A PHRASE is two or more words rightly put together, making sometimes a
part of a sentence, and sometimes a whole sentence.

ELLIPSIS is the omission of some word or words, in order to avoid
disagreeable and unnecessary repetitions, and to express our ideas
concisely, and with strength and elegance.

In this recapitulation of the rules, Syntax is presented in a condensed
form, many of the essential NOTES being omitted. This is a necessary
consequence of my general plan, in which Etymology and Syntax, you know
are blended. Hence, to acquire a complete knowledge of Syntax from this
work, you must look over the whole.

You may now proceed and parse the following additional exercises in
false Syntax; and, as you analyze, endeavor to correct all the errors
without looking at the Key. If, in correcting these examples, you should
be at a loss in assigning the reasons why the constructions are
erroneous, you can refer to the manner adopted in the foregoing pages.

RULE I.

The article _a_ or _an_ agrees with nouns in the _singular_ number only,
individually or collectively; as, "_A_ star, _an_ eagle, _a_ score, _a_
thousand."

RULE II.

The definite article _the_ belongs to nouns in the _singular_ or
_plural_ number; as, "_The_ star, _the_ stars; _the_ hat, _the_ hats."

    NOTE 1. A nice distinction in the meaning is sometimes effected by
    the use or omission of the article _a_. If I say, "He behaved with
    _a_ little reverence," my meaning is positive. But if I say, "He
    behaved with little reverence," my meaning is negative. By the
    former, I rather praise a person; by the latter, I dispraise him.
    When I say, "There were few men with him," I speak diminutively, and
    mean to represent them as inconsiderable; whereas, when I say,
    "There were a few men with him," I evidently intend to make the most
    of them.

    2. The indefinite article sometimes has the meaning of _every_ or
    _each_; as, "They cost five shillings _a_ dozen;" that is, '_every_
    dozen.'

      "A man he was to all the country dear,
      And passing rich with forty pounds _a_ year!"

    that is, '_every_ year.'

    3. When several adjectives are connected, and express the various
    qualities of things individually different, though alike in name,
    the article should be repeated; but when the qualities all belong to
    the same thing or things, the article should not be repeated. "_A_
    black and _a_ white calf," signifies, A black _calf_, and a white
    _calf_; but "_A_ black and white calf," describes the two colors of
    _one_ calf.

RULE III.

The nominative case governs the verb; as, "_I_ learn, _thou_ learnest,
_he_ learns, _they_ learn."

RULE IV.

The verb must agree with its nominative in number and person; as, "The
bird _sings_, the birds _sing_, thou _singest_."

    NOTE 1. Every verb, when it is not in the infinitive mood, must have
    a nominative, expressed or implied; as, "Awake, arise;" that is,
    Awake _ye_; arise _ye_.

    2. When a verb comes between two nouns, either of which may be
    considered as the subject of the affirmation, it must agree with
    that which is more naturally its subject; as, "The wages of sin _is_
    death; His meat _was_ locusts and wild honey;" "His pavilion _were_
    dark _waters_ and thick _clouds_."

EXAMPLES OF FALSE SYNTAX.

Frequent commission of sin harden men in it.
Great pains has been taken to reconcile the parties.
So much both of ability and merit, are seldom found.
The sincere is always esteemed.
Not one of them are happy.
What avails the best sentiments, if people do not live suitably to them?
Disappointments sinks the heart of man; but the renewal of hope give
consolation.
The variety of the productions of genius, like that of the operations of
nature; are without limit.
A variety of blessings have been conferred upon us.
Thou cannot heal him, it is true, but thou may do something to relieve
him.
In piety and virtue consist the happiness of man.

                O thou, my voice inspire,
                Who touched Isaiah's hallowed lips with fire.
_Note_ 1.  Will martial flames for ever fire thy mind,
                And never, never be to Heaven resigned?

He was a man whose inclinations led him to be corrupt, and had great
abilities to manage the business.

_Note 2_. The crown of virtue is peace and honor.
His chief occupation and enjoyment were controversy.

RULE V.

When an address is made, the noun or pronoun addressed, is put in the
nominative case _independent_; as, "_Plato_, thou reasonest well;" "Do,
_Trim_, said my uncle Toby."

    NOTE 1. A noun is independent, when it has no verb to agree with it.

    2. Interjections require the objective case of a pronoun of the
    _first_ person after them, but the nominative of a noun or pronoun
    of the _second_ or _third_ person; as, "Ah! _me_; Oh! _thou_; O!
    _virtue_."

RULE VI.

A noun or pronoun placed before a participle, and being independent of
the rest of the sentence, is in the nominative case _absolute_; as,
"_Shame being lost_; all virtue is lost;" "The _sun being risen_, we
travelled on."

    NOTE. Every nominative case, except the case absolute and
    independent, should belong to some verb expressed or understood; as,
    "To whom thus _Adam_;" that is, _spoke_.



FALSE SYNTAX.

  Him Destroyed,
  Or won to what may work his utter loss,
  All this will follow soon.

    _Note_.--Two substantives, when they come together, and do not
    signify the same thing, the former must be in the genitive case.

Virtue, however it may be neglected for a time, men are so constituted
as ultimately to acknowledge and respect genuine merit.

RULE VII.

Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, signifying the same thing, are
put, by apposition, in the same case; as, "_Paul_, the _apostle;_"
"_Joram_, the _king;_" "_Solomon_, the _son_ of David, _king_ of Israel,
wrote many proverbs."

    NOTE. A noun is sometimes put in apposition with a sentence; as,
    "The sheriff has just seized and sold his valuable library--_(which
    was) a misfortune_ that greatly depressed him."

FALSE SYNTAX.

    We ought to love God, he who created and sustains all things.

The pronoun _he_ in this sentence, is improperly used in the nominative
case. It is the object of the action of the transitive verb "love," and
put by apposition with "God;" therefore it should be the objective
case, _him_, according to Rule 7. (Repeat the Rule, and correct the
following.)

    I saw Juliet and her brother, they that you visited.

    They slew Varus, he that was mentioned before.

    It was John, him who preached repentance.

    Adams and Jefferson, them who died on the fourth of July 1826, were
    both signers and the firm supporters of the Declaration of
    Independence.

    Augustus the Roman emperor, him who succeeded Julius Cesar, is
    variously described by historians.

RULE VIII.

Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, in the _singular_ number,
connected by copulative conjunctions, must have verbs, nouns, and
pronouns, agreeing with them in the _plural_; as, "Socrates _and_ Plato
_were_ wise; _they_ were eminent _philosophers_."

    NOTE 1. When _each_ or _every_ relates to two or more nominatives in
    the singular, although connected by a copulative, the verb must
    agree with each of them in the singular; as, "_Every_ leaf, _and
    every_ twig, _and every_ drop of water, _teems_ with life."

    2. When the singular nominative of a complex sentence, has another
    noun joined to it with a preposition, it is customary to put the
    verb and pronoun agreeing with it in the singular; as, "Prosperity
    with humility, _renders its_ possessor truly amiable;" "The General,
    also, in conjunction with the officers, _has_ applied for redress."

FALSE SYNTAX.

    Coffee and sugar grows in the West Indies: it is exported in large
    quantities.

Two singular nouns coupled together, form a plural idea. The verb _grow_
is improper, because it expresses the action of both its nominatives,
"coffee and sugar," which two nominatives are connected by the
copulative conjunction, _and_; therefore the verb should be plural,
_grow_; and then it would agree with coffee _and_ sugar, according to
Rule 8. (Repeat the Rule.) The pronoun _it_, as it represents both the
nouns, "coffee and sugar," ought also to be plural, _they_, agreeably to
Rule 8. The sentence should be written thus. "Coffee and sugar _grow_ in
the West Indies: _they are_ exported in large quantities."

    Time and tide waits for no man.

    Patience and diligence, like faith, removes mountains.

    Life and health is both uncertain.

    Wisdom, virtue, happiness, dwells with the golden mediocrity.

    The planetary system, boundless space, and the immense ocean,
    affects the mind with sensations of astonishment.

    What signifies the counsel and care of preceptors, when you think
    you have no need of assistance?

    Their love, and their hatred, and their envy, is now perished.

    Why is whiteness and coldness in snow?

    Obey the commandment of thy father, and the law of thy mother; bind
    it continually upon thy heart.

    Pride and vanity always render its possessor despicable in the eyes
    of the judicious.

    There is error and discrepance in the schemes of the orthoepists,
    which shows the impossibility of carrying them into effect.

EXAMPLES FOR THE NOTE.

    Every man, woman, and child, were numbered.

Not proper; for, although _and_ couples things together so as to present
the whole at one view, yet _every_ has a contrary effect: it distributes
them, and brings each separately and singly under consideration. _Were_
numbered is therefore improper. It should be, "_was_ numbered," in the
singular, according to the Note. (Repeat it.)

    When benignity and gentleness reign in our breasts, every person and
    every occurrence are beheld in the most favorable light.

RULE IX.

Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, in the _singular_ number,
connected by disjunctive conjunctions, must have verbs, nouns, and
pronouns, agreeing with them in the _singular_; as, "Neither John _nor_
James _has_ learned _his_ lesson."

    NOTE 1. When singular pronouns, or a noun and pronoun, of different
    persons, are disjunctively connected, the verb must agree, in
    person, with that which is placed nearest to it; as, "Thou _or_ I
    _am_ in fault; I _or_ thou _art_ to blame; I, _or_ thou, _or_ he,
    _is_ the author of it." But it would be better to say "Either I am
    to blame or thou art," &c.

    2. When a disjunctive occurs between a singular noun or pronoun and
    a plural one, the verb must agree with the plural noun or pronoun,
    which should generally be placed next to the verb; as, "Neither
    poverty _nor riches_ were injurious to him;" "I _or_ they were
    offended by it."

Constructions like these ought generally to be avoided.

FALSE SYNTAX.

    Ignorance or negligence have caused this mistake.

The verb, _have_ caused, in this sentence, is improperly used in the
plural, because it expresses the action, not of _both_, but of either
the one or the other of its nominatives; therefore it should be in the
singular, _has_ caused; and then it would agree with "ignorance _or_
negligence," agreeably to Rule 9 (Repeat the Rule.)

    A circle or a square are the same in idea.

    Neither whiteness nor redness are in the porphyry.

    Neither of them are remarkable for precision.

    Man is not such a machine as a clock or a watch, which move merely
    as they are moved.

    When sickness, infirmity, or reverse of fortune, affect us, the
    sincerity of friendship is proved.

    Man's happiness or misery are, in a great measure, put into his own
    hands.

    Despise no infirmity of mind or body, nor any condition of life, for
    they may be thy own lot.

    The prince, as well as the people, were blameworthy.

RULE X.

A collective noun or noun of multitude, conveying _unity_ of idea,
generally has a verb or pronoun agreeing with it in the _singular_; as,
"The _meeting was_ large, and _it_ held three hours."

    NOTE. Rules 10, and 11, are limited in their application. See page.

FALSE SYNTAX.

    The nation are powerful.

    The fleet were seen sailing up the channel.

    The church have no power to inflict corporal punishment. The
    flock, and not the fleece, are, or ought to be, the objects of the
    shepherd's care.

    That nation was once powerful; but now they are feeble.

RULE XI.

A noun of multitude, conveying _plurality_ of idea, must have a verb or
pronoun agreeing with it in the _plural_; as, "The _council were_
divided in _their_ sentiments."

FALSE SYNTAX.

    My people doth not consider.

    The multitude eagerly pursues pleasure as its chief good.

    The committee was divided in its sentiments, and it has referred the
    business to the general meeting.

    The people rejoices in that which should give it sorrow.

RULE XII.

A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the noun it
possesses; as, "_Man's_ happiness;" "_Its_ value is great."

    NOTE 1. When the possessor is described by a circumlocution, the
    possessive sign should generally be applied to the last term only;
    as, "The _duke of Bridgewater's_ canal; The _bishop of Landaff's_
    excellent book; The _captain of the guard's_ house." This usage,
    however, ought generally to be avoided. The words do not literally
    convey the ideas intended. What nonsense to say, "This is _the
    governor of Ohio's_ house!"

    2. When nouns in the possessive case are in apposition, and follow
    each other in quick succession, the possessive sign is generally
    annexed to the last only; as, "For _David_ my _servant's_ sake;
    _John_ the _Baptist's_ head; The canal was built in consequence of
    _De Witt Clinton_ the _governor's_ advice."

    But when a pause is proper, and the governing noun not expressed,
    the sign should be applied to the first possessive only, and
    understood to the rest; as, "I reside at Lord _Stormont's_, my old
    _patron_ and _benefactor_."

    3. _Its_, the possessive case of _it_, is often improperly used for
    _'tis_, or, _it is_; as, "_Its_ my book: _Its_ his," &c.; instead
    of, _"It is_ my book; or, _'Tis_ my book; _It is_ his; or, _'Tis_
    his."

    4. Participles frequently govern nouns and pronouns in the
    possessive case, as, "In case of his _majesty's dying_ without
    issue, &c.; Upon _God's having ended_ all his works, &c.; I remember
    _its being reckoned_ a great exploit; At _my coming_ in he said,"
    &c. But in such instances, the participle with its adjuncts may be
    considered a substantive phrase, according to Note 2, Rule 28.

    5. Phrases like these, "A work of _Washington Irving's_; A brother
    of _Joseph's_; A friend of _mine_; A neighbor of _yours_," do not,
    as some have supposed, each contain a double possessive, or two
    possessive cases, but they may be thus construed; "A work of (_out
    of_, or, _among the number of) Washington Irving's works_; that is,
    One of the works of _Washington Irving_; One of the brothers _of
    Joseph_; One friend _of my friends_; One neighbor of _your
    neighbors_."

FALSE SYNTAX.

    Homers works are much admired.

    Nevertheless, Asa his heart was not perfect with the Lord.

    James Hart, his book, bought August the 19, 1829.

    _Note_ 1. It was the men's, women's, and children's lot to suffer
    great calamities.

    This is Peter's, John's, and Andrew's occupation.

    _Note_ 2. This is Campbell's the poet's production.

    The silk was purchased at Brown's, the mercer's and haberdasher's.

    _Note_ 4. Much will depend on the pupil composing frequently.

    Much depends on this rule being observed.

    The measure failed in consequence of the president neglecting to lay
    it before the council.

RULE XIII.

Personal pronouns must agree with the nouns for which they stand, in
_gender_ and _number_; as, "_John_ writes, and _he_ will soon write
well."

    NOTE. You, though frequently employed to represent a singular noun,
    is always _plural in form_; therefore the verb connected with it
    should be plural; as, "My friend, you _were_ mistaken." See pages
    and

FALSE SYNTAX

    Every man will be rewarded according to their works.

Incorrect, because the pronoun _their_ does not agree in gender or
number with the noun "man," for which it stands; consequently Rule 13,
is violated. _Their_ should be _his_; and then the pronoun would be of
the masculine gender, singular number, agreeing with _man_, according to
Rule 13. (Repeat the Rule.)

    An orator's tongue should be agreeable to the ear of their audience.

    Rebecca took goodly raiment, and put them on Jacob.

    Take handfuls of ashes, and let Moses sprinkle it towards heaven, in
    the sight of Pharaoh, and it shall become small dust.

    No one should incur censure for being tender of their reputation.

    _Note_. Horace, you was blamed; and I think you was worthy of
    censure.

    Witness, where was you standing during the transaction? How far was
    you from the defendant?


RULE XIV.

Relative pronouns agree with their antecedents, in _gender_, _person_,
and _number_; as, "Thou _who lovest_ wisdom;" "I _who speak_ from
experience."

    NOTE. When a relative pronoun is preceded by two antecedents of
    different persons, the relative and the verb may agree in person
    with either, but not without regard to the sense; as, "I am the man
    _who command_ you;" or, "I am the man _who commands_ you." The
    meaning of the first of these examples will more obviously appear,
    if we render it thus: "I who command you, am the _man_."

    When the agreement of the relative has been fixed with either of the
    preceding antecedents, it must be preserved throughout the sentence;
    as, "I am the _Lord, that maketh_ all things; _that stretcheth_
    forth the heavens alone; _that spreadeth_ abroad the earth by
    myself," &c.

FALSE SYNTAX.

    Thou who has been a witness of the fact, canst state it.

    The wheel killed another man, which make the sixth which have lost
    their lives by this means.

    Thou great First Cause, least understood!

    Who all my sense confined.

    _Note, 2d part_. Thou art the Lord, who didst choose Abraham, and
    brought him forth out of Ur of the Chaldees.

RULE XV.

The relative is the nominative case to the verb, when no nominative
comes between it and the verb; as, "The master _who_ taught us, was
eminent."

FALSE SYNTAX.

    If he will not hear his best friend, whom shall be sent to admonish
    him.

    This is the man whom, he informed me, was my benefactor.

RULE XVI.

When a nominative comes between the relative and the verb, the relative
is governed by the following verb, or by some other word in its own
member of the sentence; as, "He _whom_ I _serve_, is eternal."

    NOTE 1. _Who, which, what_, the relative _that_, and their
    compounds, _whomever, whomsoever_, &c., though in the objective
    case, are always placed before the verb; as, "He _whom_ ye _seek_,
    has gone hence."

    2. Every relative must have an antecedent to which it relates,
    either expressed or implied; as, "_Who_ steals my purse, steals
    trash;" that is, _he_ who.

    3. The pronouns _whichsoever, whatsoever_, and the like, are
    sometimes elegantly divided by the interposition of the
    corresponding nouns; as, "On _which_ side _soever_ the _king_ cast
    his eyes," &c.

    4. The pronoun _what_ is sometimes improperly used instead of the
    conjunction _that;_ as, "He would not believe but _what_ I was in
    fault." It should be "but _that_," &c.

FALSE SYNTAX.

    That is the friend who I sincerely esteem.

Not proper, because _who_, which is the object of the action expressed
by the transitive verb "esteem," is in the nominative case. It ought to
be _whom_, in the objective; and then it would be governed by esteem,
according to Rule 16. (Repeat the Rule:)--and, also, according to Rule
20. "That is the friend _whom_ I sincerely esteem."

    They who much is given to, will have much to answer for.

    From the character of those who you associate with, your own will be
    estimated.

    He is a man who I greatly respect.

    Our benefactors and tutors are the persons who we ought to love, and
    who we ought to be grateful to.

    They who conscience and virtue support, may smile at the caprices of
    fortune.

    Who did you walk with?

    Who did you see there?

    Who did you give the book to?

RULE XVII.

When a relative pronoun is of the interrogative kind, it refers to the
word or phrase containing the answer to the question for its
_subsequent_, which subsequent must agree in _case_ with the
interrogative; as, "_Whose_ book is that? _Joseph's;" "Who_ gave you
this? _John_."

    NOTE. Whether the interrogative _really refers_ to a subsequent or
    not, is doubtful; but it is certain that the subsequent should agree
    in case with the interrogative.

FALSE SYNTAX.

    Who gave John those books? Us. Of whom did you buy them? Of a
    bookseller, he who lives in Pearl street.

    Who walked with you? My brother and him.

    Who will accompany me to the country? Her and me.

RULE XVIII.

Adjectives belong to, and qualify nouns, expressed or understood; as,
"He is a _good_, as well as a _wise_ man."

    NOTE 1. Adjectives frequently belong to pronouns; as, "I am
    _miserable; He_ is _industrious_."

    2. Numeral adjectives belong to nouns, which nouns must agree in
    number with their adjectives, when of the _cardinal_ kind; as, "Ten
    _feet_; Eighty _fathoms_." But some anomalous and figurative
    expressions form an exception to this rule; as, "A fleet of _forty
    sail;" "Two hundred head of cattle_."

    3. Adjectives sometimes belong to verbs in the infinitive mood, or
    to a part of a sentence; as, "_To see_ is _pleasant_; To be blind is
    _unfortunate_; To die for our country is _glorious_."

    4. Adjectives are often used to modify the sense of other
    adjectives, or the action of verbs, and to express the quality of
    things in connexion with the action by which that quality is
    produced; as, "_Red hot_ iron; _Pale blue_ lining; _Deep sea-green_
    sash; The apples boil _soft_; Open your hand _wide_; The clay burns
    _white_; The fire burns _blue_; The eggs boil _hard_."

    5. When an adjective is preceded by a preposition, and the noun is
    understood, the two words may be considered an adverbial phrase; as,
    "In general, in particular;" that is, generally, particularly.

    6. Adjectives should be placed next to the nouns which they qualify;
    as, "A tract of _good_ land."

    7. We should generally avoid comparing such adjectives as do not
    literally admit of comparison; such as, _more impossible, most
    impossible; more unconquerable, more perfect_, &c. See REMARKS on
    adjectives, page 76.

    8. When an adjective or an adverb is used in comparing two objects,
    it should be in the comparative degree; but when more than two are
    compared, the superlative ought to be employed; as, "Julia is the
    _taller_ of the two; Her specimen is the _best_ of the three."

FALSE SYNTAX.

    _Note_ 2. The boat carries thirty tun.

    The chasm was twenty foot broad, and one hundred fathom in depth.

    _Note_ 6. He bought a new pair of shoes, and an elegant piece of
    furniture.

    My cousin gave his fine pair of horses for a poor tract of land.

    _Note_ 7. The contradictions of impiety are still more
    incomprehensible.

    It is the most uncertain way that can be devised.

    This is a more perfect model than I ever saw before.

    _Note_ 8. Which of those two cords is the strongest?

    I was at a loss to determine which was the wiser of the three.

RULE XIX.

Adjective pronouns belong to nouns, expressed or understood; as, "_Any_
man, _all_ men."

    NOTE 1. The demonstrative adjective pronouns must agree in number
    with their nouns; as, "_This_ book, _these_ books; _that_ sort,
    _those_ sorts."

    2. The pronominal adjectives, _each, every, either, neither,
    another_, and _one_, agree with nouns in the singular number only;
    as, "_Each_ man, _every_ person, _another_ lesson;" unless the
    plural nouns convey a collective idea: as, "_Every_ six months."

    3. _Either_ is often improperly employed instead of _each;_ as, "The
    king of Israel, and Jehoshaphat the king of Judah, sat _either_ of
    them on his throne." _Each_ signifies _both_ taken separately;
    _either_ implies only _the one_ or _the other_ taken
    disjunctively:--"sat _each_ on _his_ throne."

FALSE SYNTAX.

    _Note_ 1. Those sort of favors do real injury.

    They have been playing this two hours.

    These kind of indulgences soften and injure the mind. He saw one
    or more persons enter the garden.

    _Note_ 2. Let each esteem others better than themselves.

    There are bodies, each of which are so small as to be invisible.

    Every person, whatever their station may be, are bound by the laws
    of morality and religion.

    _Note_ 3. On either side of the river was the tree of life.

    Nadab and Abihu took either of them his censer.

RULE XX.

Active-transitive verbs govern the objective case; as, "Cesar conquered
_Pompey_;" "Columbus discovered _America_;" "Truth ennobles _her_."

FALSE SYNTAX.

    Ye who were dead, hath he quickened.

_Ye_, in the nominative case, is erroneous, because it is the object of
the action expressed by the transitive verb "hath quickened;" and
therefore it should be _you_, in the objective case. _You_ would then be
governed by "hath quickened," agreeably, to Rule 20. _Active-transitive
verbs govern the objective case_.

    Who did they entertain so freely?

    They who opulence has made proud, and who luxury has corrupted,
    cannot relish the simple pleasures of nature.

    He and they we know, but who are ye?

    She that is negligent, reprove sharply.

    He invited my brother and I to pay him a visit.

    Who did they send on that mission?

    They who he has most injured, he had the greatest reason to love.

RULE XXI.

The verb _to be_ may have the same case after it as before it; as, "_I_
am the _man_;" "I believe _it_ to have been _them;_" "_He_ is the
_thief_."

    NOTE 1. When nouns or pronouns next preceding and following the verb
    _to be_, signify the _same thing_, they are _in apposition_, and,
    therefore, in the _same case_. Rule 21 is predicated on the
    principle contained in Rule 7.

    2. The verb _to be_ is often understood; as, "The Lord made _me
    man_; He made _him what_ he was;" that is, "The Lord made me _to be_
    man; He made him _to be that which_ he was." "They desired me to
    call _them brethren_;" i.e. _by the name of_ brethren. "They named
    _him John_;" i.e. _by the name of_ John; or, by the _name_ John;
    putting these two nouns in _apposition_.

FALSE SYNTAX.

    I know it to be they.

Improper, because _it_ is in the objective case before the verb "to be,"
and _they_ is in the nominative after; consequently, Rule 21 is
violated. _They_ is in apposition with _it_, therefore _they_ should be
_them_, in the objective after to be, according to Rule 21. (Repeat the
Rule.)

    Be composed, it is me.

    I would not act thus, if I were him.

    Well may you be afraid; it is him, indeed.

    Who do you fancy him to to be?

    Whom do men say that I am? Whom say ye that I am?

    If it was not him, who do you imagine it to have been?

    He supposed it was me; but you knew that it was him.

RULE XXII.

Active-intransitive and passive verbs, the verb _to become_, and other
neuter verbs, have the same case after them as before them, when both
words refer to, and signify, the same thing; as, "_Tom_ struts a
_soldier_;" "_Will_ sneaks a _scrivener_;" "_He_ was called _Cesar_;"
"The _general_ was saluted _emperor_;" "_They_ have become _fools_."

    NOTE 1. Active-intransitive verbs sometimes assume a transitive
    form, and govern the objective case; as, "_To dream_ a _dream; To
    run_ a _race; To walk_ the _horse; To dance_ the _child; To fly_ the
    _kite_."

    2. According to a usage too common in colloquial style, an agent not
    literally the correct one, is employed as the nominative to a
    passive verb, which causes the verb to be followed by an _objective_
    case without the possibility of supplying before it a preposition:
    thus, "_Pitticus_ was offered a large _sum_ by the king;" "_She_ was
    promised _them_ (the _jewels_) by her mother;" "_I_ was asked a
    _question_." It would be better sense, and more agreeable to the
    idiom of our language, to say, "A large _sum_ was offered _to
    Pitticus_;" "_They_ were promised _(to) her_;" "A _question_ was put
    _to me_."

    3. Some passive verbs are formed by using the participles of
    compound active verbs. To _smile_, to _wonder_, to _dream_, are
    intransitive verbs, for which reason they have no passive voice;
    but, to _smile on_, to _wonder at_, to _dream of_, are compound
    active-transitive verbs, and, therefore, admit of a passive voice;
    as, "He _was smiled on_ by fortune; The accident is not _to be
    wondered at_;"

      "There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio,
      "Than _are dreamed of_ in your philosophy."

RULE XXIII.

A verb in the infinitive mood may be governed by a verb, noun,
adjective, participle, or pronoun; as, "_Cease_ to do evil;" "We all
have our _talent_ to be improved;" "She is _eager_ to learn;" "They are
_preparing_ to go;" "Let _him_ do it."

ILLUSTRATION. The supposed principle of _government_ referred to in this
rule, may be thus illustrated. In the sentence, "Cease to do evil," the
peculiar manner in which _cease_ is introduced, _requires_ or _compels_
us to put the verb _do_ in the infinitive mood; and, according to the
genius of our language, we cannot express this act of doing, when thus
connected with _cease_, in any other mood, unless we change the
construction of the sentence. Hence we say, that _cease_ governs the
mood of the verb _do_. Similar remarks may be applied to the words
_talent_, _eager_, _preparing_, and _him_, in the respective examples
under the rule.

Many respectable grammarians refer the government of this mood
invariably to the preposition _to_ prefixed, which word they do not, of
course, consider a part of the verb. Others contend, and with some
plausibility, that this mood is not governed by any particular word. If
we reject the idea of government, as applied to the verb in this mood,
the following rule, if substituted for the foregoing, might, perhaps,
answer all practical purposes.

RULE.

A verb in the infinitive mood, refers to some noun or pronoun, as its
subject or actor.

ILLUSTRATION of the examples under Rule XXIII. "To do" refers to _thou_
understood for its agent; "to be improved" refers to _talent_; "to
learn," to _she_; "to go," to _they_; and "to do," refers to _him_.

    NOTE 1. The infinitive mood absolute stands independent of the rest
    of the sentence; as, "_To confess_ the truth, I was in fault."

    2. The infinitive mood is sometimes governed by conjunctions or
    adverbs; as, "An object so high _as to be_ invisible;" "He is wise
    _enough to deceive_;" "The army is _about to march_."

RULE XXIV.

The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, is frequently put as the
nominative case to a verb, or the object of an active-transitive verb;
as, "_To play_ is pleasant;" "Boys love _to play_;" "_That warm climates
shorten life_, is reasonable to suppose;" "He does not consider _how
near he approaches to his end_."

    NOTE. _To_, the sign of the infinitive mood, is sometimes properly
    omitted; as, "I heard him _say_ it;" instead of, "to _say_ it."

RULE XXV.

The verbs which follow _bid_, _dare_, _need_, _make_, _see_, _hear_,
_feel_, _help_, _let_, and their participles, are in the infinitive mood
without the sign _to_ prefixed; as, "He bids me _come_;" "I dare
_engage_;" "Let me _go_;" "Help me _do it_;" i.e. _to come_, _to go_,
_to do_ it, &c. "He is _hearing_ me _recite_."

FALSE SYNTAX.

    Bid him to come.

    He durst not to do it without permission.

    Hear him to read his lesson.

    It is the difference in their conduct, which makes us to approve the
    one, and to reject the other.

    It is better live on a little, than outlive a great deal.

    I wish him not wrestle with his happiness.

RULE XXVI.

Participles have the same government as the verbs have from which they
are derived; as, "I saw the tutor _instructing_ his _pupils_."

    NOTE. The present participle with the definite article _the_ before
    it, becomes a noun, and must have the preposition _of_ after it.
    _The_ and _of_ must both be used, or both be omitted; as, "By _the_
    observing _of_ truth, you will command respect;" or, "By observing
    truth," &c.

FALSE SYNTAX.

    _Note_. We cannot be wise and good without the taking pains for it.

    The changing times and seasons, the removing and setting up kings,
    belong to Providence alone.

    These are the rules of grammar, by observing of which you may avoid
    mistakes.

RULE XXVII.

The present participle refers to some noun or pronoun denoting the
subject or actor; as, "I see a _boy running_."

RULE XXVIII.

The perfect participle belongs, like an adjective, to some noun or
pronoun, expressed or understood; as, "I saw the boy _abused_."

    NOTE 1. Participles of neuter verbs have the same case after them as
    before them; as, "_Pontius Pilate_ being _Governor_ of Judea, and
    _Herod_ being _Tetrarch_," &c.

    2. A participle with its adjuncts, may sometimes be considered as a
    substantive or participial phrase, which phrase may be the subject
    of a verb, or the object of a verb or preposition; as, "_Taking from
    another without his knowledge or assent_, is called stealing; He
    studied to avoid _expressing himself too severely_; I cannot fail of
    _having money_, &c.; By _promising much and performing but little_,
    we become despicable."

    3. As the perfect participle and the imperfect tense of irregular
    verbs, are sometimes different in their form, care must be taken
    that they be not indiscriminately used. It is frequently said, 'He
    begun,' for 'he began;' 'He run,' for 'he ran;' 'He come,' for 'he
    came;' the participles being here used instead of the imperfect
    tense; and much more frequently is the imperfect tense employed
    instead of the participle; as, 'I had wrote,' for 'I had written;'
    'I was chose,' for 'I was chosen;' 'I have eat,' for 'I have eaten.'
    'He would have spoke;'--_spoken_. 'He overrun his
    guide;'--_overran_. 'The sun had rose;'--_risen_.

FALSE SYNTAX.

    I seen him. I have saw many a one.

_Seen_ is improper, the perfect participle being used instead of the
imperfect tense of the verb. It ought to be, "I _saw_ him," according to
Note 3, _Have saw_ is also erroneous, the imperfect tense being employed
instead of the perfect participle. The perfect tense of a verb is formed
by combining the auxiliary _have_ with its perfect participle: therefore
the sentence should be written thus, "I have _seen_ many a one:" Note 3.

    _Note_ 3. He done me no harm, for I had wrote my letter before he
    come home.

    Had not that misfortune befel my cousin, he would have went to
    Europe long ago.

    The sun had already arose, when I began my journey.

    Since the work is began, it must be prosecuted.

    The French language is spoke in every state in Europe.

    He writes as the best authors would have wrote, had they writ on the
    same subject.

RULE XXIX.

Adverbs qualify verbs, participles, adjectives, and other adverbs; as,
"A _very good_ pen _writes extremely well_;" "By _living temperately_,"
&c.

    NOTE 1. Adverbs are generally set before adjectives or adverbs,
    after verbs, or between the auxiliary and the verb; as, "He made a
    _very sensible_ discourse, and was _attentively_ heard."

    2. When the qualifying word which follows a verb, expresses
    _quality_, it must be an adjective, but when it expresses _manner_,
    an adverb should be used; as, "She looks _cold;_ She looks _coldly_
    on him; He feels _warm;_ He feels _warmly_ the insult offered to
    him." If the verb _to be_ can be substituted for the one employed,
    an adjective should follow, and not an adverb; as, "She looks _[is]
    cold_; The hay smells _[is] sweet_; The fields look _[are] green_;
    The apples taste _[are] sour_; The wind blows _[is] fresh_."

    3. It is not strictly proper to apply the adverbs _here, there_, and
    _where_, to verbs signifying motion, instead of the adverbs _hither,
    thither, whither_; thus, "He came _here [hither]_ hastily;" "They
    rode _there [thither]_ in two hours;" "_Where [whither]_ will he
    go?" But in familiar style, these constructions are so far
    sanctioned as sometimes to be admissible.

    4. The use of _where_, instead of _in which_, in constructions like
    the following, is hardly admissible: "The immortal sages of '76,
    formed a charter, _where [in which]_ their rights are boldly
    asserted."

    5. As the adverbs _hence, thence_, and _whence_, literally supply
    the place of a noun and preposition, there appears to be a solecism
    in employing a preposition in conjunction with them: "_From whence_
    it follows;" "He came _from thence_ since morning." Better,
    "_whence_ it follows;" "He came _thence_." The following phrases are
    also exceptionable: "The _then_ ministry;" "The _above_ argument;"
    "Ask me _never_ so much dowry;" "Charm he _never_ so wisely."
    Better, "The ministry _of that time_ or _period_;" "The _preceding_
    argument;" "_Ever_ so much dowry;" "_Ever_ so wisely."

FALSE SYNTAX.

    _Note_ 1. It cannot be impertinent or ridiculous therefore to
    remonstrate.

    He was pleasing not often, because he was vain.

    These things should be never separated.

    We may happily live, though our possessions are small.

RULE XXX.

Two negatives destroy one another, and are generally equivalent to an
affirmative; as, "Such things are _not un_common;" i.e. they are common.

    NOTE. When one of the two negatives employed is joined to another
    word, it forms a pleasing and delicate variety of expression; as,
    "His language, though inelegant, is _not un_grammatical;" that is,
    it is grammatical.

    But, as two negatives, by destroying each other, are equivalent to
    an affirmative, they should not be used when we wish to convey a
    _negative_ meaning. The following sentence is therefore inaccurate:
    "I can_not_ by _no_ means allow him what his argument must prove."
    It should be, "I cannot by _any_ means," &c., or, "I _can_ by _no_
    means."

FALSE SYNTAX.

    _Note, 2d part_. I don't know nothing about it.

    I did not see nobody there. Nothing never affects her.

    Be honest, nor take no shape nor semblance of disguise.

    There cannot be nothing more insignificant than vanity.

    Precept nor discipline is not so forcible as example.


RULE XXXI.

Prepositions govern the objective case; as, "He went _from_ Utica _to_
Rome, and then passed _through_ Redfield."

FALSE SYNTAX.

    Each is accountable for hisself.

    They settled it among theirselves.

    It is not I who he is displeased with.

    Who did you go with?

    Who did you receive instruction from?


RULE XXXII.

_Home_, and nouns signifying _distance_, time _when_, _how long_, &c.
are generally governed by a preposition _understood_; as, "The horse ran
a mile;" "He came _home_ last June;" "My friend lived four _years_ at
college;" that is, ran _through the space of_ a mile; or, ran _over a
space called_ a mile; _to_ his home _in_ last June; _during_ four years,
&c.

    NOTE 1. The prepositions _to_ and _for_ are often understood,
    chiefly before the pronouns; as, "Give [to] _me_ a book; Get [for]
    _him_ some paper."

    2. _To_ or _unto_, is, by some, supposed to be understood after
    _like_ and _unlike_; as, "He is _like_ [unto] his brother; She is
    _unlike_ [to] him." Others consider this mode of expression an idiom
    of the language, and maintain that _like_ governs the objective
    following it.

    3. Nouns signifying extension, duration, quantity, quality, or
    value, are used without a governing word; as, "The Ohio is one
    thousand _miles_ long; She is ten _years_ old; My hat is worth ten
    _dollars_." These are sometimes considered anomalies. See page 163.


RULE XXXIII.

Conjunctions connect nouns and pronouns in the same case; as, "The
master taught _her_ and _me_ to write;" "_He_ and _she_ are associates."

FALSE SYNTAX.

    My brother and him are grammarians.

    You and me enjoy great privileges.

    Him and I went to the city in company; but John and him returned
    without me.

    Between you and I there is a great disparity of years.


RULE XXXIV.

Conjunctions generally connect verbs of like moods and tenses; as, "If
thou sincerely _desire, and_ earnestly _pursue_ virtue, she _will_
assuredly _be found_ by thee, _and prove_ a rich reward."

    NOTE 1. When different moods and tenses are connected by
    conjunctions, the nominative must be repeated; as, "He _may return_,
    but _he will_ not _tarry_."

    2. Conjunctions implying contingency or doubt, require the
    subjunctive mood after them; as, "_If_ he _study_, he will improve."
    See pages 135, 145, and 155.

    3. The conjunctions _if_, _though_, _unless_, _except_, _whether_,
    and _lest_, generally require the subjunctive mood after them.

    4. Conjunctions of a positive and absolute nature, implying no
    doubt, require the indicative mood; as, "_As_ virtue _advances, so_
    vice _recedes_."

FALSE SYNTAX.

    Did he not tell me his fault, and entreated me to forgive him?

    Professing regard, and to act differently, discovers a base mind.

    _Note_ 1. He has gone home, but may return.

    The attorney executed the deed, but will write no more.

    _Note_ 2. I shall walk to-day, unless it rains.

    If he acquires riches, they will corrupt his mind.


RULE XXXV.

A noun or pronoun following the conjunction _than_, _as_, or _but_, is
nominative to a verb, or governed by a verb or preposition, expressed or
understood; as, "Thou art wiser _than_ I [_am_."] "I saw nobody _but_
[_I saw_] him."

    NOTE 1. The conjunction _as_, when it is connected with _such_,
    _many_, or _same_, is sometimes, though erroneously, called a
    _relative pronoun_; as, "Let _such_ as presume to advise others,"
    &c.; that is, Let _them who_, &c. See page 116.

    2. An ellipsis, or omission of some words, is frequently admitted,
    which must be supplied in the mind in order to parse grammatically;
    as "Wo is me;" that is, _to_ me; "To sleep all night;" i.e.
    _through_ all _the_ night; "He has gone a journey;" i.e. _on_ a
    journey; "They walked a league;" i.e. _over a space called_ a
    league.

    3. When the omission of words would obscure the sense, or weaken its
    force, they must be expressed.

    4. In the use of prepositions, and words that relate to each other,
    we should pay particular regard to the meaning of the words or
    sentences which they connect: all the parts of a sentence should
    correspond to each other, and a regular and clear construction
    throughout should be carefully preserved.

FALSE SYNTAX.

    They are much greater gainers than me.

    They know how to write as well as him; but he is a better grammarian
    than them.

    They were all well but him.

    None were rewarded but him and me.

    Jesus sought none but they who had gone astray.

REMARKS ON THE TENSES.

1. In the use of verbs, and other words and phrases which, _in point of
time_, relate to each other, a due regard to that relation should be
observed.

Instead of saying, "The Lord _hath given_, and the Lord _hath taken_
away;" we should say, "The Lord _gave_, and the Lord _hath taken_ away."
Instead of, "I _remember_ the family more than twenty years;" it should
be, "I _have remembered_ the family more than twenty years."

2. The best rule that can be given for the management of the tenses, and
of words and phrases which, in point of time, relate to each other, is
this very general one; _Observe what the sense necessarily requires_.

To say, "I _have_ visited Washington last summer; I _have seen_ the work
more than a month ago," is not good _sense_. The constructions should
be, "I _visited_ Washington, &c.; I _saw_ the work, &c." "This mode of
expression _has been_ formerly much admired:"--"_was_ formerly much
admired." "If I _had have_ been there;" "If I _had have_ seen him;"
"_Had_ you _have_ known him," are solecisms too gross to need
correction. We can say, I _have_ been, I _had_ been; but what sort of a
tense is, _had have been_? To place _had_ before the _defective_ verb
ought, is an error equally gross and illiterate:--"_had_ ought, _hadn't_
ought." This is as low a vulgarism as the use of _theirn_, _hern_, and
_hizzen_, _tother_, _furder_, _baynt_, _this ere_, I _seed_ it, I
_tell'd_ him.

3. When we refer to a past action or event, and no part of that time in
which it took place; remains, the _imperfect_ tense should be used; but
if there is still remaining some portion of the time in which we declare
that the thing has been done, the _perfect_ tense should be employed.

Thus, we say, "Philosophers _made_ great discoveries in the last
century;" "He _was_ much afflicted last year;" but when we refer to the
present century, year, week, day, &c. we ought to use the _perfect_
tense; as, "Philosophers _have made_ great discoveries in the present
century;" "He _has been_ much afflicted this year;" "I _have read_ the
president's message this week;" "We _have heard_ important news this
morning;" because these events occurred in this century, this year, this
week, and to-day, and still there remains a part of this century, year,
week, and day, of which I speak.

In general, the perfect tense may be applied wherever the action is
connected with the present time, by the actual existence either of the
author of the work, though it may have been performed many centuries
ago; but if neither the author nor the work now remains, the perfect
tense ought not to be employed. Speaking of priests in general, we may
say, "They _have_, in all ages, _claimed_ great powers;" because the
general order of the priesthood still exists; but we cannot properly
say, "The Druid priests _have claimed_ great powers;" because that order
is now extinct. We ought, therefore, to say, "The Druid priests
_claimed_ great powers."

The following examples may serve still farther to illustrate the proper
use and application of the tenses. "My brother has recently been to
Philadelphia." It should be, "_was_ recently at Philadelphia;" because
the adverb _recently_ refers to a time completely past, without any
allusion to the present time. "Charles is grown considerably since I
have seen him the last time." Corrected, "Charles _has_ grown, since I
_saw_ him," &c. "Payment was at length made, but no reason assigned for
its being so long postponed." Corrected, "for its _having been_ so long
postponed." "They were arrived an hour before we reached the
city:"--"They _had_ arrived."

"The workmen will complete the building at the time I take possession of
it." It should be, "will _have completed_ the building," &c. "This
curious piece of workmanship was preserved, and shown to strangers for
more than fifty years past:"--"_has been_ preserved, and _been_ shown to
strangers," &c. "I had rather write than beg:"--"I _would_ rather write
than beg."

"On the morrow, because he would have known the certainty whereof Paul
was accused of the Jews, he loosed him from his bands." It ought to be,
"because he _would know_; or, _being willing to know,_" &c. "The blind
man said, 'Lord, that I might receive my sight;'" "If by any means I
might attain unto the resurrection of the dead." In both these examples,
_may_ would be preferable to _might_. "I feared that I should have lost
the parcel, before I arrived:"--"that I should _lose_." "It would have
afforded me no satisfaction, if I could perform it." It ought to be, "if
I could _have performed_ it;" or, "It _would afford_ me no satisfaction,
if I _could perform_ it." "This dedication may serve for almost any book
that has, is, or shall be published:"--"that _has been_, or _will be
published_."

4. In order to employ the two tenses of the infinitive mood with
propriety, particular attention should be paid to the meaning of what we
express.

Verbs expressive of _hope_, _desire_, _intention_, or _command_, ought
to be followed by the PRESENT tense of the _Infinitive mood_.

"Last week I intended to _have written_," is improper. The intention of
writing was then _present_ with me; and, therefore, the construction
should be, "I intended _to write_." The following examples are also
inaccurate; "I found him better than I expected _to have found_ him;"
"My purpose was, after spending ten months more in commerce, _to have
withdrawn_ my wealth to another country." They should be, "expected _to
find_ him;" "_to withdraw_ my wealth."

"This is a book which proves itself to be written by the person whose
name it bears." It ought to be "which proves itself _to have been
written_," &c. "To see him would have afforded me pleasure all my life."
Corrected, "_To have seen_ him;" or, "_To see_ him _would afford_ me
pleasure," &c. "The arguments were sufficient to have satisfied all who
heard them:"--"were sufficient _to satisfy_." "History painters would
have found it difficult to have invented such a species of
beings:"--"_to invent_ such a species."

5. General and immutable truths ought to be expressed in the _present_
tense.

Instead of saying, "He did not know that eight and twenty _were_ equal
to twenty and eight;" "The preacher said very audibly, that whatever
_was_ useful, _was_ good;" "My opponent would not believe, that virtue
_was_ always advantageous.;" The constructions should be, "_are_ equal
to twenty;" "whatever _is_ useful, _is_ good;" "virtue _is_ always
advantageous."

EXAMPLES IN FALSE SYNTAX PROMISCUOUSLY ARRANGED.

    We adore the Divine Being, he who is from eternity to eternity.

    On these causes depend all the happiness or misery which exist among
    men.

    The enemies who we have most to fear, are those of our own hearts.

    Is it me or him who you requested to go?

    Though great has been his disobedience and his folly, yet if he
    sincerely acknowledges his misconduct, he shall be forgiven.

    There were, in the metropolis, much to amuse them.

    By exercising of our memories, they are improved.

    The property of my friend, I mean his books and furniture, were
    wholly consumed.

    Affluence might give us respect in the eyes of the vulgar, but will
    not recommend us to the wise and good.

    The cares of this world, they often choke the growth of virtue.

    They that honor me, I will honor; and them that despise me, shall be
    lightly esteemed.

    I intended to have called last week, but could not.

    The fields look freshly and gayly since the rain.

    The book is printed very neat, and on fine wove paper.

    I have recently been in Washington, where I have seen Gen. Andrew
    Jackson, he who is now president.

    Take the two first, and, if you please, the three last.

    The Chinese wall is thirty foot high.

    It is an union supported by an hypothesis, merely.

    I have saw him who you wrote to; and he would have came back with
    me, if he could.

    Not one in fifty of those who call themselves deists, understand the
    nature of the religion which they reject.

    If thou studiest diligently, thou will become learned.

    Education is not attended to properly in Spain.

    He know'd it was his duty; and he ought, therefore, to do it.

    He has little more of the great man besides the title.

    Richard acted very independent on the occasion.

    We have done no more than it was our duty to have done.

    The time of my friend entering on business, soon arrived.

    His speech is the most perfect specimen I ever saw.

    Calumny and detraction are sparks which, if you do not blow, they
    will go out of themselves.

    Those two authors have each of them their merit.

      Reasons whole pleasure, all the joys of sense,
      Lies in three words, health, peace, and competence.

    A great mass of rocks thrown together by the hand of nature with
    wildness and confusion, strike the mind with more grandeur, than if
    they were adjusted to one another with the accuratest symmetry.

    A lampoon or a satire do not carry in them robbery or murder.

    The side A, with the sides B and C, compose the triangle.

    If some persons opportunities were never so favorable, they would be
    too indolent to improve.

    It is reported that the governor will come here to-morrow.

    Beauty and innocence should be never separated.

    Extravagance and folly may reduce you to a situation where you will
    have much to fear and little to hope.

    Not one in fifty of our modern infidels are thoroughly versed in
    their knowledge of the Scriptures.

    Virtue and mutual confidence is the soul of friendship. Where these
    are wanting, disgust or hatred often follow little differences.

    An army present a painful sight to a feeling mind.

    To do good to them that hate us, and, on no occasion, to seek
    revenge, is the duty of a Christian.

    The polite, accomplished libertine, is but miserable amidst all his
    pleasures: the rude inhabitant of Lapland is happier than him.

    There are principles in man, which ever have, and ever will, incline
    him to offend.

    This is one of the duties which requires great circumspection.

    They that honor me, them will I honor.

    Every church and sect have opinions peculiar to themselves.

    Pericles gained such an ascendant over the minds of the Athenians,
    that he might be said to attain a monarchical power in Athens.

    Thou, Lord, who hath permitted affliction to come upon us, shall
    deliver us from it in due time.

    That writer has given us an account of the manner in which
    Christianity has formerly been propagated among the heathens.

    Though the measure be mysterious, it is not unworthy of your
    attention.

    In his conduct was treachery, and in his words, faithless
    professions. After I visited Europe, I returned to America.

    I have not, nor shall not, consent to a proposal so unjust.

    I had intended yesterday to have walked out, but I have been again
    disappointed.

    Five and eight makes thirteen; five from eight leaves three.

    If he goes to Saratoga next week, it will make eight times that he
    has visited that renowned watering place.

    I could not convince him, that a forgiving disposition was nobler
    than a revengeful one. I consider the first, one of the brightest
    virtues that ever was or can be possessed by man.

    The college consists of one great, and several smaller edifices.

    He would not believe, that honesty was the best policy.

    The edifice was erected sooner than I expected it to have been.

    Surely, goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of my life;
    and I will dwell in the house of the Lord for ever.

    If a man have a hundred sheep, and one of them be gone astray, doth
    he not leave the ninety and nine, &c.?

    He might have completed his task sooner, but he could not do it
    better.

    The most ignorant and the most savage tribes of men, when they have
    looked round on the earth, and on the heavens, could not avoid
    ascribing their origin to some invisible, designing cause, and felt
    a propensity to adore their Creator.

       *       *       *       *       *

CRITICAL NOTES AND OBSERVATIONS.

OBSERVATION 1. The following absurd phrases so common in the sacred desk
and elsewhere, should be carefully avoided by all who regard common
sense:--"Sing the _two first_ and _three last_ verses." Just as if there
could be more than _one_ first and _one_ last. There may be a _first
two_, a _second two_, &c.; a _first three_, a _second three_, a _last
three_. "Within the _two last_ centuries;" "The second syllable of the
_three first_ words;" "The _three first_ of these orthoepists have no
rule by which their pronunciation is regulated:"--"the _last two_
centuries;" "the _first three_ words;" "the _first three_ of these
orthoepists."

2. Adjectives should not be used to express the manner of action. "The
higher the river, the _swifter_ it flows;" "James learns _easier_ than
Juliet; he sees _deeper_ into the millstone than she:"--"the _more
swiftly_ it flows;" "learns _more easily_; _farther_ into the
millstone." "He conducted the _boldest_ of any:"--"the _most boldly_."

3. _More_ requires _than_ after it. The following sentences are
therefore improper: "He was more beloved, but not so much admired, _as_
Cinthio;" "Richard is more active, but not so studious, _as_ his
companion." The legitimate mode of supplying the ellipses in these
constructions, will show their gross impropriety: thus, "He was more
beloved _as_ Cinthio;" "Richard is more active _as_ his companion," &c.

4. Adverbs, as illustrated on page 85, are generally _substitutes_ for
two or more words belonging to other parts of speech. "Will you
accompany me to Europe next summer?" _"Yes."_ "Do you believe that the
voyage will restore your health?" _"No."_ In these examples, the adverbs
_yes_ and _no_, are substitutes for whole sentences, and, therefore, do
not qualify any words understood. _Yes_, in this instance, literally
means, _"I will accompany you to Europe next summer;"_ and _no_, _"I do
not believe that the voyage will restore my health."_ Many other adverbs
are often employed in a similar manner.

_"Firstly,"_ is often improperly used instead of the adverb _first;_ "a
_good deal_," instead of, _much_, or, a _great deal_.

5. A nice distinction should be observed in the use of _such_ and _so_.
The former may be employed in expressing _quality_; the latter, in
expressing a _degree_ of the quality; as, "_Such_ a temper is seldom
found;" "_So_ bad a temper is seldom found." In the following examples,
_so_ should be used instead of _such:_ "He is _such_ an extravagant
young man, that I cannot associate with him;" "I never before saw _such_
large trees."

The affected use of cardinal, instead of ordinal numbers, ought not to
be imitated. "On page _forty-five;"_ "Look at page
_nineteen_;"--_forty-fifth, nineteenth_.

6. In the choice and application of prepositions, particular regard
should be paid to their meaning as established by the idiom of our
language and the best usage. "In my proceedings, I have been actuated
from the conviction, that I was supporting a righteous cause;" "He
should have profited from those golden precepts;" "It is connected to
John with the conjunction _and_;" "Aware that there is, in the minds of
many, a strong predilection in favor of established usages;" "He was
made much on at Argos;" "They are resolved of going;" "The rain has been
falling of a long time;" "It is a work deserving of encouragement."
These examples may be corrected thus, "actuated _by_ the conviction;"
"_by_ those golden precepts;" "_by_ the conjunction and;" "predilection
_for_;" "much _of_ at Argos;" "_on_ going;" "falling a long time;"
"deserving encouragement."

7. The preposition _to_ is used before nouns of place, where they follow
verbs or participles of motion; as, "I went _to_ Washington." But _at_
is employed after the verb _to be_; as, "I have been _at_ Washington;"
"He has been _to_ New York, _to_ home," &c. are improper. The
preposition _in_ is set before countries, cities, and large towns; "He
lives _in_ France, _in_ London, _in_ Philadelphia, _in_ Rochester." But
before single houses, and cities and villages which are in distant
countries, _at_ is commonly used; as, "He lives _at_ Park-place;" "She
resides _at_ Vincennes." People in the northern states may say, "They
live _in_ New Orleans, or, _at_ New Orleans."

8. Passive agents to verbs in the infinitive mood, should not be
employed as active agents. The following are solecisms: "This house to
let;" "Horses and carriages to let;" "Congress has much business to
perform this session;" because the agents, _house_, _horses_ and
_carriages_, and _business_, which are really _passive_, are, according
to these constructions, rendered as active. The expressions should be,
"This house to _be_ let;" "Horses and carriages to _be_ let;" "much
business to _be performed_."

9. AMBIGUITY.--"Nothing is more to be desired than wisdom." Not
_literally_ correct, for _wisdom_ is certainly more to be desired than
_nothing_; but, as a figurative expression, it is well established and
unexceptionable.

"A crow is a large black bird:"--a large, _black--bird_.

"I saw a horse--fly through the window:"--I saw a _horsefly_.

"I saw a ship gliding under full sail through a spy glass." I saw,
through a spy glass, a ship gliding under full sail.

"One may see how the world goes with half an eye." One may see with half
an eye, how the world goes.

"A great stone, that I happened to find, after a long search, by the sea
shore, served me for an anchor." This arrangement of the members and
circumstances of this sentence, confines the speaker's _search to the
sea shore;_ whereas, he meant, "A _large stone, which,_ after a long
search, I happened _to find by the sea shore,_ served me for an anchor."

"I shall only notice those called personal pronouns." I shall notice
_only_ those called personal pronouns.

10. TAUTOLOGY.--Avoid words which add no thing to the sense; such as,
"_Now_ extant, _free_ gratis, _slow_ mope, _cold_ snow, a _hot_ sun, a
_flowing_ stream, a _dull_ blockhead, _wise_ sages." "I am just going to
go there;" I am _about_ to go.

11. ABSURDITIES AND IMPROPRIETIES.--"I can learn him many things."

It ought to be, "I can _teach_ him." To _learn_, is to _acquire_ or
_receive_ information; to _teach_, means to _communicate_ it.

"I don't think it is so." You _do think_, that it is _not_ so.

_Ever, always._ "I have ever been of this mind." I have _always_ been.
_Ever_ and _always_ are not synonymous. _Ever_ refers to _one_
indefinite period of time; as, "If he _ever_ become rich:" _always_
means _at all times_.

_Excuse, pardon._ The former signifies to release from an obligation
which refers to the future; the latter, to forgive a neglect or crime
that is past. "Excuse me for neglecting to call yesterday:" _pardon_ me.

_Remember, recollect._ We _remember_ a thing which we retain in our
mind; we _recollect_ it, when, though having gone from the mind, we have
power to call it back.

_Defect, deficiency._ A thing which is incomplete in any of its parts,
is _defective;_ a total absence of the thing, is a _deficiency_.

This subject will be resumed in the appendix to this work.

       *       *       *       *       *

CORRECTIONS IN ORTHOGRAPHY.

From among those words which are often erroneously spelled, the
following are selected and corrected according to Johnson, and to Cobb's
Dictionary.

INCORRECT.          CORRECT.
Abridgement         Abridgment
abscision           abcission
achievment          achievement
adze                addice
agriculturalist     agriculturist
ancle               ankle
attornies           attorneys
baise               baize
bason               basin
bass                base
bombazin            bombasin
boose               bouse
boult               bolt
buccaneer           bucanier
burthen             burden
bye                 by
calimanco           calamanco
camblet             camlet
camphire            camphor
canvas              canvass
carcase             carcass
centinel            sentinel
chace               chase
chalibeate          chalybeate
chamelion           chameleon
chimist             chemist
chimistry           chemistry
cholic              colic
chuse               choose
cimetar             cimeter
clench              clinch
cloke               cloak
cobler              cobbler
chimnies            chimneys
chesnut             chestnut
clue                clew
connection          connexion
corset              corslet
cypher              cipher
cyphering           ciphering
dactyl              dactyle
develope            develop
dipthong            diphthong
dispatch            despatch
doat                dote
drouth              drought
embitter            imbitter
embody              imbody
enquire             inquire
enquirer            inquirer
enquiry             inquiry
ensnare             insnare
enterprize          enterprise
enthral             inthrall
entrench            intrench
entrenchment        intrenchment
entrust             intrust
enwrap              inwrap
epaulette           epaulet
etherial            ethereal
faggot              fagot
fasset              faucet
fellon              felon
fie                 fy
germ                germe
goslin              gosling
gimblet             gimlet
grey                gray
halloe              halloo
highth              height
hindrance           hinderance
honied              honeyed
impale              empale
inclose             enclose
inclosure           enclosure
indict              endict
indictment          endictment
indorse             endorse
indorsement         endorsement
instructor          instructer
insure              ensure
insurance           ensurance
judgement           judgment
laquey              lackey
laste               last
licence             license
loth                loath
lothsome            loathsome
malcontent          malecontent
maneuver            manoeuvre
merchandize         merchandise
misprison           misprision
monies              moneys
monied              moneyed
negociate           negotiate
negociation         negotiation
noviciate           novitiate
ouse                ooze
opake               opaque
paroxism            paroxysm
partizan            partisan
patronize           patronise
phrenzy             phrensy
pinchers            pincers
plow                plough
poney               pony
potatoe             potato
quere               query
recognize           recognise
reindeer            raindeer
reinforce           re-enforce
restive             restiff
ribbon              riband
rince               rinse
sadler              saddler
sallad              salad
sceptic             skeptic
sceptical           skeptical
scepticism          skepticism
segar               cigar
seignor             seignior
serjeant            sergeant
shoar               shore
soothe              sooth
staunch             stanch
streight            straight
suitor              suiter
sythe               scythe
tatler              tattler
thresh              thrash
thwak               thwack
tipler              tippler
tranquility         tranquillity
tripthong           triphthong
trissyllable        trisyllable
valice              valise
vallies             valleys
vise                vice
vollies             volleys
waggon              wagon
warrantee           warranty
whoopingcough       hoopingcough
woe                 wo
yeast               yest


CORRECTIONS IN ORTHOEPY.

The following words being often erroneously pronounced by polite people,
as well as by the vulgar, their correction, in this place, agreeably to
_Cobb's Dictionary_, it is presumed, will be useful to many. Some of the
mispronunciations given are _provincial_.

 1     2    3     4    1   4    1     4    1   3    5    6     1     4
Fate, far, fall, fat--me, met--pine, pin--no, nor, not, move--tube, tub,
 7    34    37
bull--oil--found---_th_in--THIS.


ORTHOGRAPHY.        IMPROPER.           PRONOUNCED.
                    4  1                4  4
Again               a-gane'             a-gen'
                    4  1                4  4
Against             a-ganste'           a-genst
                    4   1               4   1
Ally                al'le               al'li'
                    1                   2
Are                 are                 ar
                    4   4               1   1
Azure               azh'ur              a'zhure
                     1                   1
Bade                bade                bad
                     1                   11
Beard               bard                beerd
                     4      11           4
Been                ben or been         bin
                      22                  11
Bleat               blaat               bleet
                     1                   34
Boil                bile                boil
                     4   4               5   4
Bonnet              bun'net             bon'nit
                      2                   66
Brooch              brotsh              brootsh
                     4  3                4  4
Canal               ka-nawl'            ka-nal'
                     4                   4
Catch               ketsh               katsh
                      4   1              3    1
Causeway            kros'wa             kawz'wa
                     4  4                  1  4
Chalice             kal'is              tshal'is
                       4                   1
Chasten             tshas'tn            tshase'sn
                       4    1              4   1
Chimney             tshim'ble           tshim'ne
                       3                   1
Chine               tshime              tshine
                     34                   1
Choir               koir                kwire
                      4  4                1   1
Clevy               klev'is             klev've
                      4                   4
Clinch              klensh              klinsh
                     5   4               5   4
Column              kol'yum             kol'lum
                     5   4               4   4
Combat              kom'bat             kum'bat
                     5   1               5   4
Comma               kom'me              kom'ma
                     1   4               3  4
Coquet              ko-kwet'            ko-ket'
                     3                   1
Corps               korps               kore
                     4  4                4  4
Cover               kiv'ur              kuv'ur
                     11                  4
Deaf                deef                def
                     1  4  4             1  1  4
Decisive            de-sis'iv           de-si'siv
                     1  5                1  1
Depot               de'pot              de-po'
                     4  1  1             1  1
Depute              dep'u-tize          de-pute'
                     4  1  1             1  1  4
Deputed             dep'u-tizd          de-pu'ted
                     1  1                1  1
Design              de-zine'            de-sine'
                     4                   4
Dint                dent                dint
                     1                   5   4
Docile              do'slle             dos'sil
                     4   4               4   4
Disgust             dis-gust'           diz-gust'
                     4   1               4   1
Dismay              dis-ma'             diz-ma'
                     4  1                4  1
Disown              dis-one'            diz-one'
                     1                   4
Dost                dost                dust
                     1                   4
Doth                do_th_                du_th_
                     66                  4
Does                dooz                duz
                      11                  1
Drain               dreen               drane
                      37                  37
Drought             drou_th_              drout
                      37   4              37
Drowned             dround'ed           dround
                     4   1               4   4
Ductile             duk'tile            duk'til
                    1                   4
Edge                aje                 edje
                    1                   1   4
Either              i'THur              e'THur
                    4    4              4     4
English             eng'lish            ing'glish
                    1  1                1  1
Era                 e're                e'ra
                    1                   1
Ere                 ere                 are
                     1                   4
Fasten              fas'tn              fas'sn
                     4   7               11   7
Fearful             fer'ful             feer'ful
                     4   4               4  1
Figure              fig'gur             fig'ure
                     4                   11
Fiend               fend                feend
                     4                   4
First               fust                furst
                     34  1               1  1 1
Foliage             foil'aje            fo'le-aje
                     3     4             3     1
Fortune             for'tshun           for'tshune
                     3    4              3    1
Fortnight           fort'nit            fort'nite
                     37                  37   4
Fountain            foun'tn             foun'tin
                      4     4             4     1
Fracture            frak'tshur          frak'tshure
                      1   4               1   4
Fragrance           frag'ranse          fra'granse
                     1  1                1  4
Futile              fu'tile             fu'til
                     4   4               4   4
Gather              geTH'ur             gaTH'ur
                     4                   4
Get                 git                 get
                     4                   4
Girth               gurt                ger_th_
                     66                  1
Goal                gool                gole
                     1       1 4         1 4
Going               gone _or_ go'in       go'ing
                     66                  1
Gold                goold               gold
                     66                  4
Gum                 goom                gum
                     1   4                4
Grudge              be-gretsh'          grudje
                     4   4               4   4
Gypsum              gip'sum             jip'sum
                     4                   4
Has                 hez                 haz
                     1                   4
Have                have                hav
                     11                  4
Heard               heerd               herd
                     4        4          2
Hearth              hur_th_ or ha_th_       har_th_
                     4                   4
Hiss                siss                hiss
                     1                   34
Hoist               histe               hoist
                     4    1              1    1
Homely              hum'ble             home'le
                     4                   66
Hoof                huf                 hoof
                     3    4             5   4
Hostler             haws'lur            os'lur
                     4                  4
Humble              hum'bl              um'bl
                     11   4              4   4
Jesting             jeest'in            jest'ing
                     4                   4
Kettle              kit'tl              ket'tl
                     4     4             4     1
Lecture             lek'tshur           lek'tshure
                     4   4               1   1
Leisure             lezh'ur             le'zhure
                     4  4                1  4
Lever               lev'er              le'vur
                     4                   4
Lid                 led                 lid
                     1  5                1  4
Lilach              la'lok              li'lak
                     66                  1
Loam                loom                lome
                     1                   66
Loo                 lu                  loo
                     1    1              4   1
Maintain            mane-tane'          men-tane'
                     1   4               1   4
Matron              mat'run             ma'trun
                     1    1              4   1
Mermaid             mare'made           mer'made
                     37                  37
Mountain            moun'tn             moun'tin
                     1    4              1    1
Nature              na'tshur            na'tshure
                     1   4               1   4
Neither             ni'THur             ne'THur
                    1   11              1   1
Oblige              o-bleeje'           o-blije'
                    1   11              5   1
Oblique             o-bleek'            ob-like'
                    5                   5
Of                  of                  ov
                    1                   34
Oil                 ile                 oil
                    5        4   1      1    1
Only                on'le _or_ un'le      one'le
                     1    4              4    4
Panther             pane'tur            pan'_th_ur
                     4  4                1  4
Parent              par'ent             pa'rent
                     2    4              2    4
Partner             pard'nur            part'nur
                     2     4             4     1
Pasture             pas'tshur           pas'tshure
                     4   4               1   4
Patron              pat'run             pa'trun
                     4    4              4   4
Pincers             pinsh'urz           pin'surz
                     4                   4
Pith                pe_th_                pi_th_
                      11                  1
Plait               pleet               plate
                     1                   1 4
Poem                pome                po'em
                     1                   34
Point               pinte               point
                     5   4                   4
Pother              poTH'ur             puTH'ur
                      4    4              1  4
Precept             pres'sept           pre'sept
                      1  1                4   4
Preface             pre'fase            pref'fas
                      1  1                4  1
Prelude             pre'lude            prel'ude
                      1  4                5   4
Process             pro'ses             pros'ses
                      1  4                5  4
Product             pro'dukt            prod'ukt
                      1   4               5   4
Progress            pro'gres            prog'res
                      1  1                1  11
Profile             pro'file            pro-feel'
                     4    4              4    4
Pumpion             pungk'in            pump'yun
                     4                   7
Put                 put (verb)          put
                      1                   34
Quoit               kwate               kwoit
                     1  1                4  1
Rapine              ra'pine             rap'in
                     1                   11
Rear                rare                reer
                     4   1               4   4
Reptile             rep'tile            rep'til
                     4                   4
Rid                 red                 rid
                     1                   1
Rind                rine                rind
                     4                   4
Rinse               rense               rinse
                     5  4                5  4
Rosin               roz'um              roz'in
                     87  1               66  11
Routine             rou tene            roo-teen'
                     4                   66
Roof                ruff                roof
                     4   4               1   4
Sacred              sak'red             sa'kred
                     1                   4
Said                sade                sed
                     4                   4
Sat                 set                 sat
                     1                   4
Says                saze                sez
                      2                   1
Scarce              skarse              skarse
                      4  1               4   1
Schedule            sked'ule            sed'jule
                      4                   4
Shut                shet                shut
                     4                   4
Since               sense               sinse
                      4                   11
Sleek               slik                sleek
                      4   4               1  4
Sliver              sliv'vur            sli'vur
                      3     7             1    7
Slothful            slaw_th_'ful          slo_th_'ful
                     4                   66
Soot                sut                 soot
                      4   4               1    2
Spikenard           spig'nut            spike'nard
                      1                   34
Spoil               spile               spoil
                      4   4               11   2
Steelyard           stil'yurdz          steel'yard
                      5                   4
Stamp               stomp               stamp
                      4                   4
Stint               stent               stint
                      1                  1
Sword               sword               sord
                     1  5                4  4
Synod               si'nod              sin'ud
                      1    1              4   1
Therefore           THare'fore          THer'fore
                     4                    4
Thill               fil                 _th_il
                     1                   66
To                  to                  too
                     37                  66
Tour                tour                toor
                      4                   4
Treble              trib'bl             treb'bl
                     1  3                1 4
Towards             to-wardz'           to'urdz
                      5   1               1  1
Trophy              trof'fe             tro'fe
                       1   1             1    1
Tuesday             tshuz'de            tuze'de
                     4   4               4   1
Verdure             vur'jur             ver'jure
                     1   4               4   11
Vizier              vi'zhur             viz'yeer
                     5   4               5   1
Volume              vol'lum             vol'yume
                     1                   4
Were                ware                wer
                     1                   1
Yea                 ya                  ye
                     4                   4
Yes                 yes                 yis
                     11      33          4
Yest                yeest _or_ eest       yest
                     4                   4
Yet                 yit                 yet
                     1                   66
You                 yu                  yoo
                     1                   66
Your                yure                yoor
                     1                   66
Youth               yu_th_                yoo_th_
                     1  4   1  4        1  1      1  4
Ague and fever      fe'vurn-a'gur       a'gu-and fe'vur
                    3    4   1          4   4   1
Alternate           awl-ter'nate        al-ter'nate
                    4   4    1           4  4    1 1
Annunciate          an-nun'shate        an-nun'she-ate
                     4   1 4            4   1 4
Andiron             hand'i-urn          and'i-urn
                    4   1  1            4   4  1  11
Antipodes           an'te-podz          an-tip'o-deez
                    4   4  4            4   1  4
Apparent            ap-par'ent          ap-pa'rent
                    2     1  4     4    2    3  4     1
Architecture        artsh'e-tek-tshur   ar'-ke-tek-tshure
                    4   4     4         4   4    4
Assumption          as-sump'shun        as-sum'shun
                    3    4  4  1        3    4   4  1
Auxiliary           awks-il'a-re        awg-zil'ya-re
                     4   4  4  4         4    1 1  1  1
Certiorari          sash-ur-ar'ur       ser-she-o-ra'ri
                      4     4  1  1       4     1 4  1  1
Christianity        kris-tshan'e-te     kris-tshe-an'e-te
                      4   4   1           4   4   4
Clandestine         klan-des'tine       klan-des'tin
                     1 4   1  4          1 4   1  4
Coadjutor           ko-ad'ju-tur        ko-ad-ju'tur
                     5   4   1 4         5   4   1 4
Compendium          kom-pen'de-um       kom-pen'je-um
                     5   4   1           1  4   1
Connoisseur         kon-nis-sure'       ko-nes-sare'
                     1    1 4            4     1 4
Courteous           kore'te-us          kur'tshe-us
                     4  4   4            4  4   4
Coverlet            kuv'ur-lid          kuv'ur-let
                     37 4   1            37 4   4
Cowardice           kou'urd-ise         kou'urd-is
                     1   4  4            1   4  4
Decrepit            de-krip'id          de-krep'it
                     4  5     1          1  5     1
Demonstrate         dem'on-strate       de-mon'strate
                     1  4  4  4  4       1  4  1  1  4
Desideratum         de-sid-er-at'um     de-sid-e-ra'tum
                     1  4                1 1  4
Diamond             di'mund             di'a-mund
                     4    4  4   1       4    1  4
Discrepance         dis-krep'an-se      dis'kre-panse
                     4    4      1       4    4      4
Disfranchise        dis-fran'tschize    dis-fran'tschiz
                     4  5  4             4  5  4
Dishonest           dis-on'est          diz-on'est
                     4  3   4            4  3   4
Disorder            dis-or'dur          diz-or'dur
                    1  4   4  1         1  4    1  1
Electrify           e-lek'tur-ize       e-lek'tre-fi
                    1  1   1            1  1   1 1
Emaciate            e-ma'shate          e-ma'she-ate
                    4    1   1          4    1   1 1
Expatiate           eks-pa'shate        eks-pa'she-ate
                    4    1 1  1  1      4    1 1  4   1
Expiatory           eks-pi'a-to-re      eks'pe-a-tur-re
                    4    4   1          4    4   1  1
Extempore           eks-tem'pore        eks-tem'po-re
                     4  1  1             4  1  4
Feminine            fem'e-nine          fem'e-nin
                      4   4    1          1   4    1
Frequently          frek'went-le        fre'kwent-le
                     4  1 1              4  1 4
Genuine             jen'u-ine           jen'u-in
                     2   11               2   1 4
Guardian            gar-deen'           gyar'de-an
                     4   4   4           4   4   4
Gymnastic           gim-nas'tik         jim-nas'tik
                     4   1  1  4         4   1  66  4
Hallelujah          hal-le-lu'ja        hal-le-loo'ya
                     5   4  4           5   3  4
Hospital            hos'pit-al          os'pe-tal
                     1  4  4             1  4  4
Humorous            hu'mur-us           yu'mur-us
                    1  1                1  1 4
Idea                i-de'               i-de'a
                    4   1  4  4         4   1  3  4
Ignoramus           ig-no-ram'us        ig-no-ra'mus
                    4   4  1  4         4   1  1  4
Indecorous          in-dek'o-rus        in-de-ko'rus
                    4   4  1 1          4   1  1 1
Irradiate           ir-rad'e-ate        ir-ra'de-ate
                     4  4  4  1          4  4  1  1
Literati            lit-er-at'i         lit-er-a'ti
                     1    1   4          4    1  4
Maintenance         mane-tane'anse      men-'te-nanse
                     4   1  1            4   1  4
Masculine           mas'ku-line         mas'ku-lin
                     4   4   1
                    mur'kan-tile }
                     4   4   11  }       4   4   4
Mercantile          mur-kan-teel'}      mer'kan-til
                     4   4   4   }
                    mur-kan'til  }
                     1  1 1  1           1  1 1  1
Meliorate           me-li'o-rate        me'le-o-rate
                     1  4   1   4        5  4   1   4
Molestation         mo-les-ta'shun      mol-es-ta'shun
                     1  1 4              1  1 4
Museum              mu'ze-um            mu-ze'um
                     1   4  4            4   4  4
National            na'shun-al          nash'un-al
                     1  4    4  1        5  4    1    1
Nomenclature        no-men'kla-ture     nom-en-kla'tshure
                     5  1  4             5  1  4  4
Nominative          nom'e-tiv           nom'e-na-tiv
                    5     5   1  4      5     4  4  4
Obstreperous        ob-strop'pu-lus     ob-strep'er-us
                    5   2  1            5   1  1
Octavo              ok-ta'vo            ok-ta'vo
                    5  1  1  1          5  4  4   1
Oratory             or'a-to-re          or'a-tur-re
                     1  4   1            4  4   1
Parentage           pa'rent-aje         par'ent-aje
                     2    4   1  1       2    1 4   1  1
Partiality          par-shal'le-te      par-she-al'le-te
                     1   4  1            4   4  4
Patronage           pa'trun-aje         pat'run-ije
                     4   1 2             1   1 2
Patriarch           pat're-ark          pa'tre-ark
                     4   1 4             1   1 4
Patriot             pat're-ut           pa'tre-ut
                     4   1 4  4          1   1 4  4
Patriotism          pat're-ut-izm       pa'tre-ut-izm
                     1  5   1  4         1  5   1  4
Philologist         fi-lol'lo-jist      fe-lol'lo-jist
                     1   5 1  1          1  5  1  1
Philosophy          fi-los'o-fe         fe-los'o-fe
                     1  1  5  1  4       4  1  5  1  4
Philosophical       fi-lo-sof'ik-al     fil-o-zof'e-kal
                      1  4  4             1  4  4
Plagiarism          pla'ga-rizm         pla'ja-rizm
                     5   4               5   4
Possess             pos-ses'            poz-zes'
                     5   4   1            5   4   1
Possessive          pos-ses'siv         poz-zes'siv
                     5   4   4           5   4   4
Possession          pos-sesh'un         poz-zesh'un
                     1  4   4  4         1  4   4
Preventive          pre-vent'a-tiv      pre-vent'iv
                      1  4   1 1   4      1  4    1 1   4
Pronunciation       pro-nun-se-a'shun   pro-nun-she-a'shun
                      1  4  1 1   4       1  4   1 1   4
Propitiation        pro-pis-e-a'shun    pro-pish-e-a'shun
                      5  1  1             5  1  1
Prophecy            prov'e-si (noun)    prof'e-se (noun)
                      5  1  1             5  1  5
Prophesy            prov'e-si (verb)    prof'e-si (verb)
                     1   1               1   1 1
Ratio               ra'sho              ra'she-o
                     1   4  4            4   4  4
Rational            ra'shun-al          rash'un-al
                     1   4  4            1   4  4
Sacrament           sa'kra-ment         sak'ra-ment
                     1   1  1            4   1  1
Sacrifice           sa'kre-fize,        sak're-fize
                         4
                    _or_ (fis)
                      4  1  1             1  1 1  1
Stereotype          ster'o-tipe         ste're-o-tipe
                      1  4   1 4          1  4   4
Stupendous          stu-pen'du-us,      stu-pen'dus
                      1  4
                    stu-pen'jus
                     1  5  1  1          4  1  4
Synonyme            se-non'e-me         sin'o-nim
                      4    4  4           4    1  4
Transparent         trans-par'ent       trans-pa'rent
                      4    4  4   1       4    1  4   1
Transparency        trans-par'en-se     trans-pa'ren-se
                      1  4   1 4          1  4   4
Tremendous          tre-men'du-us,      tre-men'dus
                      1  4   1
                    tre-men'jus
                     4   4  4            4   1  4
Verbatim            ver-bat'im          ver-ba'tim
                     5   2  1            5   1  1
Volcano             vol-ka'no           vol-ka'no
                      4       1           4       11
Whiffletree         hwip'pl-tre         hwif'fl-tree

    NOTE 1.--When the words _learned_, _blessed_, _loved,_ &c. are
    used as participial adjectives, the termination _ed_ should
    generally be pronounced as a separate syllable; as, "A _learn-ed_
    man; The _bless-ed_ Redeemer;" but when they are employed as verbs,
    the _ed_ is contracted in pronunciation; as, "He _learn'd_ his
    lesson; They are _lov'd;_ I have _walk'd_."

    2. The accent of the following words falls on those syllables
    expressed in the _italic_ characters: Eu ro _pe_ an, hy me _ne_ al,
    Ce sa _re_ a, co ad _ju_ tor, ep i cu _re_ an, _in_ ter est ed, _in_
    ter est ing, _rep_ a ra ble, _rec_ og nise, _leg_ is la ture, _ob_
    li ga to ry, in _com_ pa ra ble, ir _rep_ a ra ble, in _ex_ o ra
    ble. In a large class of words, the vowels _a_, _e_, and _ai_,
    should be pronounced like long _a_ in _late_; such as, _fare_,
    _rare_, _there_, _their_, _where_, _air_, _chair_, _compare_,
    _declare_, &c. In the words _person_, _perfect_, _mercy_,
    _interpret_, _determine_, and the like, the vowel _e_ before _r_, is
    often _erroneously_ sounded like short _u_. Its proper sound is that
    of _e_ in _met_, _pet_, _imperative_.

    3. With respect to the pronunciation of the words _sky_, _kind_,
    _guide_, &c. it appears that a mistake extensively prevails. It is
    believed that their common pronunciation by the vulgar, is the
    _correct_ one, and agreeable to the pronunciation intended by Mr.
    John Walker. The proper diphthongal sounds
         11    1      1
    in skei, kyind, gyide, are adopted by the common mass, and
    _perverted_ by those who, in their unnatural and affected
    pronunciation of these words, say,
      1 1   1 1      1 1
    ske-i; ke-inde, ge-ide. This latter mode of pronouncing them in two
    syllables, is as incorrect and ridiculous as to pronounce the words
    _boil_, _toil_, in two
                      3 4    3 4
    syllables; thus, bo-il, to-il.

4. _My_, _wind_. When _my_ is contrasted with _thy_, _his_, _her_, _your_,
                       1                                              1
&c, it is pronounced, mi: in all other situations, it is pronounced, me;
as, "_My [me]_ son, give ear to _my [me]_ counsel." When _wind_ ends a
line in poetry, and is made to rhyme with _mind_, _bind_, kind_, &c.  it is
             1                                                 4
pronounced, wind; but, in other situations, it is pronounced, wind.

  "Lo, the poor Indian! whose untutored mind
  Sees God in clouds, or hears him in the _wind_."




PROVINCIALISMS.


CONTRACTIONS, VULGARISMS, AND OTHER IMPROPRIETIES.

As each of the following provincialisms and vulgarisms, has its locality
in some one section or other of our country, it is hoped that these
corrections will be found useful in the districts to which the various
phrases respectively belong.

IMPROPER.     CORRECT.

Aint          Are not
haint         have not
taint         'tis not
haint         are not
maint         may not
wont          will not
wer'nt        were not
waunt         was not
woodent       would not
mussent       must not
izzent        is not
wazzent       was not
hezzent       has not
doozzent      does not
tizzent       'tis not
whool         who will
              don't
              can't
              i'll
              'tis


COMMON IN NEW ENGLAND OR NEW YORK.

              4
Akst          askt
 4             4
ben           bin
 4             2
hul           hole
 4             1
hum           home
  4             1
stun          stone
 66            4
dooz          duz
  2             4
glass         glass
 2             4
mass          mass
  2             4
brass         brass
 2             4
pass          pass
  3             2
flawnt        flant
 4             4
hiz'zn        hiz
 37            37  4
hou'zn        houz'iz
1    4        1      4
an'shent      ane'tshent
1   4         1    1
an'jel        ane'jel
 4   4         1    4
dan'jur       dane'jur
   4   4         1    4
stran'jur     strane'jur
    2   4        1    4
tscham'bur    tshame'bur
 1  4          1    1
na'tur        na'tshure
 4  4  4       4    1  4
nat'ur-el     natsh'u-ral
 3   4         3     1
for'tin       for'tshune
 3   1   1     3     1  1
for'tew-nate  for'tshu-nate
 4   1         4     1
vur'tew       ver'tshu
 4   1  4      4     1 4
vur'tew-us    ver'tshu-us
1   1  4      4      1 4
ak'tew-el     ak'tschu-al
4  1   1      4   1  1
ed'ew-kate    ed'ju-kate
 4   4         2   4
faTH'ur       fa'THur
heft          weight
stoop         porch
stent         task
helve         handle
muss          disorder
dump          unload
scup          swing
shay          gig or chaise
cutter        one-horse sleigh
staddle       sapling
foxy          reddish
suple         spry or supple

IN PENNSYLVANIA.

Strenth       strength
lenth         length
brenth        breadth
ort           ought
nan           what
wisht         wish
wunst         once
ouch          oh
cheer         chair
spook         ghost
furnentz      opposite
wanity        vanity
in wain       in vain
ornary        ordinary
for by        to spare
we bit        small piece
disremember   do not remember

IRISH.

 66            1
Door          dore
 66             1
floor         flore
5             4
ond           and
 5             55
loss          looz
 66            1
koorse        korse
 66            1
soorse        sorse
 4             66
till          too
 4             7
put           put
 4             7
fut           fut
4  66         4   54
a-koont'      ak-kount'
 4   4         7   4
pul'pit       pul'pit
 1    4        3
pare'sun      par'sn

IMPROPER.           CORRECT.

MD. VA. KY. MISS. &c.

  2                   1
THar                THare
  2                   1
whar                hware
 2                   1
bar [bear]          bare
 2                   4
war                 wer
 37                  1
mout                mite [might]
  1                  1 4
gwine               go'ing
  4       4          4
shet or shut        rid
 1       5           1   1   4          4
tote or fotch       kar're, fetsh, or bring
 1                   4
hop'd               helpt
 4  66               2    4    4
ca-hoot'            part'nur-ship
 3                   66  5
mar'bl              moov off

    NOTE, _Clever_, _pretty_, _ugly_, _curious_, _expect_, _guess_, and
    _reckon_, though correct English words, have, among the common
    people of New England and New York, a provincial application and
    meaning. With them, a _clever_ man, is one of a gentle and obliging
    disposition; instead of, a man of distinguished talents and profound
    acquirements. _Pretty_ and _ugly_, they apply to the _disposition_
    of a person, instead of, to his _external appearance_. In these
    states, one will often hear, "I _guess_ it rains," when the speaker
    _knows_ this to be a fact, and, therefore, _guessing_ is uncalled
    for. "I _expect_ I can go;" or, "I _reckon_ I can;" instead of, "I
    _suppose_ or _presume_." In New England, a clergyman is often called
    a _minister_, in New York, a _priest_, and south of N.Y. a _parson_.
    The last is preferable.

NEW ENGLAND OR NEW YORK.                CORRECTED.
I be goin. He lives to hum.             I _am_ going. He lives _at_ home.

Hese ben to hum this two weeks.         _He has been at home these_
                                        2 weeks.

You haddent ought to do it. Yes         You ought _not_ to do it.
had ought.                              _Certainly_ I ought.

Taint no better than hizzen.            _'Tis_ no better than _his_.

Izzent that are line writ well?         _Is not_ that line well _written_?

Tizzent no better than this ere.        _It is_ no better, or it is
                                        _not any_ better than his.

The keows be gone to hum, neow,         The _cows are_ gone _home_, and
and I'mer goin arter um.                _I am going after them_.

He'll be here, derights, and, bring     He _will_ here, directly, and bring
yourn and thairn.                       yours and theirs.

He touched the stun which I shew        He touched the _stone_ which I
him, an di guess it made him sithe,     _showed_ him and it made him
for twas cissing hot.                   _sigh_, for _it was hissing_ hot.

Run, Thanel, and cut a staddle, for     Go, Nathaniel, and cut a _sapling_,
to make a lever on. Ize jest agoneter   to make a _lever of_. I _was about_
go, daddy.                              to go, or _intending_ to go
                                        _immediately_, father.

Where shell I dump my cart, square?     Where _shall_ I _unload_ my cart?
Dump it yender. Whats the heft of       _Yonder_. _What is_ the _weight_
your load?                              of your load?

When ju git hum from Hafford?           When _did you return from
A fortnit ago. You diddent, did ye?     Hartford_? A _fortnight_ ago. _It
Ju see my Danel, whose sot up a         is possible! Did_you see my _son
tarvern there? No. Hede gone afore      Daniel, who has opened a public
I got there. O, the pesky criter!       house_ there? No. _He had left
Hele soon be up a stump.                before_ I _arrived_ there. O, the
                                        _paltry fellow! He will_ soon _come
                                        to naught._

My frinds supurb mansion is             _My friend's_ superb mansion is
delightfully sitewated on a nate-eral   delightfully _situated_ on a
mound of considerable hithe. It hez     _natural_ mound of considerable
a long stoop in front; but it is furder _height_. It _has_ a long _porch_
from the city than I'de like my hum.    in front; but it is _farther_ from
                                        the city than _I would_ like to
                                        _reside_.

I know'd the gal was drownded, and      I _knew_ the _girl had been
I tell'd the inquisitdoners, that ize   drowned_, and I _told_ the _jury
nither geestin nor jokin about it; but  of inquest_, that _I was_
if they'd permit me to give em my       _not jesting_ about it; but, _by
ideze, they'd obleege me. So I          permitting_ me to _give them_ my
parsevered, and carried my pinte. You   _view of the subject_, they _would
don't say so. Be you from Barkshire?    oblige_ me. So, I _persevered_,
I be. Neow I swan! if I aint clean      and _gained_ my _point. Indeed!
beat.                                   Are_ you from _Berkshire_? I _am.
                                        Really_!I _am surprised_.

You baint from the Jarseys, be ye?      _Are_ you from _New Jersey_? Yes,
Yes. Gosh! then I guess you kneow       Then I _presume_ you _know how_
heow to tend tarvern.                   to tend _a tavern_.


IN PENNSYLVANIA.                             CORRECTED

I seen him. Have you saw him            I _saw_ him. Have you _seen_ him?
Yes, I have saw him wunst; and that     Yes, _once_; and that was before
was before you seed him.                you _saw_ him.

I done my task. Have you did            I _have_ done my task. Have you
yours? No, but I be to do it.           _done_ yours? No, but I _must_.

I be to be there. He know'd me.         I _shall_ be there; or, I _must_
                                        be there. He _knew_ me.

Leave me be, for Ime afear'd.           _Let_ me be, for I _am afraid_.

I never took notice to it.              I never took notice _of_ it: or,
                                        better thus, I never _noticed_ it.

I wish I haddent did it; howsumever,    I wish I _had not done_ it:
I don't keer: they cant skeer me.       _however, I disregard them_. They
                                        _cannot scare_ me.

Give me them there books.               Give me _those_ books.

He ort to go; so he ort.                He _ought_ to go, _really_.

No he orten.                            He _ought_ not.

Dont scrouge me.                        Don't _crowd_ me.

I diddent go to do it.                  I _did not intend_ to do it.

Aint that a good hand write?            _Is not_ that _beautiful writing_?

Nan? I know'd what he meant, but        _What_? I _knew_ what he meant, but
I never let on.                         I _kept that to myself_.

It is a long mile to town. Ah! I        It is a _little over_ a mile to
thought 'twas unle a short mile.        town. Ah! I _supposed it to be less
                                        than_ a mile.


IRISH.                                       CORRECTED.

Not here the day; he went till          _He is_ not here to-day. He went
Pittsburg.                              _to_ Pittsburg.

Let us be after pairsing a wee bit.     Let us _parse_ a _little_.

Where did you loss it?                  Where did you _lose_ it?


MD. VA. KY. OR MISS.                         CORRECTED.

Carry the horse to water.               _Lead_ the horse to water; or,
                                        water the horse.

Tote the wood to the river.             _Carry_ the wood to the river.

Have you focht the water?               Have you _fetched_, or _brought_,
                                        the water?

I've made 200 bushels of corn this      I _have raised_ 200 bushels of corn
year.                                   this year.

He has run against a snag.              He has _got into difficulty_.

Is that your plunder, stranger?         Is that your _baggage, sir_?

He will soon come of that habit.        He will soon _overcome_, or _get
                                        rid of_, that habit.

I war thar, and I seen his boat was     I _was there_, and I _saw that_ his
loadend too heavy.                      boat was too _heavily laden_, or
                                        _loaded_.

Whar you gwine.                         _Where are_ you _going_?

Hese in cohoot with me.                 _He is_ in _partnership_ with me.

Did you get shet of your tobacca?       Did you _get rid_, or _dispose_
                                        of, your _tobacco_?

Who hoped you to sell it?               Who _helped_ you to sell it?




PROSODY.


PROSODY treats of the modulations of the voice according to the usages
of the language we speak, and the sentiments we wish to express: hence,
in its most extensive sense, it comprises all the laws of elocution.

Prosody is commonly divided into two parts: the first teaches the true
pronunciation of words, comprising _accent_, _quantity_, _emphasis_,
_pause_, and _tone_; and the second, the laws of _versification_.

_Accent_. Accent is the laying of a peculiar stress of the voice on a
particular letter or syllable in a word, that it may be better heard
than the rest, or distinguished from them; as, in the word _presúme_,
the stress of the voice must be on the letter _u_ and the second
syllable, _sume_, which syllable takes the accent.

Every word of more syllables than one, has one accented syllable. For
the sake of euphony or distinctness in a long word, we frequently give a
secondary accent to another syllable besides the one which takes the
principal accent; as, _'tes ti mo' ni'al_, _a ban'don 'ing._

_Quantity_. The quantity of a syllable is that time which is occupied
in pronouncing it. It is considered as long or short.

A vowel or syllable is long, when the accent is on the vowel; which
causes it to be slowly joined in pronunciation with the following
letters; as, "Fāll, bāle, mōōd, hōūse, fēature."

A syllable is short, when the accent is on the consonant; which causes
the vowel to be quickly joined to the succeeding letter; "as, ănt,
bŏnnĕt, hŭngĕr."

A long syllable generally requires double the time of a short one in
pronouncing it; thus, "māte" and "nōte" should be pronounced as
slowly again as "măt" and "nŏt."

_Emphasis_. By emphasis is meant a stronger and fuller sound of the
voice, by which we distinguish some word or words on which we design to
lay particular stress, and to show how they affect the rest of the
sentence. Sometimes the emphatic words must be distinguished by a
particular tone of voice, as well as by a greater stress.

Emphasis will be more fully explained under the head of Elocution.

_Pauses_. Pauses or rests, in speaking and reading, are a total
cessation of the voice during a perceptible, and, in many cases, a
measurable space of time.

_Tones_. Tones are different both from emphasis and pauses; consisting
in the modulation of the voice, or the notes or variations of sound
which we employ in the expression of our sentiments.

Emphasis affects particular words and phrases; but tones affect
sentences, paragraphs, and sometimes a whole discourse.



PUNCTUATION.

PUNCTUATION is the art of dividing written composition into sentences or
parts of sentences, by points or stops, in order to mark the different
pauses which the sense and an accurate pronunciation require.

The _Comma_ represents the shortest pause; the _Semicolon_, a pause
double that of the comma; the _Colon_, double that of the semicolon; and
the _Period_, double that of the colon.

Punctuation is a modern art. The ancients were entirely unacquainted
with the use of points; and wrote, not only without any distinction of
members and periods, but also without any distinction of words. This
custom continued till the year 360 before Christ. How the ancients read
their works, written in this manner, it is not easy to conceive. After
the practice of joining words together had ceased, notes of distinction
were placed at the end of every word. This practice continued a
considerable time.

As it appears that the present usage of points did not take place while
manuscripts and monumental inscriptions were the only known methods of
conveying knowledge, we must conclude, that it was introduced with the
art of printing. The introduction was, however, gradual: all the points
did not appear at once. The colon, semicolon, and note of admiration,
were produced some time after the others. The whole set, as they are now
used, became established, when learning and refinement had made
considerable progress.

As the rules of punctuation are founded altogether on the grammatical
construction of sentences, their application pre-supposes, on the part
of the student, a knowledge of Syntax. Although they admit of
exceptions, and require a continual exercise of judgment and literary
taste in applying them properly, they are of great utility, and justly
merit our particular attention.

The great importance of acquiring a thorough knowledge of punctuation,
and of attending strictly to the application of its rules, is
established by the single fact, that _the meaning of a sentence is often
totally perverted by the omission or misapplication of points_. To
illustrate the correctness of this remark, numerous example might be
selected. The following border on the ridiculous: "Mr. Jared Hurton
having gone to sea his wife, desires the prayers of this church:"
"Tryon, who escaped from the jail on Friday last, is 22 years of age,
has sandy hair, light eyes, thin visage, with a short nose turned up
about six feet high, &c." Corrected; "Mr. Jared Hurton having gone to
sea, his wife desires the prayers of this church;" "thin visage, with a
short nose turned up, about six feet high, &c."

Before one enters upon the study of punctuation, it is necessary for him
to understand what is meant by an _adjunct_, _a simple sentence_, and a
_compound sentence_.

An _adjunct_ or _imperfect phrase_ contains no assertion, or does not
amount to a proposition or sentence; as, "Therefore;" "studious of
praise;" "in the pursuit of commerce."--For the definition of a
sentence, and a compound sentence, turn to page 119.

When two or more adjuncts are connected with the verb in the same
manner, and by the same preposition or conjunction, the sentence is
compound, and may be resolved into as many simple ones as there are
adjuncts; as, "They have sacrificed their _health_ and _fortune_, at the
_shrine_ of vanity, _pride_, and _extravagance_." But when the adjuncts
are connected with the verb in a different manner, the sentence is
simple; as, "Grass of an excellent _quality_, is produced in great
_abundance_ in the northern regions of our country."


COMMA.

RULE 1. The members of a simple sentence should not, in general, be
separated by a comma; as, "Every part of matter swarms with living
creatures."

_Exercises in Punctuation_.--Idleness is the great fomenter of all
corruptions in the human heart. The friend of order has made half his
way to virtue. All finery is a sign of littleness.

RULE 2. When a simple sentence is long, and the nominative is
accompanied with an inseparable adjunct of importance, it may admit a
comma immediately before the verb; as, "The good taste _of the present
age_, has not allowed us to neglect the cultivation of the English
language;" "Too many _of the pretended friendships of youth_, are mere
combinations in pleasure."

_Exercises_.--The indulgence of a harsh disposition is the introduction
to future misery. To be totally indifferent to praise or censure is a
real defect in character. The intermixture of evil in human society
serves to exercise the suffering graces and virtues of the good.

RULE 3. When the connexion of the different parts of a simple sentence,
is interrupted by an adjunct of importance, the adjunct must be
distinguished by a comma before and after it; as, "His work is, _in many
respects,_ very imperfect. It is, _therefore,_ not much approved." But
when these interruptions are slight and unimportant, it is better to
omit the comma; as, "Flattery is _certainly_ pernicious;" "There is
_surely_ a pleasure in beneficence."

_Exercises_.--Charity like the sun brightens all its objects. Gentleness
is in truth the great avenue to mutual enjoyment. You too have your
failings. Humility and knowledge with poor apparel excel pride and
ignorance under costly attire. The best men often experience
disappointments. Advice should be seasonably administered. No assumed
behavior can always hide the real character.

RULE 4. The nominative case independent, and nouns in apposition when
accompanied with adjuncts, must be distinguished by commas; as, "My
_son_, give me thy heart;" "Dear _Sir_, I write to express my gratitude
for your many kindnesses;" "I am obliged to you, my _friends_, for your
many favors;" "_Paul_, the _apostle_, of the Gentiles, was eminent for
his zeal and knowledge;" "The _butterfly_, _child_ of the summer,
flutters in the sun."

But if _two_ nouns in apposition are unattended with adjuncts, or if
they form only a proper name, they should not be separated; as, _"Paul_
the _apostle_, suffered martyrdom;" "The _statesman Jefferson_, wrote
the declaration of Independence."

_Exercises_.--Lord thou hast been our dwelling place in all
generations. Continue my dear child to make virtue thy chief study.
Canst thou expect thou betrayer of innocence to escape the hand of
vengeance? Death the king of terrors chose a prime minister. Hope the
balm of life sooths us under every misfortune. Confucius the great
Chinese philosopher was eminently good as well as wise. The patriarch
Joseph is an illustrious example of true piety.

RULE 5. The nominative case absolute and the infinitive mood absolute
with their adjuncts, a participle with words depending on it, and,
generally, any imperfect phrase which may be resolved into a simple
sentence, must be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas; as,
"_His father dying_, he succeeded to the estate;" "_To confess the
truth_, I was in fault;" "The king, _approving the plan_, put it in
execution;" "He, _having finished his academical course_, has returned
home, _to prosecute his professional studies_."

_Exercises_.--Peace of mind being secured we may smile at misfortune. To
enjoy present pleasure he sacrificed his future ease and reputation. His
talents formed for great enterprises could not fail of rendering him
conspicuous. The path of piety and virtue pursued with a firm and
constant spirit will assuredly lead to happiness. All mankind compose
one family assembled under the eye of one common Father.

RULE 6. A compound sentence must be resolved into simple ones by placing
commas between its members; as, "The decay, the waste, and the
dissolution of a plant, may affect our spirits, and suggest a train of
serious reflections."

Three or more nouns, verbs, adjectives, participles, or adverbs,
connected by conjunctions, expressed or understood, must be separated by
commas; as, "The husband, wife,[11] and children,[12] suffered extremely;"
"In a letter, we may advise, exhort, comfort, request, and discuss;"
"David was a brave, wise, and pious man;" "A man, fearing, serving, and
loving his Creator, lives for a noble purpose;" "Success generally
depends on acting prudently, steadily, and vigorously, in what we
undertake."

[11] The correctness and importance of this rule appear to be so
obvious, as to render it not a little surprising, that any _writer_,
possessing the least degree of rhetorical taste, should reject it. I
am bold to affirm, that it is observed by every correct reader and
speaker; and yet, strange as it may seem, it is generally violated
by those printers who punctuate by the ear, and all others who are
influenced by their pernicious example; thus, "The head, the heart
and the hands, should be constantly and actively employed in doing
good." Why do they not omit the comma where the conjunction is
understood? It would be doing no greater violence to the principles
of elocution; thus, "The head the heart and the hands, should be,
&c." or thus, "The head the heart, and the hands, should be
employed," &c. Who does not perceive that the latter pause, where
the conjunction is expressed, is as necessary as the former, where
the conjunction is understood? And, since this is the case, what
fair objection can be made to the following method of punctuation?
"The head, the heart, and the hands, should be constantly and
actively employed in doing good;" "She is a woman, gentle, sensible,
well-educated, and religious."

[12] As a considerable pause in pronunciation is necessary between
the last noun and the verb, a comma should be inserted to denote it;
but as no pause is allowable between the last adjective and the
noun, or between the last adverb and the verb, the comma, in such
instances, is properly omitted; thus, "David was a brave, wise, and
_pious_ man."

Two or more nouns, verbs, adjectives, participles, or adverbs, occurring
in the same construction, with their conjunctions understood, must be
separated by commas; as, "Reason, virtue, answer one great aim;" "Virtue
supports in adversity, moderates in prosperity;" "Plain, honest truth,
needs no artificial covering;" "We are fearfully, wonderfully framed."

_Exercises._--We have no reason to complain of the lot of man nor of the
mutability of the world. Sensuality contaminates the body depresses the
understanding deadens the moral feelings of the heart and degrades man
from his rank in creation.

Self-conceit presumption and obstinacy blast the prospects of many a
youth. He is alternately supported by his father his uncle and his elder
brother. The man of virtue and honor will be trusted relied upon and
esteemed. Conscious guilt renders one mean-spirited timorous and base.
An upright mind will never be at a loss to discern what is just and true
lovely honest and of good report. Habits of reading writing and thinking
are the indispensable qualifications of a good student. The great
business of life is to be employed in doing justly loving mercy and
talking humbly with our Creator. To live soberly righteously and piously
comprehends the whole of our duty.

In our health life possessions connexions pleasures there are causes of
decay imperceptibly working. Deliberate slowly execute promptly. An idle
trifling society is near akin to such as is corrupting. This unhappy
person had been seriously affectionately admonished but in vain.

RULE 7. Comparative sentences whose members are short, and sentences
connected with relative pronouns the meaning of whose antecedents is
restricted or limited to a particular sense, should not be separated by
a comma; as, "Wisdom is better than riches;" "No preacher is so
successful as thee;" "He accepted _what_ I had rejected;" "Self-denial
is the _sacrifice which_ virtue must make;" "Subtract from many modern
poets _all that_ may be found in Shakspeare, and trash will remain;"
"Give it to the _man whom_ you most esteem." In this last example, the
assertion is not of "man in general," but of "the man whom you most
esteem."

But when the antecedent is used in a general sense, a comma is properly
inserted before the relative; as, "_Man_, _who_ is born of a woman, is of
few days and full of trouble;" "There is no _charm_ in the female sex,
_which_ can supply the place of virtue."

This rule is equally applicable to constructions in which the relative
is understood; as, "Value duly the privileges you enjoy;" that is,
"privileges _which_ you enjoy."

_Exercises._--How much better it is to get wisdom than gold! The
friendships of the world can exist no longer than interest cements them.
Eat what is set before you. They who excite envy will easily incur
censure. A man who is of a detracting spirit will misconstrue the most
innocent words that can be put together. Many of the evils which
occasion our complaints of the world are wholly imaginary.

The gentle mind is like the smooth stream which reflects every object in
its just proportion and in its fairest colors. In that unaffected
civility which springs from a gentle mind there is an incomparable
charm. The Lord whom I serve is eternal. This is the man we saw
yesterday.

RULE 8. When two words of the same sort, are connected by a conjunction
expressed, they must not be separated; as, "Libertines call religion,
bigotry _or_ superstition;" "True worth is modest _and_ retired;" "The
study of natural history, expands _and_ elevates the mind;" "Some men
sin deliberately and presumptuously." When words are connected in pairs,
the pairs only should be separated; as, "There is a natural difference
between merit _and_ demerit, virtue _and_ vice, wisdom _and_ folly;"
"Whether we eat _or_ drink, labor _or_ sleep, we should be temperate."

But if the parts connected by a conjunction are not short, they may be
separated by a comma; as, "Romances may be said to be miserable
rhapsodies, _or_ dangerous incentives to evil."

_Exercises_.--Idleness brings forward and nourishes many bad passions.
True friendship will at all times avoid a rough or careless behavior.
Health and peace a moderate fortune and a few friends sum up all the
undoubted articles of temporal felicity. Truth is fair and artless
simple and sincere uniform and consistent. Intemperance destroys the
strength of our bodies and the vigor of our minds.

RULE 9. Where the verb of a simple member is understood, a comma may, in
some instances, be inserted; as, "From law arises security; from
security, curiosity; from curiosity, knowledge." But in others, it is
better to omit the comma; "No station is so high, no power so great, no
character so unblemished, as to exempt men from the attacks of
rashness, malice, and envy."

_Exercises_.--As a companion he was severe and satirical; as a friend
captious and dangerous. If the spring put forth no blossoms in summer
there will be no beauty and in autumn no fruit. So if youth be trifled
away without improvement manhood will be contemptible and old age
miserable.

RULE 10. When a simple member stands as the object of a preceding verb,
and its verb may be changed into the infinitive mood, the comma is
generally omitted; as, "I suppose _he is at rest_;" changed, "I suppose
_him to be at rest_."

But when the verb _to be_ is followed by a verb in the infinitive mood,
which, by transposition, may be made the nominative case to it, the verb
_to be_ is generally separated from the infinitive by a comma; as, "The
most obvious remedy is, _to withdraw from all associations with bad
men_;" "The first and most obvious remedy against the infection, is, to
withdraw from all associations with bad men."

_Exercises._--They believed he was dead. He did not know that I was the
man. I knew she was still alive. The greatest misery is to be condemned
by our own hearts. The greatest misery that we can endure is to be
condemned by our own hearts.

NOTES.

    1. When a conjunction is separated by a phrase or member from the
    member to which it belongs, such intervening phrase appears to
    require a comma at each extremity; as, "They set out early, _and_,
    before the close of the day, arrived at the destined place." This
    rule, however, is not generally followed by our best writers; as,
    "If thou seek the Lord, he will be found of thee; _but_ if thou
    forsake him, he will cast thee off for ever;" "_But_ if the parts
    connected are not short, a comma may be inserted."

    2. Several verbs succeeding each other in the infinitive mood, and
    having a common dependance, may be divided by commas; as, "To
    relieve the indigent, to comfort the afflicted, to protect the
    innocent, to reward the deserving, are humane and noble
    employments."

    3. A remarkable expression, or a short observation, somewhat in the
    form of a quotation, may be properly marked with a comma; as, "It
    hurts a man's pride to say, _I do not know_;" "Plutarch calls lying,
    _the vice of slaves_."

    4. When words are placed in opposition to each other, or with some
    marked variety, they must be distinguished by a comma; as,

      "Tho' _deep_, yet _clear_; tho' _gentle_, yet not _dull_;
      _Strong_, without _rage_; without _o'erflowing_, _full_."

    "Good men, in this frail, imperfect state, are often found, not only
    in union _with_, but in opposition _to_, the views and conduct of
    each other."

    Sometimes when the word with which the last preposition agrees, is
    single, the comma may be omitted; as, "Many states were in alliance
    _with_, and under the protection _of_ Rome."

    The same rule and restrictions apply, when two or more nouns refer
    to the same preposition; as, "He was composed both under the
    _threatening_, and at the _approach_, _of_ a cruel and lingering
    death;" "He was not only the _king_, but _the father of_ his
    people."

    5. The words, "as, thus, nay, so, hence, again, first, secondly,
    formerly, now, lastly, once more, above all, on the contrary, in the
    next place, in short," and all other words and phrases of a similar
    kind, must generally be separated from the context by a comma; _as_,
    "Remember thy best friend; _formerly_, the supporter of thy infancy;
    _now_, the guardian of thy youth;" "He feared want; _hence_, he
    overvalued riches;" "_So_, if youth be trifled away," &c. "_Again_,
    we must, have food and clothing;" "_Finally_, let us conclude."

The foregoing rules and examples are sufficient, it is presumed, to
suggest to the learner, in all ordinary instances, the proper place for
inserting the comma; but in applying these rules, great regard must be
paid to the length and meaning of the clauses, and the proportion which
they bear to one another.


SEMICOLON.

The semicolon is used for dividing a compound sentence into two or more
parts, not so closely connected as those which are separated by a comma,
nor yet so little dependant on each other, as those which are
distinguished by a colon.

RULE 1. When the preceding member of the sentence does not of itself
give complete sense, but depends on the following clause, and sometimes
when the sense of that member would be complete without the concluding
one, the semicolon is used; as in the following examples: "As the desire
of approbation, when it works according to reason, improves the amiable
part of our species; so, nothing is more destructive to them, when it is
governed by vanity and folly;" "The wise man is happy, when he gains his
own approbation; the fool, when he gains the applause of those around
him;" "Straws swim upon the surface; but pearls lie at the bottom."

_Exercises_.--The path of truth is a plain and safe path that of
falsehood a perplexing maze. Heaven is the region of gentleness and
friendship hell of fierceness and animosity. As there is a worldly
happiness which God perceives to be no other than disguised misery as
there are worldly honors which in his estimation are reproach so there
is a worldly wisdom which in his sight is foolishness.

  But all subsists by elemental strife
  And passions are the elements of life.

RULE 2. When an example is introduced to illustrate a rule or
proposition, the semicolon may be used before the conjunction _as;_ as
in the following instance: Prepositions govern the objective case; as,
"She gave the book _to_ him."

    NOTE. In instances like the foregoing, many respectable punctuists
    employ the colon, instead of the semicolon.


COLON.

The Colon is used to divide a sentence into two or more parts
less connected than those which are separated by a semicolon;
but not so independent as separate, distinct sentences.

RULE 1. When a member of a sentence is complete in itself, but followed
by some supplemental remark, or farther illustration of the subject, the
colon may be properly employed; as, "Nature felt her inability to
extricate herself from the consequences of guilt: the gospel revealed
the plan of divine interposition and aid." "Great works are performed,
not by strength, but by perseverance: yonder palace was raised by single
stones; yet you see its height and spaciousness."

_Exercises._--The three great enemies to tranquillity are vice
superstition and idleness vice which poisons and disturbs the mind with
bad passions superstition which fills it with imaginary terrors idleness
which loads it with tediousness and disgust.

When we look forward into the year which is beginning what do we behold
there? All my brethren is a blank to our view a dark unknown presents
itself.

RULE 2. When a semicolon has preceded, or more than one, and a still
greater pause is necessary, in order to mark the connecting or
concluding sentiment, the colon should be applied; as, "A divine
legislator, uttering his voice from heaven; an almighty governor,
stretching forth his arm to punish or reward; informing us of perpetual
rest prepared for the righteous hereafter, and of indignation and wrath
awaiting the wicked: these are the considerations which overawe the
world, which support integrity, and check guilt."


PERIOD.

When a sentence is complete, and so independent as not to be connected
with the one which follows it, a period should be inserted at its close;
as, "Fear God." "Honor the patriot." "Respect virtue."

In the use of many of the pauses, there is a diversity of practice among
our best writers and grammarians. Compound sentences connected by
conjunctions, are sometimes divided by the period; as, "Recreations,
though they may be of an innocent kind, require steady government to
keep them within a due and limited province. _But_ such as are of an
irregular and vicious nature, are not to be governed, but to be banished
from every well-regulated mind."

The period should follow every abbreviated word; as, "A.D. N.B. U.S. Va.
Md. Viz. Col. Mr."

DASH.

The Dash, though often used improperly by hasty and incoherent writers,
may be introduced with propriety, where the sentence breaks off
abruptly; where a significant pause is required; or where there is an
unexpected turn in the sentiment; as, "If thou art he, so much respected
once--but, oh! how fallen! how degraded!" "If acting conformably to the
will of our Creator;--if promoting the welfare of mankind around us;--if
securing our own happiness;--are objects of the highest moment: then we
are loudly called upon to cultivate and extend the great interests of
religion and virtue."

A dash following a stop, denotes that the pause is to be greater than if
the stop were alone; and when used by itself, requires a pause of such
length as the sense only can determine.

  "Here lies the great--False marble, where?
  "Nothing but sordid dust lies here."


INTERROGATORY POINT.

The note of interrogation is used at the end of an interrogative
sentence; as, "Who adorned the heavens with such exquisite beauty?"

    NOTE. The interrogative point should not be employed in cases where
    it is only said, that a question has been asked; as, "The Cyprians
    asked me, why I wept."


EXCLAMATORY POINT.

The note of exclamation is applied to expressions of sudden emotion,
surprise, joy, grief, &c. and sometimes to invocations and addresses;
as, "How much vanity in the pursuits of men!" "What is more amiable than
virtue!" "My friend! this conduct amazes me!" "Hear me, O Lord! for thy
loving kindness is great!"


PARENTHESIS.

A parenthesis is a clause containing some useful remark, which may be
omitted without injuring the grammatical construction; as, "To gain a
posthumous reputation, is to save a few letters (for what is a name
besides?) from oblivion."

  "Know then this truth, (enough for man to know,)
  "Virtue alone is happiness below."

    NOTE. The parenthesis generally denotes a moderate depression of the
    voice; and, as the parenthetical marks do not supply the place of a
    point, the clause should be accompanied with every stop which the
    sense would require, if the parenthetical characters were not used.
    It ought to terminate with the same kind of point which the member
    has that precedes it; as "He loves nobly, (I speak of friendship,)
    who is not jealous when, he has partners of love."

  "Or why so long (in life if long can be)
  "Lent Heav'n a parent to the poor and me?"

Parentheses, however, containing interrogations or exclamations, form an
exception to this rule; as, "If I grant his request, (and who could
refuse it?) I shall secure his esteem and attachment."


APOSTROPHE AND QUOTATION.

The Apostrophe is used to abbreviate a word, and also to mark the
possessive case of a noun; as, "_'tis_, for _it is_; _tho,'_ for
_though_; _o'er_, for _over_;" "A _man's_ poverty."

A Quotation marks a sentence taken in the author's own language; as,
"The proper study of mankind is man."

When an author represents a person as speaking, the language of that
person should be designated by a quotation; as, At my coming in, he
said, "You and the physician are come too late." A quotation contained
within another, should be distinguished by two _single_ commas; as,
"Always remember this ancient maxim 'Know thyself.'"


DIRECTIONS FOR USING CAPITAL LETTERS.

It is proper to begin with a capital,

1. The first word of every sentence.

2. Proper names, the appellations of the Deity, &c.; as, "James,
Cincinnati, the Andes, Huron;" "God, Jehovah, the Almighty the Supreme
Being, Providence, the Holy Spirit."

3. Adjectives derived from proper names, the titles of books, nouns
which are used as the subject of discourse, the pronoun _I_ and the
interjection _O_, and every line in poetry; as, "American, Grecian,
English, French; Irving's Sketch Book, Percival's Poems; I write; Hear,
O earth!"




APPENDIX.


VERSIFICATION.

POETRY is the language of passion, or of enlivened imagination.

VERSIFICATION, in English, is the harmonious arrangement of a particular
number and variety of accented and unaccented syllables, according to
particular laws.

RHYME is the correspondence of the sound of the last syllable in one
line, to the sound of the last syllable in another; as,

  "O'er the glad waters of the dark-blue _sea_,
  "Our thoughts as boundless and our souls as _free_."

BLANK VERSE consists in poetical thoughts expressed in regular numbers,
but without the correspondence of sound at the end of the lines which
constitutes rhyme.

POETICAL FEET consist in a particular arrangement and connexion of a
number of accented and unaccented syllables.

They are called _feet_, because it is by their aid that the voice, as it
were, _steps_ along through the verse in a measured pace.

All poetical feet consist either of two, or of three syllables; and are
reducible to eight kinds; four of two syllables, and four of three, as
follows:

DISSYLLABLE.           TRISYLLABLE.
A Trochee - u          A Dactyle - u u
An Iambus u -          An Amphibrach u - u
A Spondee - -          An Anapaest u u -
A Pyrrhic u u          A Tribrach u u u

A Trochee has the first syllable accented, and the last unaccented; as,
Hātefŭl, péttish:

Rēstlĕss mōrtăls tōil fŏr nāught.

An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the last accented; as,
Bĕtrāy, consíst:

Thĕ sēas shăll wāste, thĕ skīes ĭn smōke dĕcāy.

A Dactyle has the first syllable accented, and the two latter
unaccented; as, Lābŏrĕr, póssible:

Frōm thĕ lŏw plēasŭres ŏf thīs făllĕn nātŭre.

An Anapaest has the first two syllables unaccented, and the last
accented; as, Cŏntrăvēne, acquiésce:

ăt thĕ clōse ŏf thĕ dāy whĕn thĕ hāmlĕt ĭs stīll.

A Spondee; as, The pāle mōōn: a Pyrrhic; as, ŏn thĕ tall
tree: an Amphibrach; as, Dēlightfūl: a Tribrach; as,
Numērăblĕ.


RHETORIC.

GRAMMAR instructs us how to express our thoughts correctly.

RHETORIC teaches us to express them with force and elegance.

The former is generally confined to the correct application of words in
constructing single sentences. The latter treats of the proper choice of
words, of the happiest method of constructing sentences, of their most
advantageous arrangement in forming a discourse, and of the various
kinds and qualities of composition. The principles of rhetoric are
principally based on those unfolded and illustrated in the science of
grammar. Hence, an acquaintance with the latter, and, indeed, with the
liberal arts, is a prerequisite to the study of rhetoric and
belles-lettres.


COMPOSITION.

It may be laid down as a maxim of eternal truth, that _good sense_ is
the foundation of all good writing. One who understands a subject well,
will scarcely write ill upon it.

Rhetoric, or the art of persuasion, requires in a writer, the union of
good sense, and a lively and chaste imagination. It is, then, her
province to teach him to embellish his thoughts with elegant and
appropriate language, vivid imagery, and an agreeable variety of
expression. It ought to be his aim,

  "To mark the point where sense and dulness meet."

STYLE.--PERSPICUITY AND PRECISION.

STYLE is the peculiar manner in which we express our conceptions by
means of language. It is a picture of the ideas which rise in our minds,
and of the order in which they are produced.

The qualities of a good style, may be ranked under two heads.
_perspicuity_ and _ornament_.

PERSPICUITY, which is considered the fundamental quality of a good
style, claims attention, first, to single words and phrases; and,
secondly, to the construction of sentences. When considered with respect
to words and phrases, it requires these three qualities, _purity_,
_propriety,_ and _precision._

_Purity_ of language consists in the use of such words and such
constructions as belong to the language which we speak, in opposition to
words and phrases belonging to other languages, or which are obsolete or
new-coined, or employed without proper authority.

_Propriety_ is the choice of those words which the best usage has
appropriated to the ideas which we intend to express by them. It implies
their correct and judicious application, in opposition to low
expressions, and to words and phrases which would be less significant of
the ideas which we wish to convey. It is the union of purity and
propriety, which renders style graceful and perspicuous.

_Precision_, from _præcidere_, to cut off, signifies retrenching all
superfluities, and pruning the expression in such a manner as to exhibit
neither more nor less than an exact copy of the ideas intended to be
conveyed.


STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES.

A proper construction of sentences is of so great importance in every
species of composition, that we cannot be too strict or minute in our
attention to it.

Elegance of style requires us generally to _avoid_, many short or long
sentences in succession; a monotonous correspondence of one member to
another; and the commencing of a piece, section, or paragraph, with a
long sentence.

The qualities most essential to a perfect sentence, are _Unity_,
_Clearness_, _Strength_, and _Harmony_.

UNITY is an indispensable property of a correct sentence. A sentence
implies an arrangement of words in which only _one_ proposition is
expressed. It may, indeed, consist of parts; but these parts ought to be
so closely bound together, as to make on the mind the impression, not of
many objects, but of only one. In order to preserve this unity, the
following rules may be useful.

1. _In the course of the sentence, the scene should be changed as little
as possible._ In every sentence there is some leading or governing word,
which, if possible, ought to be continued so from the beginning to the
end of it. The following sentence is not constructed according to this
rule: "After we came to anchor, they put me on shore, where I was
saluted by all my friends, who received me with the greatest kindness."
In this sentence, though the objects are sufficiently connected, yet, by
shifting so frequently the place and the person, the _vessel_, the
_shore_, _we_, _they_, _I_ and _who_, they appear in so disunited a
view, that the mind is led to wander for the sense. The sentence is
restored to its proper unity by constructing it thus: "Having come to
anchor, I was put on shore, where I was saluted by all my friends, who
received me with the greatest kindness."

2. _Never crowd into one sentence things which have so little connexion,
that they would bear to be divided into two or more sentences._ The
violation of this rule produces so unfavorable an effect, that it is
safer to err rather by too many short sentences, than by one that is
overloaded and confused.

3. _Avoid all unnecessary parentheses_.

CLEARNESS. _Ambiguity_, which is opposed to clearness, may arise from a
bad choice, or a bad arrangement of words.

A leading rule in the arrangement of sentences, is, that _those words or
members most nearly related, should be placed in the sentence as near to
each other as possible, so as thereby to make their mutual relation
clearly appear._ This rule ought to be observed,

1. _In the position of adverbs._ "By greatness," says Mr. Addison, "I do
not only mean the bulk of any single object, but the largeness of a
whole view." The improper situation of the adverb _only_, in this
sentence, renders it a limitation of the verb _mean_, whereas the author
intended to have it qualify the phrase, _a single object;_ thus, "By
greatness, I do not mean the bulk of any single object _only_, but the
largeness of a whole view."

2. _In the position of phrases and members._ "Are these designs which
any man who is born a Briton, in any circumstances, in any situation,
ought to be ashamed or afraid to avow?" Corrected: "Are these designs
which any man who is born a Briton, ought to be ashamed or afraid, _in
any circumstances_, _in any situation_, to avow?"

3. _In the position of pronouns._ The reference of a pronoun to its
noun, should always be _so clear that we cannot possibly mistake it:_
otherwise the noun ought to be repeated. "It is folly to pretend to arm
ourselves against the accidents of life, by heaping up treasures, which
nothing can protect us against but the good providence of our Heavenly
Father." _Which_, in this sentence, grammatically refers to _treasures;_
and this would convert the whole period into nonsense. The sentence
should have been thus constructed, "It is folly to pretend, by heaping
up treasures, to arm ourselves against the _accidents_ of life, against
_which_ nothing can protect us but the good providence of our Heavenly
Father."

STRENGTH. By the _strength_ of a sentence is meant such an arrangement
of its several words and members, as exhibits the sense to the best
advantage, and gives every word and member its due weight and force.

1. The first rule for promoting the strength of a sentence, is, to _take
from it all redundant words and members._ Whatever can be easily
supplied in the mind, should generally be omitted; thus, "Content with
deserving a triumph, he refused the honor of it," is better than to say,
"_Being_ content with deserving a triumph." &c. "They returned back
again to the same city from whence they came forth." If we expunge from
this snort sentence _five_ which are were expletives, it will be much
more neat and forcible thus, "They returned to the city whence they
came." But we should be cautious of pruning so closely as to give a
hardness and dryness to the style. Some leaves must be left to shelter
and adorn the fruit.

2. _Particular attention to the use of copulatives, relatives, and all
the particles employed for transition and connexion, is required_. In
compositions of an elevated character, the _relative_ should generally
be inserted. An injudicious repetition of _and_ enfeebles style; but
when enumerating objects which we wish to have appear as distinct from
each other as possible, it may be repeated with peculiar advantage;
thus, "Such a man may fall a victim to power; but truth, _and_ reason,
_and_ liberty, would fall with him."

3. _Dispose of the capital word or words in that part of the sentence in
which they will make the most striking impression_.

4. _Cause the members of a sentence to go on rising in their importance
one above another_. In a sentence of two members, the longer should
generally be the concluding one.

5. _Avoid concluding a sentence with an adverb, a preposition, or any
inconsiderable word, unless it be emphatical_.

6. _Where two things are compared or contrasted with each other, a
resemblance in the language and construction should be observed_.

       *       *       *       *       *

FIGURES OF SPEECH.

Figures of Speech may be described as that language which is prompted
either by the imagination, or by the passions. They generally imply some
departure from simplicity of expression; and exhibit ideas in a manner
more vivid and impressive, than could be done by plain language. Figures
have been commonly divided into two great classes; Figures of _Words_,
and Figures of _Thought_.

Figures of Words are called _Tropes_, and consist in a word's being
employed to signify something that is different from its original
meaning; so that by altering the word, we destroy the figure.

When we say of a person, that he has a fine _taste_ in wines, the word
taste is used in its common, literal sense; but when we say, he has a
fine _taste_ for painting, poetry, or music, we use the word
figuratively. "A good man enjoys comfort in the midst of adversity," is
simple language; but when it is said, "To the upright there ariseth
_light_ in _darkness_," the same sentiment is expressed in a figurative
style, _light_ is put in the place of _comfort_, and _darkness_ is used
to suggest the idea of _adversity_.

The following are the most important figures:

1. A METAPHOR is founded on the resemblance which one object bears to
another; or, it is a comparison in an abridged form.

When I say of some great minister, "That he upholds the state like a
_pillar_ which supports the weight of a whole edifice," I fairly make a
comparison; but when I say of such a minister, "That he is the _pillar_
of the state," the word pillar becomes a metaphor. In the latter
construction, the comparison between the minister and a pillar, is made
in the mind; but it is expressed without any of the words that denote
comparison.

Metaphors abound in all writings. In the scriptures they may be found in
vast variety. Thus, our blessed Lord is called a vine, a lamb, a lion,
&c.; and men, according to their different dispositions, are styled
wolves, sheep, dogs, serpents, vipers, &c.

Washington Irving, in speaking of the degraded state of the American
Aborigines who linger on the borders of the "white settlements," employs
the following beautiful metaphor: "The proud _pillar_ of their
independence has been shaken down, and the whole moral _fabric_ lies in
ruins."

2. AN ALLEGORY may be regarded as a metaphor continued; or it is several
metaphors so connected together in sense, as frequently to form a kind
of parable or fable. It differs from a single metaphor, in the same
manner that a cluster on the vine differs from a single grape.

The following is a fine example of an allegory, taken from the 60th
psalm; wherein the people of Israel are represented under the image of a
vine. "Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt: thou hast cast out the
heathen and planted it. Thou preparedst room before it; and didst cause
it to take deep root, and it filled the land. The hills were covered
with the shadow of it, and the boughs thereof were like the goodly
cedars. She sent out her boughs into the sea, and her branches into the
river."

3. A SIMILE or COMPARISON is when the resemblance between two objects,
whether real or imaginary, is expressed in form.

Thus, we use a simile, when we say, "The actions of princes are like
those great rivers, the course of which every one beholds, but their
springs have been seen by few." "As the mountains are round about
Jerusalem, so the Lord is round about his people." "The music of Caryl
was like the memory of joys that are past, pleasant and mournful to the
soul." "Our Indians are like those wild plants which thrive best in the
shade, but which wither when exposed to the influence of the sun."

  "The Assyrian came down, like the wolf on the fold,
  And his cohorts were gleaming with purple and gold;
  And the sheen of their spears was like stars on the sea,
  When the blue wave rolls nightly on deep Galilee."

4. A METONYMY is where the cause is put for the effect, or the effect
for the cause; the container for the thing contained; or the sign for
the thing signified.

When we say, "They read _Milton_," the cause is put for the effect,
meaning "Milton's _works_." "Gray hairs should be respected;" here the
effect is put for the cause; meaning by "gray hairs," _old age_, which
produces gray hairs. In the phrase, "The kettle boils," the container is
substituted for the thing contained. "He addressed the _chair_;" that
is, the person in the chair.

5. A SYNECDOCHE OR COMPREHENSION. When the whole is put for a part, or a
part for the whole; a genus for a species, or a species for a genus; in
general, when any thing less, or any thing more, is put for the precise
object meant, the figure is called a Synecdoche.

Thus, "A fleet of twenty _sail_, instead of, _ships_." "The _horse_ is a
noble animal;" "The _dog_ is a faithful creature:" here an individual is
put for the species. We sometimes use the "head" for the _person_, and
the "waves" for the _sea_. In like manner, an attribute may be pat for a
subject; as "Youth" for the _young_, the "deep" for the _sea_.

6. PERSONIFICATION or PROSOPOPOEIA is that figure by which we attribute
life and action to inanimate objects. When we say, "The ground _thirsts_
for rain," or, "the earth _smiles_ with plenty;" when we speak of
"ambition's being _restless_," or, "a disease's being _deceitful_;" such
expressions show the facility, with which the mind can accommodate the
properties of living creatures to things that are inanimate.

The following are fine examples of this figure:

    "Cheer'd with the grateful smell, old _Ocean smiles_;"

    "The wilderness and the solitary place shall be glad for them; and
    the desert shall rejoice and blossom as the rose."

7. AN APOSTROPHE is an address to some person, either absent or dead, as
if he were present and listening to us. The address is frequently made
to a personified object; as, "Death is swallowed up in victory. O
_death!_ where is thy sting? O _grave!_ where is thy victory?"

    "Weep on the rock of roaring winds, O _maid_ of Inistore; bend thy
    fair head over the waves, thou fairer than the ghost of the hills,
    when it moves in a sun-beam at noon over the silence of Morveu."

8. ANTITHESIS. Comparison is founded on the resemblance, antithesis, on
the contrast or opposition, of two objects.

_Example._ "If you wish to enrich a person, study not to _increase_ his
_stores_, but to _diminish_ his _desires."_

9. HYPERBOLE or EXAGGERATION consists in magnifying an object beyond its
natural bounds. "As swift as the wind; as white as the snow; as slow as
a snail;" and the like, are extravagant hyperboles.

    "I saw their chief, tall as a rock of ice; his spear, the blasted
    fir; his shield, the rising moon; he sat on the shore, like a cloud
    of mist on the bills."

10. VISION is produced, when, in relating something that is past, we use
the present tense, and describe it as actually, passing before our eyes.

11. INTERROGATION. The literal use of an interrogation, is to ask a
question; but when men are strongly moved, whatever they would affirm or
deny with great earnestness, they naturally put in the form of a
question.

Thus Balaam expressed himself to Balak: "The Lord is not man, that he
should lie, nor the son of man, that he should repeat. Hath he said it?
and shall he not do it? Hath he spoken it? and shall he not make it
good?" "Hast thou an arm like God? or canst thou thunder with a voice
like him?"

12. EXCLAMATIONS are the effect of strong emotions, such a surprise,
admiration, joy, grief, and the like.

    "O that I had in the wilderness a lodging place of way-faring men!"
    "O that I had wings like a dove! for then would I fly away, and be
    at rest!"

13. IRONY is expressing ourselves in a manner contrary to our thoughts;
not with a view to deceive, but to add force to our remarks. We can
reprove one for his negligence, by saying, "You have taken great care,
indeed."

The prophet Elijah adopted this figure, when he challenged the priests
of Baal to prove the truth of their deity. "He mocked them, and said.
Cry aloud for he is a god: either he is talking, or he is pursuing, or
he is on a journey, or, peradventure, he sleepeth, and must be waked."

14. AMPLIFICATION or CLIMAX consists in heightening all the
circumstances of an object or action, which we desire to place in a
strong light.

Cicero gives a lively instance of this figure, when he says, "It is a
crime to put a Roman citizen in bonds: it is the height of guilt to
scourge him; little less than parricide to put him to death: what name,
then, shall I give to the act of crucifying him?"


KEY.

_Corrections of the False Syntax arranged under the Rules and Notes_.

RULE 4. Frequent commission of sin _hardens_ men in it. Great pains
_have_ been taken, &c.--_is_ seldom found. The sincere _are_, &c.--_is_
happy. What _avail_, &c.--Disappointments _sink_--the renewal of hope
_gives_, &c.--_is_ without limit, _has_ been conferred upon us.--Thou
_canst_ not heal--but thou _mayst_ do, &c.--_consists_ the happiness,
&c.--Who _touchedst_, or _didst touch_ Isaiah's hallowed lips with fire.

_Note 1._ And _wilt thou_ never be to Heaven resigned?--And _who_ had
great abilities, &c.

_Note 2._ Are peace and honor.--_was_ controversy.

RULE 7. _Them_ that you visited.--_him_ that was mentioned.--_he_ who
preached repentance, &c.--_they_ who died.--_he_ who succeeded.

RULE 8. Time and tide _wait,_ &c.--_remove_ mountains.--_are_ both
uncertain.--_dwell_ with, &c.--_affect_ the mind, &c.--What _signify_
the counsel and care, &c.--_are_ now perished.--Why _are_ whiteness and
coldness, &c.--bind _them_ continually, &c.--render _their_ possessor,
&c.--There _are_ error and discrepance--which _show_, &c.

RULE 9. _Is_ the same in idea.--_is_ in the porphyry.--_is_ remarkable,
&c.--which _moves_ merely as _it is_ moved.--_affects_ us, &c.--Man's
happiness or misery _is_, in a great measure, &c.--for _it_ may be,
&c.--_was_ blameworthy.

RULE 10. The nation _is_ powerful.--The fleet _was_ seen, &c.--The
church _has_, &c.--_is_, or ought to be, the _object_, &c.--_it_ is
feeble.

RULE 11. My people _do_, &c.--The multitude eagerly _pursue_ pleasure as
_their_, &c.--_were_ divided in _their_ sentiments, and _they have_
referred, &c.--The people _rejoice_--give _them_ sorrow.

RULE 12. _Homer's_ works are, &c.--_Asa's_ heart. _James Hart's_ book.

_Note 1._ It was the _men_, _women_, and children's lot, &c. or, _It was
the lot of_ the men, women, and children.--_Peter_, _John_, and
Andrew's, &c.

_Note 2._ This is _Campbell_ the poet's production; or, _The production
of Campbell, &c._--The silk was purchased at Brown's the _mercer_ and
_haberdasher._

_Note_ 4. The _pupil's_ composing, &c.--_rule's_ being observed.--of the
_president's_ neglecting to lay it before the council.

RULE 13. Of _his_ audience.--put _it_ on Jacob.--sprinkle _them_--and
they shall, &c.--of _his_ reputation.

_Note_. You were blamed; you _were_ worthy.--where _were_ you?--how fat
_were_ you?

RULE 14. Who _hast_ been, &c.--_who is_ the sixth _that has_ lost _his
life_ by this means.

Who all my sense _confinedst;_ or, _didst confine_.

_Note_. And _who broughtest_ him forth out of Ur.

RULE 15, _Who_ shall be sent, &c.--This is the man _who_, &c.

RULE 16. They _to whom_ much is given, &c.--_with whom_ you associate
&c.--_whom_ I greatly respect, &c.--_whom_ we ought to love, and _to
whom_, &c--They _whom_ conscience, &c.--With _whom_ did you
walk?--_Whom_ did you see?--To _whom_ did you give the book?

RULE 17. Who gave John those books? _We_.--_him_ who lives in Pearl
street--My brother and _he_.--_She_ and _I_.

RULE 18: _Note_ 2. Thirty _tuns_.--twenty _feet_--one hundred _fathoms_.

_Note_ 6. He bought a pair of _new_ shoes--piece of _elegant_
furniture.--pair of _fine_ horses--tract of _poor_ land.

_Note_ 7. Are still more _difficult to be comprehended_.--most
_doubtful_, or _precarious_ way, &c.--_This model comes nearer
perfection than any I_, &c.

RULE 19: _Note. That_ sort.--_these_ two hours.--_This_ kind, &c.--He
saw one _person_, or more _than one_, enter the garden.

_Note_ 2. Better than _himself_.--_is_ so small.--_his_ station may be,
_is_ bound by the laws.

_Note_ 3. On _each_ side, &c.--took _each_ his censer.

RULE 20. _Whom_ did they, &c.--They _whom_ opulence,--_whom_ luxury,
&c.--_Him_ and _them_ we know, &c.--_Her_ that is negligent, &c.--my
brother and _me_ &c.--_Whom_ did they send, &c.--_Them whom_ he, &c.

RULE 21. It is _I_.--If I were _he_.--it is _he_, indeed.--_Whom_ do
you, &c.--_Who_ do men say, &c.--and _who_ say ye, &c.--_whom_ do you
imagine it to have been?--it was _I_; but you knew that it was _he_.

RULE 25. Bid him _come_--durst not _do_ it.--Hear him _read,_ &c.--makes
us _approve_ and _reject_, &c.--better _to_ live--than _to_ outlive,
&c.--_to_ wrestle.

RULE 26: _Note_. The taking _of_ pains: or, without taking pains,
&c.--The changing _of_ times,--the removing and setting up _of_ kings.

RULE 28: _Note_ 3. He _did_ me--I had _written_--he _came_
home.--_befallen_ my cousin--he would have _gone_.--already _risen_.--is
_begun_.--is _spoken_.--would have _written_--had they _written_, &c.

RULE 29: _Note_ 1. It cannot, _therefore_, be, &c.--he was _not often_
pleasing.--should _never_ be separated.--We may live _happily_, &c.

RULE 30: _Note_. I don't know _any thing_; or, I _know_ nothing, &c.--I
did not see _anybody_; or, I saw _nobody_, &c.--Nothing ever _affects_
her.--_and_ take no shape _or_ semblance, &c.--There _can_ be nothing,
&c.--_Neither_ precept _nor_ discipline is so forcible as example.

RULE 31. For _himself_.--among _themselves_.--_with whom_ he is,
&c.--_With whom_ did, &c.--_From whom_ did you receive instruction?

RULE 33. My brother and _he_, &c.--You and _I_, &c. _He_ and I--John and
_he_, &c.--Between you and _me_, &c.

RULE 34. And _entreat_ me, &c.--and _acting_ differently, &c.

_Note_ 1. But _he_ may return--but _he_ will write no more.

_Note_ 2. Unless it _rain_.--If he _acquire_ riches, &c.

RULE 35. Than _I_--as well as _he_, than _they_.--but _he_.--but _he_
and _I_.--but _them_ who had gone astray.

_Promiscuous Examples_.--_Him_ who is from eternity, &c.--_depends_ all
the happiness,--which _exists_, &c.--the enemies _whom_, &c.--Is it _I_
or _he whom_ you requested?--Though great _have_ been,--sincerely
_acknowledge_.--There _was_, in the metropolis.--exercising our
memories.--_was_ consumed.--Affluence _may_ give--but _it_ will not.--of
this world often choke.--_Them_ that honor,--and _they_ that despise.--I
intended _to call_ last week.--the fields look _fresh_ and _gay_.--very
_neatly, finely woven_ paper.--where I _saw_ Gen. Andrew Jackson, _him_
who.--Take the _first two_,--_last three_.--thirty _feet_ high.--_a_
union,--_a_ hypothesis.--I have _seen_ him _to whom_ you wrote, he would
have _come_ back, or _returned_.--_understands_ the nature,--he
_rejects_.--If thou _study_,--thou _wilt_ become.--is not _properly_
attended to.--He _knew_.--therefore, to _have_ done it,--_than_ the
title.--very _independently_.--duty to _do_.--my _friend's_
entering.--is the _best_ specimen, or it _comes nearer_ perfection _than
any_, &c.--blow _them_, will go, &c.--_Each of those two authors has
his_ merit.--_Reason's_ whole,--_lie_ in.--_strikes_ the mind,--than if
_the parts had been adjusted_,--with _perfect_ symmetry.

Satire _does_ not carry in _it_.--_composes_ the triangle.--_persons'_
opportunities were _ever_.--It _has been_ reported.--should _never_
be.--situation _in which_.--_is_ thoroughly versed in _his_.--_are_ the
soul,--_follows_ little.--An army _presents_.--_are_ the _duties_ of a
christian.--happier than _he_.--_always_ have _inclined_, and _which
always_ will incline him to offend.--which _require_ great.--_Them_ that
honor me, will I.--_has_ opinions peculiar to _itself_.--that _it may_
be said _he attained_ monarchical.--_hast_ permitted,--_wilt_
deliver.--_was_ formerly propagated.--the measure _is_,--unworthy
your.--_were_ faithless.--After I _had_ visited.--nor shall _I_,
consent.--Yesterday I intended to _walk_ out, but _was_.--_make_ or
_are_ thirteen,--_leave_ three.--If he _go_,--make _the eighth time_
that he _will have_ visited.--_is_ nobler.--was possessed, or _that
ever_ can be.--one great _edifice_,--smaller _ones_.--honesty _is_.--it
to _be_.--_will_ follow me,--I _shall_ dwell.--_is_ gone astray.--he
could, not _have done_.--_feeling_ a propensity.


PUNCTUATION.

COMMA.

_Corrections of the Exercises in Punctuation_.

RULE 1. Idleness is the great fomenter of all corruptions in the human
heart. The friend of order has made half his way to virtue. All finery
is a sign of littleness.

RULE 2. The indulgence of a harsh disposition, is the introduction to
future misery. To be totally indifferent to praise or censure, is a real
defect in character. The intermixture of evil in human society, serves
to exercise the suffering graces and virtues of the good.

RULE 3. Charity, like the sun, brightens all its objects. Gentleness is,
in truth, the great avenue to mutual enjoyment. You, too, have your
failings. Humility and knowledge, with poor apparel, excel pride and
ignorance, under costly attire. The best men often experience
disappointments. Advice should be seasonably administered. No assumed
behavior can always hide the real character.

RULE 4. Lord, thou hast been our dwelling place in all generations.
Continue, my dear child, to make virtue thy chief study. Canst thou
expect, thou betrayer of innocence, to escape the hand of vengeance?
Death, the king of terrors, chose a prime minister. Hope, the balm of
life, sooths us under every misfortune. Confucius, the great Chinese
philosopher, was eminently good, as well as wise. The patriarch Joseph
is an illustrious example of true piety.

RULE 5. Peace of mind being secured, we may smile at misfortune. To
enjoy present pleasure, he sacrificed his future ease and reputation.
His talents, formed for great enterprises, could not fail of rendering
him conspicuous. The path of piety and virtue, pursued with a firm and
constant spirit, will assuredly lead to happiness. All mankind compose
one family, assembled under the eye of one common Father.

KEY TO THE EXERCISES.

RULE 6. We have no reason to complain of the lot of man, nor of the
mutability of the world. Sensuality contaminates the body, depresses the
understanding, deadens the moral feelings of the heart, and degrades man
from his rank in creation.

Self-conceit, presumption, and obstinacy, blast the prospect of many a
youth. He is alternately supported by his father, his uncle, and his
elder brother. The man of virtue and honor, will be trusted, relied
upon, and esteemed. Conscious guilt renders one mean-spirited, timorous,
and base. An upright mind will never be at a loss to discern what is
just and true, lovely, honest, and of good report. Habits of reading,
writing, and thinking, are the indispensable qualifications of a good
student. The great business of life is, to be employed in doing justly,
loving mercy, and walking humbly with our God. To live soberly,
righteously, and piously, comprehends the whole of our duty.

In our health, life, possessions, connexions, pleasures, there are
causes of decay imperceptibly working. Deliberate slowly, execute
promptly. An idle, trifling society, is near akin to such as is
corrupting. This unhappy person had been seriously, affectionately
admonished, but in vain.

RULE 7. How much better it is to get wisdom than gold. The friendships
of the world can exist no longer than interest cements them. Eat what is
set before you. They who excite envy, will easily incur censure. A man
who is of a detracting spirit, will misconstrue the most innocent words
that can be put together. Many of the evils which occasion our
complaints of the world, are wholly imaginary.

The gentle mind is like the smooth stream, which reflects every object
in its just proportion, and in its fairest colors. In that unaffected
civility which springs from a gentle mind, there is an incomparable
charm. The Lord, whom I serve, is eternal. This, is the man we saw
yesterday.

RULE 8. Idleness brings forward and nourishes many bad passions. True
friendship will, at all times, avoid a rough or careless behavior.
Health and peace, a moderate fortune, and a few friends, sum up all the
undoubted articles of temporal felicity. Truth is fair and artless,
simple and sincere, uniform and consistent. Intemperance destroys the
strength of our bodies and the vigor of our minds.

RULE 9. As a companion, he was severe and satirical; as a friend,
captious and dangerous. If the spring put forth no blossoms, in summer
there will be no beauty, and in autumn, no fruit. So, if youth be
trifled away without improvement, manhood will be contemptible, and old
age, miserable.

RULE 10. They believed he was dead. He did not know that I was the man.
I knew she was still alive. The greatest misery is, to be condemned by
our own hearts. The greatest misery that we can endure, is, to be
condemned by our own hearts.

SEMICOLON.

RULE 1. The path of truth is a plain and safe path; that of falsehood is
a perplexing maze. Heaven is the region of gentleness and friendship;
hell, of fierceness and animosity. As there is a worldly happiness,
which God perceives to be no other than disguised misery; as there are
worldly honors, which, in his estimation, are a reproach; so, there is a
worldly wisdom, which, in his sight, is foolishness.

  But all subsists by elemental strife;
  And passions are the elements of life.

COLON.

RULE 1. The three great enemies to tranquillity, are vice, superstition,
and idleness: vice, which poisons and disturbs the mind with bad
passions; superstition, which fills it with imaginary terrors; idleness,
which loads it with tediousness and disgust.














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