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Title: The inter ocean curiosity shop for the year 1883

Author: Various

Editor: William P. Jones

Release date: May 7, 2023 [eBook #70718]

Language: English

Original publication: United States: The Inter Ocean Publishing Company

Credits: Bob Taylor, Juliet Sutherland and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net


*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE INTER OCEAN CURIOSITY SHOP FOR THE YEAR 1883 ***





  Transcriber’s Note
  Italic text displayed as: _italic_




  THE INTER OCEAN

  CURIOSITY SHOP

  FOR THE YEAR 1883.

  [Illustration: Decoration]

  EDITED BY

  WILLIAM P. JONES, A. M.

  [Illustration: Decoration]

  SEVENTH EDITION.

  [Illustration: Decoration]

  CHICAGO:
  THE INTER OCEAN PUBLISHING COMPANY,
  MADISON AND DEARBORN STREETS.

  1891.




PREFACE


So well known now is this little annual cyclopedia of facts in
agriculture, manufactures, commerce, politics, literature, science
and the arts, that this sixth volume of OUR CURIOSITY SHOP needs no
preface, except to make due acknowledgments to the many who have
aided the editor with information, and to explain to such of its
readers as are not yet fully advised of this fact, that these pages
constitute but a part of the several columns of questions and answers
published every week in the DAILY, SEMI-WEEKLY and WEEKLY editions
of THE INTER OCEAN. To have all such answers for the year, one must
be a regular subscriber to, and reader of, the paper. Hundreds of
disputes, raised in political gatherings, in debating societies,
in Sunday schools, in social and sporting circles, at the village
postoffice when waiting for the mail, on railway cars, in club rooms,
around pioneer camp-fires, and in all kinds of places are referred
to THE INTER OCEAN for amicable settlement. When none of the several
thousand books on the shelves of THE INTER OCEAN and the Chicago
Public Library give response to such questions, original sources
of information are appealed to; and, again therefore, the grateful
acknowledgments of the editor of OUR CURIOSITY SHOP are very heartily
made to the Heads of the several executive departments at Washington
and many of their chiefs of bureaus, to State and city officials, to
his obliging associates of THE INTER OCEAN staff, and to that daily
companion and efficient assistant, his daughter.

Every answer given here is in response to at least one person enough
interested to call it forth. Not one started up at the editor’s own
bidding, but each of them might use the speech put into the mouth of
King Philip of Pokanoket, when summoned to meet the General Court of
New Plymouth: “You sent for me, and I am here.” So, being here in
response to popular call, the editor hopes this volume will have as
cordial a welcome as the public has accorded to its predecessor of
last year, of which, already, the second edition is nearly exhausted,
and to the still earlier volumes of 1878 to 1882, inclusive. It is
now a matter of regret that the volumes of 1878 and 1879 were not
stereotyped, as all succeeding volumes have been; since that fact
renders it impossible for the Publishers to supply the repeated calls
for the entire series of six volumes. Readers will take note that the
first two are out of print, but all the others will be supplied as
fast as called for.

  THE EDITOR.




OUR CURIOSITY SHOP.


NATURE’S STORM SIGNALS.

Recent questions and answers in Our Curiosity Shop about the aurora
borealis and the Government Signal Service have moved S. H. Ruple,
M., M. D., of Oquawka, Ill., to give the result of his observations
as follows:

Falling weather follows the aurora borealis, because the lower
stratum of the atmosphere at such a time is sufficiently rarified
for the manifestation of aqueous vapor, as is indicated by the
evolution or liberation of so great a quantity of electricity as is
necessary to produce conspicuous and extensive “northern lights.”
A continuous south wind, in most localities, will in a few days
cause rain, because by its warmth it rarifies the cooler and denser
atmosphere of more northern or elevated localities, and reduces its
capability of sustaining moisture. A continuous north wind dispels
all rain signs for the time being. This is no new theory. Solomon,
3,000 years ago, put it on record in Western Asia. (Prov. xxv., 23.)
And a careful observation during twenty-five years has convinced me
that it is true for this age and country as well as for his. Flaky
clouds, or low-running ones, from any direction but the north, denote
rain or snow. Salmon, leaden, or silvery colored clouds denote
falling weather; bright red, clear. When the sunset is followed by
bright lances or streaks of light of various hues radiating from the
point where the sun disappeared, continuing across the heavens and
converging to a common point in the opposite horizon, there exists
a storm-cloud in line with the sun, though it may be so distant as
to be for awhile entirely hidden from view by the rotundity of the
earth. If the rays of light are evenly divided north and south of the
line between the observer and the radiating point, and continue so
till they have faded out, the cloud is approaching. A few years since
the writer, becoming interested in an exhibition of this phenomena,
sat up to watch the results of his calculations. About 1 a. m. the
storm (a moderate cyclone) reached the Mississippi River, about
five miles north of his residence, having, according to telegraphic
reports, crossed the State of Iowa in five hours and a half.
When “heat lightning” is visible you may be sure that there is a
storm-cloud in the same direction, though you may neither see it nor
hear the thunder. When the lightning is continuous and very brilliant
the storm may be regarded as a violent one. In this event the track
of the destructive elements may be from 100 to 200 miles away. Some
five years ago the writer’s attention was called, a little after
dark, to an extraordinary display of heat lightning in the southern
horizon, and he ventured the opinion that a devastating cyclone
was traveling eastwardly, probably in the vicinity of St. Louis.
Though residing in Oquawka, Ill., fourteen miles above Burlington,
Iowa, within twenty-four hours THE INTER OCEAN, ever watchful and
intelligent, was in his hands with telegraphic reports corroborating
his theory and predictions. Jefferson Barracks were reported damaged
by the cyclone, and across in Illinois a whole village was laid waste
and several lives lost. This was, to say the least, pretty accurate
guessing. If the old pioneers of Colorado, traveling at the rate of
twenty-five miles a day, had to toil from five to seven days after
catching their first view of the snow-cap of Pike’s Peak before
gaining the mountain foot hills, how far off may not one see the
intensely white, dazzling, and flashing illumination capping a cloud
that is from three to five miles above the earth.


LEPROSY.

  LIDELL’S GROVE, Ill.

  Please state some facts regarding leprosy and the leper settlement
  on the Hawaiian Islands. Is the same disease prevalent among the
  Chinese in California? Are Caucasians liable to contract the
  disease?

  S. GRAY.

_Answer._—There is no other malady so loathsome and so dreaded among
mankind as the terrible disease of leprosy. A little blotch appears,
often on the face of the victim, which gradually extending covers
the whole body. Scales drop from the sufferer; his limbs become
frightfully swollen, his voice grows hoarse, his eyes almost burst
from their sockets, as the irresistible decay saps his life’s blood.
While thus afflicted the victim suffers no physical inconvenience,
except the gradual loss of his limbs. His body is numb and he does
not feel the hand of the destroyer; his appetite is as good as ever,
and he sleeps with as much relish as he did when he was in health.
But in Eastern countries that which is almost as unbearable as the
disease itself is the leper’s exclusion from society, even from
that of his nearest relatives. In most countries leprosy operates
as a divorce of husband and wife. Although it does not fill the air
with contagion, yet the possible inoculation by personal contact or
by handling the same objects, has led to the banishment of lepers
not only from communities but from their homes. Whatever discussion
may still be maintained as to the contagiousness of leprosy there
exists no reasonable doubt of its transmission by heredity or
licentiousness. During the past twenty years and more the Hawaiian
Islands have received a large influx of Chinese coolies of the basest
sort through the coolie traffic. Many of these associated in the
loosest manner with the lower classes of natives, and in 1868 the
authorities awakened to the fact that leprosy was spreading at an
alarming rate. They determined on the Asiatic remedy of isolation.
The western portion of the island of Molokai was selected for this
purpose, and here to-day are found over 2,000 lepers shut out from
all hope of ever seeing their friends, unless the latter become
similarly afflicted. Three times a week a steamer visits the island,
carrying provisions and mail, and the latest victims. Among these
sufferers is William Ragsdale, the first Governor of the colony. In
California a few of the Chinese have been afflicted with the disease,
but it is not considered prevalent among them. In Salem, Mass., there
is a pitiable case. Charles Derby was living in the Hawaiian Islands,
when a slight blotch on his left temple revealed to the experienced
islanders the fact that they had among them another leper. To escape
banishment, Mr. Derby sailed for San Francisco; but was offered
no refuse there, that city following the example of Honolulu. He
then went to Salem, where they knew nothing of the disease, and
there remained until discovered by two medical students from the
Hawaiian Islands. His swollen and decaying face presents a frightful
appearance. What is to be done with him is a question which the Salem
authorities have not yet decided upon.


THE MILITARY ROAD, ARKANSAS.

  ORION, Miss.

  By whom and for what purpose was the road known as the Military
  Road, extending west of Memphis, Tenn., laid out? Where does it
  terminate?

  J. F. MC.

_Answer._—When the Creeks and Cherokees were being transferred to
lands west of the Mississippi, under the command of General Jackson,
this military road was constructed to facilitate the movement. The
road terminates at Little Rock, Ark.


AURORA BOREALIS NOT A MODERN DISCOVERY.

  LOWELL, Mich.

  I am informed, on what appears to be good authority, that the
  aurora borealis has been seen for only about two hundred years, and
  that we have no record of its previous appearance. Is such the case?

  W. A. D.

_Answer._—The aurora borealis is not a phenomenon peculiar to modern
times. The ancients used to call it chasmata, bolides and trabes,
names which expressed the different colors of the lights. The scarlet
aurora was looked upon by the superstitious barbarians as an omen of
direful slaughter; so it is not unusual for descriptions of bloody
battles to contain allusions to northern lights. In the annuls of
Cloon-mac-noise it is recorded that in 688 A. D., accompanying a
terrible battle between Leinster and Munster, Ireland, a purple
aurora lit the northern skies, foretelling the slaughter. To the
Latins and Greeks of Southern Europe the phenomenon rarely appeared,
and therefore their writings are almost, if not entirely, silent
concerning it, yet it was not unknown to them.


WHERE WAS EDEN.

  VIRGIL CITY, Mo.

  In what part of the world was the Garden of Eden located?

  C. A. SHARP.

_Answer._—This is still a matter of dispute among Biblical scholars
of the highest reputation. Some have endeavored to locate it by means
of the fruits and mineral productions named in the description given
in the second chapter of Genesis, verses 8-17. But the main question
in the opinion of most investigators is, What are the four rivers
mentioned? The weight of tradition and scholarly study inclines to
an agreement that the Tigris and Euphrates, which, after flowing in
a southeasterly direction, unite and empty into the Persian Gulf,
are the third and fourth rivers mentioned in the sacred word. But
those who agree so far differ widely as to what rivers should be
regarded as the Pison and Gihon. Some affirm that the River Pison is
the Ganges, and the Gihon the sacred river of Egypt: others that the
Garden of Eden was located on the high table-lands of Armenia, from
which rise the Tigris and Euphrates. By choosing two rivers which
flow into the Caspian Sea, or by giving the name Gihon to one river,
and the name Pison to the sea, and extending the boundaries of Eden
so as to take in these waters and the head-waters of the Euphrates
and Tigris, they consider that they have solved the mystery that
veils the cradle of our race. The fact that all the European races
of the Aryan family, and also the Semitic races, trace back their
origin to this region gives color to this solution. A few scholars
of some distinction have argued that the Adamic paradise was in the
vicinity of the mountains of the Moon in Africa, regarding the Nile
as the Pison, and the Niger as the Gihon, and reconciling it with the
views of former scholars by affirming that the Assyrian rivers at
that time had their source in the mountains of the Moon, but flowed
underneath the ground to their apparent source in the continent of
Asia. Others locate Eden in the vicinity of the ancient city of
Babylon, considering the doubtful rivers as the two channels by which
the united Tigris and Euphrates empty into the Persian Gulf. But two
things have not been explained by any of these theories. The four
rivers flow from one river, and the River Pison “compasseth the whole
land of Havilah.” Until these questions are solved the location of
the Garden of Eden will continue to remain a mystery.


THE GLACIAL PERIOD.

  HEBRON, Neb.

  Please give some information in regard to what geologists term the
  ice or glacial period. What evidence have they that such a period
  ever existed?

  JAMES KNOX.

_Answer._—The loose soil which covers so large a part of the surface
of the northern continents to a depth varying from 30 to 100 feet,
over which lie the vegetable deposits of later ages, is considered
by geologists the effect of glaciers that in the quaternary, or
latest geological age, slowly moved southward across the country.
Upon examination it is found that the erratic boulders scattered
over the Western prairies and other northern regions are unlike
the native rock of the same region, being entirely foreign to the
localities where they now appear. Sometimes the nativity of the rock
is traced hundreds of miles north of where it now rests showing that
some powerful agency has carried it southward. Again, if the native
rock be uncovered and closely examined, it will be observed to be
polished and grooved with parallel marks, running north and south, as
if chiseled out by some coarse and heavy instrument. These marks are
attributed to sharp, hard rocks projecting through the lower surfaces
of the moving glaciers. That glaciers do produce such markings is
proven by examination of the rocks which the moving ice fields of
Switzerland and other glacial regions have worn and are marking
to-day; also, the general appearance of the loose, unstratified,
heterogeneous deposit is similar to that of the moraines that the
modern glaciers leave as they slowly melt away. Geologists are
generally agreed that long before the advent of man parts of the
northern hemisphere were elevated several thousand feet higher than
they are at present, causing the cold of the arctic zone to extend
far southward into the present temperate regions, and that a vast
glacier rising in the vicinity of Hudson Bay covered our whole
continent north of the 40th parallel. In New York and other Eastern
States the rocks are scratched from a northwesterly direction, in
Ohio from a northerly, and in Iowa from a northeasterly direction,
showing in each State the direction of the origin of the glacier.
Afterward there followed a subsidence to a few hundred feet below the
existing level, followed by a gradual elevation to the situation of
the present era. These elevations and subsidences are evidenced by
stratification and fossil remains.


MAYORS OF NEW YORK.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  How long has New York City enjoyed a city charter? How many mayors
  has it had, and who have held this office since the villainous
  Oakey Hall, under whom Boss Tweed flourished?

  E. D. WALKER.

_Answer._—The lower portion of Manhattan Island was incorporated
as a city under the original Dutch regime, in 1652. Charles II. of
England, claiming all the country from the French possessions south
to Florida and west to the Pacific as belonging to the English crown,
granted a charter covering New York to his brother, the Duke of
York, who suddenly appeared before New Amsterdam and took unopposed
possession in August, 1664. The name of the city was changed to New
York. The Dutch recovered the place in August, 1673, and changed its
name to New Orange. The next year it was restored by treaty to the
English, and ever since it has kept the name of the city of New York.
Since the office of mayor was created there have been seventy-two
mayors, of whom the first one elected by the people was Cornelius W.
Lawrence. Since Oakey Hall’s administration the following persons
have held this office: Wm. F. Havemeyer, Wm. H. Wickham, Smith Ely,
Edward Cooper, Wm. R. Grace, and the present Mayor, Franklin Edson.


TENDENCY OF DUTIES TO INCREASE.

  DOW CITY, Iowa.

  When were the present tariff duties passed? Was it not when
  Congress was Democratic? Are the duties now greater or less than
  formerly?

_Answer._—The first United States tariff law on imported goods was
approved July 4, 1798. A small tax was then imposed, according to
the suggestion of Alexander Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury,
upon sugar, coffee, tea, salt, manufactured iron, glass and wool,
silk goods, and several articles of minor importance. While the
rate of duty has fluctuated, the general tendency has been toward
an increase. This is shown by the different enactments from 1832 to
the present time. In the latter year the duty on sugar was made 2½
cents per pound; in 1841, 20 per cent; in 1842, 2½ cents per pound;
in 1846, 30 per cent; in 1857, 24 per cent; in March, 1861, ¾ cent
per pound; in August, 1861, 2 cents per pound; in December, 1861, 2½
cents per pound; in 1862, 3 cents per pound; while the present rate
ranges, according to grade, from 57½ to 61¾ per cent. In 1832 the
duty on woolen manufactures was 50 per cent; in 1841, 20 per cent
ad valorem; in 1842, 40 per cent; in 1857, 24 per cent; in March,
1861, 25 per cent and 12 cents per pound; in 1862, 30 per cent and
18 cents per pound; in 1864, 40 per cent and 24 cents per pound; in
1867, 35 per cent and 50 cents per pound, while the present duty
upon woolen imports ranges, according to value, between 41 and 80
per cent. The same gradual increase is observable in silks, which in
1832 were admitted on an ad valorem duty of 10 per cent; in 1841, 20
per cent; in 1842, $2.50 per pound, changing in the same year to 25
per cent. In 1857 it was 19 per cent; in March, 1861, 30 per cent;
in August, 1861, 30 per cent; in 1864, 60 per cent, and in 1881,
58 to 70 per cent. With the exception of a few years when Andrew
Jackson was President, the different Congresses, Democratic as well
as Republican, have sustained the duties upon the imports of this
country. While the Republicans are mainly responsible for whatever is
good or bad in our present tariff laws, Democratic Representatives
from manufacturing districts have of late years, as a rule, given
cheerful aid to the maintenance of a protective tariff.


WHAT IS A CARAT.

  CHICAGO.

  Is a carat a measure of weight or fineness?

  J. A. YOUNG.

_Answer._—It is used by jewelers to express both. A carat weighs
4 grains, or the 120th part of an ounce, troy. In determining the
fineness of a precious metal 24 carats is considered the standard of
purity; hence an 18-carat gold ring would be a ring containing 18
parts in 24 of pure gold.


INSTITUTIONS FOR FEEBLE-MINDED.

  HOWARD CITY, Mich.

  Do any of the States support asylums for weak-minded or imbecile
  persons?

  C. J. BURTCH.

_Answer._—The State of Ohio supports such an institution at Columbus,
and the State of Illinois at Lincoln. Several other States have
similar asylums.


DUTY ON GUNS.

  LOWELL, Ind.

  Please give the amount of duty on imported guns and gun material.

  F. CASTLE.

_Answer._—The rate of duty on guns is 35 per cent; gun barrels,
wholly iron, 35 per cent; gun blocks, wooden, rough-hewn, or sawed
only, 20 per cent; gun locks, steel, 45 per cent; plugs and nipples,
for guns of iron and steel, 45 per cent.


HENRY JAMES, SENIOR AND JUNIOR.

  DENVER, Ind.

  Will you please mention the titles of the works of Henry James,
  concerning whom an article recently appeared in THE SEMI-WEEKLY
  INTER OCEAN.

  R. F. OPLINGER.

_Answer._—Henry James, concerning whose death an interesting article
recently appeared in this paper, was the author of “Moralism and
Christianity;” “Lectures and Miscellanies;” “The Church of Christ not
an Ecclesiasticism;” “The Nature of Evil;” “Christianity, the Logic
of Creation;” “Substance and Shadow;” “The Secret of Swedenborg,”
and “Reminiscences of Carlyle.” He was a clergyman and not a writer
of romance; but his son, Henry James, Jr., is a novelist, and has
written the following popular works in this line: “Watch and Ward;”
“The American;” “Daisy Miller;” “An International Episode;” “The
Diary of a Man of Fifty;” “Washington Square;” “A Bundle of Letters,”
and other works of fiction; also, “Transatlantic Sketches,” a volume
of travel; “Hawthorne,” one of the series entitled “English Men of
Letters,” and “French Poets and Novelists,” a book in the nature of a
criticism.


THE LANGUAGE OF GEMS.

  ALDEN, Iowa.

  Please give the language of gems and precious stones.

  C. L. F.

_Answer._—The language of the various precious stones is as follows:

Moss Agate—Health, prosperity, and long life.

Amethyst—Prevents violent passions.

Bloodstone—Courage, wisdom, and firmness in affection.

Chrysolite—Frees from evil passions and sadness.

Emerald—Insures true love, discovers false.

Diamond—Innocence, faith, and virgin purity, friends.

Garnet—Constancy and fidelity in every engagement.

Opal—Sharpens the sight and faith of the possessor.

Pearl—Purity; gives clearness to physical and mental sight.

Ruby—Corrects evils resulting from mistaken friendship.

Sapphire—Repentance; frees from enchantment.

Sardonyx—Insures conjugal felicity.

Topaz—Fidelity and friendship; prevents bad dreams.

Turquoise—Insures prosperity in love.


PHRENOLOGY.

  MT. AYR, Iowa.

  Give a short history of phrenology, mentioning in particular its
  more prominent advocates.

  E. E. DAVIS.

_Answer._—The history of phrenology is embodied in the lives of
its expounders. Although the prominent thinkers of mediæval Europe
acknowledged many of its principles, it was not until 1796 that
phrenology found an able and persistent advocate. Franz Joseph Gall,
who in 1758 was born in Baden, began in his childhood to study the
human face and head, and connect the various dispositions of men
with certain prominences noticeable in the shape of their skulls. He
studied medicine at various colleges, receiving his degree at Vienna.
Eleven years after his graduation he delivered a lecture in that
city, expounding his views on the subject which had been his constant
study. It was not well received, and his subsequent writings and
lectures were subjected to considerable censure and ridicule. They
were, indeed, to such an extent unpopular that in 1805 the Austrian
Government interdicted them, and he was compelled to refrain from
further advancing his views in that country. With Kasper Spurzheim,
a talented young man, who had embraced his doctrines while attending
the school of medicine in Vienna, Dr. Gall changed his abode to
Paris. In that city, with the aid of his pupil, he succeeded in
making a considerable impression. He afterward became a citizen of
France, and died in 1828, near Paris, leaving several works valuable
to the student of phrenology. In the meantime Dr. Spurzheim visited
England. His lectures were listened to with considerable interest and
many in that country adopted his views. In 1832 he came to the United
States; but soon after his first lecture, which had created quite a
sensation, he died in Boston. His efforts in England and Scotland
were continued by George Combe, a lawyer, who wrote and lectured in
those countries, and who also visited the United States. But he to
whom most credit is due for extending the tenets of phrenology in
this country is Oscar Squire Fowler, who was born at Cohocton, N. Y.,
Oct. 11, 1809, was educated at Amherst College, and has spent most of
his life in advocating his views. In 1876 he made his home at Boston,
although much of his time was spent in lecturing in various parts of
the land. Although one of the fundamental principles of phrenology is
that the mind is material and inseparable from the body, yet many who
deny such a conclusion accept some of its inferences.


THE CAPITOL OF NEW YORK.

  VALPARAISO, Ind.

  How much has the State of New York expended on its State House?
  What will be the total cost of the building?

  J. M.

_Answer._—In 1880 a report presented to the State Legislature of New
York in reference to the State House declared that $13,000,000 had
already been expended and that the ultimate cost of the building
would be fully $20,000,000. With all this lavish expenditure the
State House is said to be inadequate; its lower rooms are dark and
unwholesome; the acoustics of the Senate Chamber render it difficult
to hear a debate; and considerable complaint is made because the
building, which covers three acres, is three-fifths halls and
corridors.


SILVER POLISH.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  What chemical used in boiling water will polish German silver.

  A SUBSCRIBER.

_Answer._—To clean and polish silver, silver-plate, and alloys, the
following method is often employed: To 1 quart of water is added 1
ounce of carbonate of potash and ¼ pound of whiting. This is heated,
and the silver immersed. When the liquid has boiled for twenty
minutes it is removed from the fire and permitted to cool. Each piece
is then taken out and polished with soft leather.


THE FAMOUS BURLEIGH.

  COLFAX, Ind.

  Give me a short history of Lord Burleigh.

  SAMUEL SMITH.

_Answer._—William Cecil Burleigh, who, Hume declares, was the “most
vigilant, active and prudent Minister ever known in England,” was
born in Lincolnshire in 1520. He studied law and graduated at
Cambridge. When only 28 years old, he became Secretary of State, but
at the accession of the Catholic Queen Mary he resigned. Although he
was a stanch supporter of the Protestant cause, he was one of the
few who was not persecuted. When Queen Elizabeth in 1558 succeeded
her sister, Burleigh again assumed control of the state and became
virtually the Prime Minister. For forty years he retained this
office, until his death. To his ability much of the credit of
Elizabeth’s wise and prosperous reign is due. He was a man in whom
“the Virgin Queen” could place entire confidence. He was rewarded in
1571 with a barony and in the following year was made Lord Treasurer.
His rule has been severely criticised in some particulars, and
especially as regards his treatment of Mary, Queen of Scots; but his
integrity and statesmanship have never been called in question by
well-informed, impartial historians.


STATISTICS OF RELIGIOUS SECTS.

  CORNING, Iowa.

  Please give the names of the various religious denominations in the
  United States and their respective membership.

  J. B. G.

_Answer._—The denominational statistics of the census if compiled
are not available. The Rand-McNally Index of the World gives the
following data for Jan. 1, 1881, which may be considered a fair
estimate:

  Roman Catholic                6,174,202
  Baptist                       2,133,044
  Methodist                     1,680,779
  M. E. South                     828,013
  Lutheran                        684,570
  Presbyterian                    573,377
  Christian                       567,448
  Congregational                  383,685
  Protestant Episcopal            323,876
  United Brethren                 155,437
  Reformed Church in U. S.        154,742
  United Evangelical              144,000
  Presbyterian South              119,970
  Protestant Methodist            118,170
  Cumberland Presbyterian         111,855
  Mormon                          110,377
  Evangelical Association          99,607
  The Brethren                     90,000
  United Presbyterian              80,236
  Reformed Church in America       78,917
  Freewill Baptists                76,706
  Friends                          67,643
  Second Adventist                 63,500
  Anti-Mission Baptist             40,000
  Universalist                     37,945
  Church of God                    20,224
  Wesleyan Methodist               17,847
  Moravian                         16,112
  Seventh Day Adventist            14,733
  Jews                             13,683
  Free Methodist                   12,120
  Adventist                        11,100
  Reformed Episcopal               10,459
  Seventh Day Baptist               8,606
  Reformed Presbyterian             6,020
  New Jerusalem                     4,734
  Primitive Methodist               3,370
  New Mennonite                     2,990
  American Communities              2,838
  Shaker                            2,400
  Independent Methodist             2,100
  Six Principle Baptist             2,075


THE ITALIAN POET TASSO.

  CHARLESTON, Ill.

  Will you please give something of the life and writings of Torquato
  Tasso?

  H. B. GLASSCO.

_Answer._—Torquato Tasso, the unfortunate Italian poet, was born in
1544. With the intention of practicing law he studied at Naples,
Rome, and afterward at Bergamo. The wonderful popularity of his first
poem, “Rinaldo,” written when only 18 years old, led him to abandon
jurisprudence and devote himself entirely to literary pursuits.
This production was a lively epic composed of twelve cantos, full
of the romance of mediæval times. Soon after he began to labor on
his “Gerusalemme Liberata,” or Jerusalem liberated, his chief work,
which he completed in 1575. He was for a time in great favor at court
and in the Vatican, and the Pope bestowed many favors upon him, and
King Alfonso II. gave him a pension. The Duke of Ferrara became
his especial patron, and treated him as a member of his household,
until Tasso conceived an uncontrollable affection for the Duke’s
daughter, which she did not reciprocate, while the Duke was offended.
In despair he yielded to melancholy, which soon grew into a species
of insanity, so that it became necessary to remove him to the home
of his sister. Here he partially recovered, but he would not be
satisfied until again admitted to the Duke of Ferrara’s household,
where his malady returned, and the Duke, in 1579, removed him to an
insane asylum. There he remained seven years, while all Italy was
singing his praises. After his release he resided at Mantua, and
then at Naples. In 1594, the Pope, Clement VIII., invited him to
come to Rome and be crowned; but before he could go to receive the
promised honors, he died, April 25, 1595. Two of his dramatic poems
“Aminta” and “Torrismondo,” were received with great favor; but that
which contributed most to his fame was the “Gerusalemme Liberata,”
translated into the English by Edward Fairfax as early as 1600 and
by J. K. James as late as 1865. Tasso takes rank among Italian poets
next after Dante.


THE GUITEAU JURY.

  DUNLAP, Iowa.

  Give the names of the jurors in the Guiteau trial.

  JOHN KEITGES.

_Answer._—After three days’ labor the following jury was selected
for the Guiteau trial: John P. Harlin, Fred W. Brandenburg, Charles
G. Stewart, Henry J. Bright, Thomas H. Langley, Michael Sheehan,
Samuel F. Hobbs, G. W. Gates, Ralph Wormley, William H. Browner, T.
Heinlein, and Joseph Prather.


THE ERIE AND MICHIGAN CANAL.

  FAIRMONT, Ind.

  Is there a prospect of a canal connecting Lakes Erie and Michigan?
  What would be the length of the canal? What would be the distance
  around the lakes between the mouths of the proposed canals?

  C. T. COX.

_Answer._—There is no prospect of an early union of Lake Erie and
Lake Michigan by a canal. The length of such waterway would be about
200 miles. The distance around the lakes, from the eastern mouth of
the proposed canal to the western mouth is about 700 miles.


A RETIRED CONGRESSMAN.

  MINNEAPOLIS, Minn.

  Who represented the Ninth District of Ohio in Congress in 1864 and
  1865? Please give a brief sketch of his life.

  A READER.

_Answer._—Warren P. Noble, who represented the Ninth District of Ohio
in Congress from 1861 to 1865, was born in Pennsylvania, June 14,
1821. He received a common school education, and in his youth moved
to Ohio, where he studied law. He began to practice at Tiffin, where
his abilities were soon recognized, and he became a member of the
Legislature of his State, serving in that capacity from 1856 to 1860.
He was elected as a Democrat to the Thirty-seventh Congress in 1860,
re-elected in 1862, serving in both Congresses on the Committee on
Patents. Being defeated by the Republican nominee in 1864, and this
party having grown powerful by the success of its wise and patriotic
policy before another biennial election came around, Mr. Noble
retired permanently from politics.


SAMUEL J. RANDALL.

  BLOOMINGTON, Ill.

  Send us a few facts in regard to ex-Speaker Randall, one of the big
  chiefs in the Democratic camp.

  S. MOORE.

_Answer._—Samuel J. Randall is undoubtedly one of the leading spirits
in his party. He is a shrewd, sagacious politician rather than a
great statesman, but in statesmanship he is one of the prominent
figures on the Democratic side of the House. He is shrewd enough to
know that a Democrat of out-and-out free-trade professions would have
no encouragement to aspire to any office in the gift of Pennsylvania,
but besides this it is only fair to grant him credit for knowing
that it would be ruinous to the enormous mining, manufacturing,
and farming interests of his State for this country to practice
free trade. So he has been instrumental in keeping a considerable
following of Democrats who will vote with him against violent
reductions in the present tariff. Mr. Randall is a Philadelphian by
birth. He was born Oct. 10, 1828; received a fair academic education;
was for a time engaged in mercantile business; was for four years a
member of the City Council; then a member of the State Senate for
a year; was elected to the Thirty-eighth Congress, and has held
membership in the House ever since. In the election of 1880 he
carried his district by 13,661 votes, against 9,880 for B. L. Berry,
Republican, and he was re-elected last November by a still larger
majority. He has sat on several of the most important committees
in the House; was Speaker for the last session of the Forty-fourth
Congress, for the Forty-fifth and the Forty-sixth Congresses, and has
a fair prospect of being Speaker of the next Congress.


CAN A JEW BE A GERMAN?

  ROCK FALLS, Ill.

  Is it possible for a Jew to be a German, or a German a Jew? And how
  is it in other countries?

  L. E. C. ROE.

_Answer._—A German may be a Jew, or a Jew a German, Englishman,
Frenchman, Italian, American, or of any nationality under the sun.
As a Jew his nationality embraces the world; in many respects he
still observes the laws of Moses, and by marriage and other peculiar
institutions he maintains his race distinctions and national
feelings. At the same time he is now in most Christian states a
citizen of the land he happens to be born in, and in most such lands
is permitted to enjoy all the rights of other citizens, as is the
case with American Jews. It was not always so. It is only since
the establishment of the German Empire, in 1871, that the Jew has
enjoyed full civil equality in Germany. France granted it in 1790,
and confirmed this grant in the constitution of 1795. In all but a
few petty, contemptible particulars, since 1858 English Jews have
enjoyed all the privileges of other British subjects. In Russia and
some other European countries the Jew is still denied the rights of
citizenship.


DUTIES ON FARM PRODUCTS AND COAL.

  REST, Kas.

  Give the present import duty on the various kinds of grain, also
  potatoes, butter, cheese, and coal, and oblige several readers.

  JOHN F. COULTER.

_Answer._—The following are the import duties on some of the
principal farm products and coal:

  Wheat, seed or other      20 cts. per bu. of 60 lbs.
  Wheat flour                              20 per cent
  Corn                      10 cts. per bu. of 56 lbs.
  Corn meal                                10 per cent
  Barley, 48 lbs. to bu.               15 cts. per bu.
  Barley, patent                           20 per cent
  Barley, pearl or hulled                1 ct. per lb.
  Barley, pulverized                       20 per cent
  Oats                      10 cts. per bu. of 32 lbs.
  Oatmeal                                ½ ct. per lb.
  Rye                       15 cts. per bu. of 56 lbs.
  Rye flour                                10 per cent
  Rye shorts                               10 per cent

The import duty on potatoes, seed or otherwise, is 14 cents per
bushel; on butter, 4 cents per pound; on cheese of all kinds, 4 cents
per pound; on salt in bulk, 8 cents per 100 pounds; in bags, sacks,
barrels, or other packages or in brown earthenware jars, 12 cents per
100 pounds; on bituminous coal, 75 cents per ton of 28 bushels of 80
pounds each; on dust coal, 40 cents per ton; on cannel coal, 75 cents
per ton.


ST. HELENA.

  RACCOON, Ill.

  What are the area and present population of the island of St.
  Helena? What is its history? Was the banishment of Napoleon just?

  SUBSCRIBER.

_Answer._—The island of St. Helena, whose name always recalls the
gloomy downfall of Napoleon I., contains an area of about forty-seven
miles. It supports a population of 6,241 souls. It was discovered in
1501 by Juan de Nova Castella, a bold Portugese navigator, who gave
it the name St. Helena, because he first saw it on the day sacred to
that saint in the Romish calendar. In the following century the Dutch
took possession and retained it until England seized it in 1673. When
Napoleon Bonaparte was first banished to this island and held here
as a political prisoner under British surveillance, the population
was but about 800,200 of whom were soldiers and 300 slaves. The
importance to a maratime nation like Great Britain of St. Helena,
lying as it does in the path of European, South African, Australian,
and India and China trade, developed as years passed: its value as a
naval station and its other strategic advantages have become more and
more apparent, and now it is looked upon as one of the strong keys of
English power in the South Atlantic.


HOW SLAVERY AFFECTED CONGRESSIONAL APPORTIONMENTS.

  HENRIETTA, Neb.

  Were slaveholders entitled to extra votes for the slaves which they
  possessed?

  INQUIRER.

_Answer._—In Congressional apportionments before the war, five
negroes were counted as equal to three whites. Of course the slaves
were not permitted to vote, but the voting power of the whites was
plainly magnified over that of an equal number of whites in the free
States. For example, the first Congressional apportionment allowed
one representative for every 30,000 inhabitants; but in the South
21,000 whites owning 15,000 slaves counted the same as 30,000 whites
in the North where there were no slaves, or 15,000 whites holding
25,000 slaves were granted the same representation in Congress and
the electoral college as double the number of Northern whites.


JEFFERSON AND JEFFERSONIANISM.

  BELLE PLAINE, Iowa.

  Please give a brief biography of Thomas Jefferson.

  A SON OF VULCAN.

_Answer._—“Thomas Jefferson, author of the Declaration of American
Independence, of the statute of Virginia for religious freedom,
and father of the University of Virginia,” is the inscription upon
Jefferson’s tombstone. He was born April 2, 1743, in the county of
Albemarle, in the interior of Virginia, then a desolate forest. His
diligence and study was encouraged by his parents, who placed him
under the care of a talented Scottish clergyman. When he was 17
he entered William and Mary College, and after graduation studied
law. In 1759 he was chosen to represent his county in the House of
Burgesses, where he continued with but little interruption until the
days of the revolution. Like George Washington, disappointed in his
first love, he married a widow, in 1772. Three years later he was
sent as a delegate to the Second Continental Congress. As Chairman
of the committee to draft the Declaration of Independence, he is
said to have written the whole of that document, which, with a few
minor amendments, was adopted by Congress and sent to the King of
England. In October he resigned and retired to his farm, but only
again to be forced into civil life by his election to the State
Legislature. During the war he was not only busy in originating and
advocating measures to aid the cause of liberty but also he began a
thorough revision of the statutes of Virginia. From 1779 to 1781 he
served as Governor. After a short term in the House of Burgesses he
was sent to the Confederate Congress, which, in 1784, thought fit to
appoint him as one of the three commissioners to negotiate treaties
with European nations. Upon Franklin’s return Jefferson was made
Minister Plenipotentiary to the court of Louis XVI. He watched with
eager interest the progress of the French Revolution, and when given
a leave of absence in 1789 returned filled with democratic ideas
from the new republic. Upon his landing he was immediately tendered
by Washington a position in his Cabinet as Secretary of State. Soon
it became evident to Jefferson that among the President’s advisers
there existed a radical difference of opinion on nearly every
important subject. Hamilton was regarded by the Secretary of State
as a man in favor of a constitutional monarchy, and the latter’s
ideas of centralization were construed to mean the destruction of
the existing Constitution and the formation of a government like
that of England. The Secretary of the Treasury, on the other hand,
believed Jefferson to be infused with the socialistic democracy of
France, and one whose principles if put in practice would overthrow
the Constitution and produce anarchy. To Jefferson the financial
policy of Hamilton was very aggravating. The recommendations of
the Treasurer to Congress he believed to be in the interest of the
speculators and the moneyed classes. On New Year’s Day, 1794, he
resigned his office, greatly to the annoyance of Washington, who
was reluctantly compelled to acquiesce, and returned to his farm.
The position occupied by the first President was a peculiarly
embarrassing one. He had in his Cabinet Jefferson and Randolph, the
leaders of the Republican, or Anti-Federal party, and Hamilton and
Knox prominent Federalists. With such associations the administration
as a whole was comparatively little criticised, although Hamilton and
Jefferson were the targets for the denunciations of their respective
opponents. In 1800 Jefferson and Burr each received 73 electoral
votes to Adams’ 65, which threw the election into the House.
According to the decision of that body Jefferson was inaugurated
March 4, 1801. His frugal administration increased the popularity
of his party, which continued to remain in power twenty-four years.
After having served two terms he again retired to his farm, a poor
man, considerably burdened with debt. Congress purchased his library,
which their committee valued at $23,000, although its cost had been
nearly double that sum. Mr. Bacon, who had charge of the removal,
says that there were sixteen wagon loads, each wagon being required
to carry at least 3,000 pounds. The remainder of his life he spent
in endeavoring to introduce schools and colleges, and in general,
the New England system of local government into his native State.
After witnessing the establishment of the University of Virginia, he
died July 4, 1826, upon the same day that John Adams passed away. In
politics Jefferson was considered by the Federalists as a theorist.
Speaking of his administration, Gouverneur Morris says: “There is
just now so much philosophy among our rulers that we must not be
surprised at the charge of pusillanimity.” In religion he was very
bitter against the Calvinists, and held Unitarian views.


WHAT IS MICA—WHERE OBTAINED?

  AURORA, Neb.

  What is mica, and where is it found?

  B. O. B.

_Answer._—Mica consists of a silicate of alumina, combined, according
to species, with small proportions of potash, soda, lithia, oxide
of iron, oxide of manganese, etc. The most common and serviceable
variety is known as potash mica. It is a constituent of granite,
gneiss, mica slate, and several other kindred rocks. It is found both
disseminated and in veins. It is very widely distributed, especially
in composition with other minerals; but there are comparatively few
localities where it is known to exist in such quantities and form as
to be mined with profit. Its most valuable form is that of muscovite,
in which it appears in translucent lamina or plates. The larger and
clearer these plates the greater the value of the mine or quarry. In
Siberia they have been found more than three feet across, and they
have been obtained of great size in Sweden and Norway. This is also
the case at Acworth, Grafton, and Alstead, N. H., and mica has been
found large enough for economic use in Canada. Mica is used largely
for the doors of stoves and the sides of lanterns. It is employed in
some countries as a substitute for window glass, and its toughness
recommends it for this purpose on board vessels of war. It has also
been used for spectacles. When ground it makes a cheap bronzing
powder. There are some mica factories in North Carolina, near
Mitchell County mica mines. In the state of a fine powder it is used
to give a brilliant appearance to walls, and as a sand for drying ink
on manuscripts. Lithia mica contains a small proportion of lithia,
which gives it in many cases a fine rose or peachblow color, so that
it is used for ornamental purposes.


WHY THE GREAT DIPPER SPINS AROUND THE POLE.

  COLDWATER, Mich.

  Please explain the apparent revolution of the Dipper about the
  Polar Star.

  J. C. A.

_Answer._—The Great Dipper only appears to revolve, owing to the
revolution of the earth. Of course, it makes an apparent revolution
every twenty-four hours, the same as the sun. It is visible
throughout the entire night because it is within what is called the
circle of perpetual apparition, or that part of the heavens which is
always in sight to the observer. This circle enlarges as one travels
from the equator, where it is nothing, to the pole, where it takes in
the whole northern hemisphere.


THE OLD UNITED STATES BANK.

  CRESTON, Iowa.

  Please give the location and explain the government of the first
  and second banks of the United States.

  M. M. MCKEE.

_Answer._—The act establishing the old United States Bank,
although opposed by the Secretary of State, Thomas Jefferson, and
by Edmund Randolph, the Attorney General, on the ground of its
unconstitutionality, was approved by President Washington, July
25, 1791. The bank was organized at Philadelphia. The different
clauses declared that the capital should be $10,000,000, which
should be divided into 25,000 shares of $400 each; that any person,
copartnership or body politic might subscribe for any number of
shares not exceeding 1,000—only the United States could subscribe
for more than this number of shares; that, with the exception of
the United States, the subscriptions should be payable one-fourth
in gold and silver, and the remaining three-fourths in certain 6
per cent bonds of the United States; that the subscribers should
be incorporated under the name of “The President, Directors, and
company of the Bank of the United States,” and the organization
should continue until March 4, 1811; that the bank could hold
property of all kinds, inclusive of its capital, to the amount of
$15,000,000; that twenty-five directors should be chosen, who in
turn should choose from their number a President; that as soon as
$400,000 in gold and silver was received on subscription the bank
could organize, after giving a notice of its intention. The general
effect of this institution was very salutary. The credit of the
United States became firmly established. The bank notes stood at par
with gold and silver. The large deposits made the money available
for the use of the Treasury, and the State bank currency, which had
flooded the country, with no prospects of redemption, was greatly
reduced. But with all its recognized advantages the act to re-charter
was defeated in 1811, by the casting vote of the Vice President,
George Clinton. Its loss, however, was immediately felt in the sudden
and rapid increase of the currency of the State banks. To ward off
an impending crisis, the second bank was established by an act
approved by President Madison, April 10, 1816, at Philadelphia. A
capital of $35,000,000 was required, which was to be equally divided
into 350,000 shares, of which the United States took 70,000. The
charter extended to March 3, 1836. It was prohibited from lending on
account of the United States more than $500,000, or to any prince or
foreign power any sum whatever, without the sanction of law first
obtained. The bank was also prohibited from issuing bills of less
denomination than $5. In time, to facilitate business, branch offices
were established in every State. In December, 1829, however, the
bank met strenuous opposition in the message of President Jackson,
who argued, like Jefferson, against the constitutionality of its
charter. When Congress, in 1832, passed a bill to re-charter the
institution, Jackson imposed his veto, and soon after removed from
the bank the United States’ deposits. The bank corporation, however,
continued to exist, hoping that succeeding elections would change the
complexion of affairs before their charter expired; but in this they
were disappointed. In 1836 the charter terminated, and a few months
afterward the business interests of the country were overwhelmed in a
most disastrous financial revulsion.


JAMES FENIMORE COOPER.

  PERRYVILLE, Ind.

  Give a short biography of James Fenimore Cooper.

  C. A. MOODY.

_Answer._—J. Fenimore Cooper, the pioneer of American novelists,
was born in Burlington, N. J., Sept. 15, 1789. Reared in the wild
country surrounding Otsego Lake, he early became acquainted with the
natural scenery which he afterward so vividly described. His father,
who was a member of Congress, sent him when but 13 to Yale College,
where he remained two years. At the age of 16 he joined the United
States navy, and made two extended cruises, which gave him all the
information he desired concerning the sea. Resigning, he married, and
settled at Westchester, N. Y., where he began to write his novels.
The first, “Precaution,” appeared in 1819, and from that time he
continued to write until his death, in 1851. In 1826 he visited
Europe, returning in 1833. The novels of Cooper are considered
remarkable for their descriptions; but in the general finish of
his stories he has many superiors. His histories, while they are
fascinating in interest, are not considered altogether reliable. His
principal works are “The Pioneers,” “The Spy,” “The Pilot,” “The
Prairie,” “Naval History of the United States,” and “The Pathfinder.”


MACKINAC.

  BRIMFIELD, Ind.

  Please give a short history of Mackinac Island.

  D. D. POITNER.

_Answer._—The island of Mackinac, famed in Indian legends and the
early French and English history of the West, was first visited by
white men in 1634, when John Nicollet and a few Hurons and French
voyageurs came to Green Bay to make a treaty with the Indians of
that region. In 1670 that devout Jesuit missionary, Jean Marquette,
lived on this island for about two years while building a chapel
and dwelling on a point opposite on the site of the present
Mackinac City. While here he wrote the following description:
“Missili-Mackinac is an island, famous in these regions. It is of
more than a league in diameter, and elevated in some places into
such high cliffs as to be seen more than twelve leagues off. It is
situated just in the strait forming the communication between Lakes
Huron and Illinois (Michigan). It is the key and, as it were, the
gate for all the tribes from the south.” “This place is the most
noted in these regions for the abundance of its fisheries; for,
according to the Indian saying, this is the home of the fishes.”
The history of this gem of the lakes is intertwined with that of
the old Mackinac town. This ancient village was for many centuries
the headquarters of the Ottawa, Objibwa, and other Indian nations,
and when Marquette succeeded in winning their friendship and in
constructing his chapel, it became the great trading post of the
French-Canadians. Soon a fort was constructed, and the white
foreigners lived here and traded in peace. But when in 1759 Quebec
was taken by the English, Mackinac fell to the conquerors. These
new masters were very unpopular with the suspicious inhabitants,
who soon found an opportunity to avenge their previous wrongs and
defeats by a complete massacre of the garrison. In order to retain
a post in that locality and prevent a repetition of such slaughter,
the English constructed in 1780 a fort on the island, which in 1793
was surrendered to the United States. In the war of 1812 it was
surprised before its garrison was aware of the declaration of war and
surrendered to the English besiegers. Upon the close of the struggle
it was returned to the jurisdiction of the United States. For many
years the island was the outfitting and furnishing place of John
Jacob Astors’ Indian traffic, under the name of the Northwestern Fur
Company, but when that gentleman sold out in 1834 to Ramsey Crooks,
of New York, the trade of the post gradually decreased. The island
is one of the most beautiful localities, in its natural scenery and
surroundings, of which our country can boast. The clear water, the
imposing rocks, and the old fort, all add luster to its many charms.
One of its chief natural attractions is Arch Rock, which, projecting
from the precipice on the northeastern side of the island, forms
a natural bridge 140 feet in height. The bridge, the Indians say,
was constructed by the giant fairies, who formerly made the island
their abode, but the unpoetical scientist declares that at one time
the water was much higher than in this age, and that its continuous
action wore away the calcareous rock, and left this arch.


METALS AND THEIR USES.

  WALL LAKE, Iowa.

  How many kinds of metals are there? For what are they used; where
  found?

  LAURA.

_Answer._—There is a difference of opinion among practical chemists
as to the number of existing metals. Professor Youmans affirms that
there are at least fifty simple metals, nearly one-half of which are
of little importance. Other scientists make the number considerably
less. The greater number of metals are rarely or never found in
nature in a simple state. They exist in compound forms, and are
useful only in such conditions. For example, sodium, the basis of
our common salt, cannot be exposed to any moisture, and therefore in
its simple state is comparatively useless. Aluminum, as it is found
in the ordinary clay, or the alum of commerce, is of great utility,
but when separated from its associated elements its use is confined
almost exclusively to the laboratory. Of the more important metals
iron is the king. In its production Great Britain leads the world.
From her furnaces and mills in 1879 were taken 5,995,337 tons of
cast and pig iron, and 1,344,297 tons of steel, a ton consisting of
2,240 lbs. During the same year the United States produced 2,741,853
tons of iron, and 1,440,121 tons of steel; Germany, 2,161,192 tons
of iron and 800,000 tons of steel, and France, 1,344,759 tons of
iron and 561,691 tons of steel. Of the production in the United
States, Pennsylvania furnaces yielded about one-half, and those of
Ohio about one-seventh. Copper has been in use from early times.
Often among the bones of primitive man are found utensils beaten
out of this malleable metal. At present it is mined extensively in
Wales, Germany, Australia, Upper Michigan, Northern Wisconsin and
Minnesota, and to a small degree in various other localities. Tin
is found either as rock-tin, in veins with rock and other ores,
or as stream-tin in alluvial deposits. The principal mines are in
Cornwall, Germany, Hungary, Bohemia, Mexico and China. Not only is
it used in the manufacture of tin-plate, but also in the composition
of various valuable alloys. Zinc, in the form of a carbonate or
selicate, is obtained from mines in Silesia and Belgium, and also
in small quantities in Wales, France, and this country. Like tin,
it is used in the composition of various alloys, as well as in the
ordinary form of zinc plate. Until a recent date, the value of
nickel was not known. The Germans, who, out of derision, gave it its
name, were accustomed to cast it aside as a spurious or base copper.
The mines of Germany and Wales produce nearly the entire amount,
although a little has been obtained from mines in Pennsylvania. Its
use is mainly confined to its alloys, such as German silver, white
metal, and a few minor coins. Platinum, which, owing to its high
fusive point and its lack of affinity for acids is peculiarly adapted
for the manufacture of chemical vessels, is found in Brazil, and
also in Russia. In the production of gold the United States leads
all other countries. The yield of our gold mines in 1881 was valued
at $36,500,000, while the total yield from 1845 to 1880 amounted to
$1,523,678,301. Between the years 1493 and 1875 Austria produced in
gold $889,963,800, New Granada $596,501,675, and Russia $590,629,944.
The silver of the world for the last four centuries has been
produced mainly in Mexico, Peru, and Bolivia. Since the discovery of
America Mexican mines have yielded over $2,600,280,659; Peruvian,
$1,065,357,084; and Bolivian, $1,286,999,947. The mines of the United
States have yielded since their first discovery about $540,000,000.
Mercury is obtained either in the fluid state, inclosed in the rocky
receptacles of the earth, or is derived by roasting its sulphate.
In Southern California and Mexico, and also in Austria and Spain,
productive mines are worked. It is valuable in the construction of
thermometers, barometers, pendulums, etc., manufactures, and also in
refining metals by amalgamation.


A SHORT HISTORY OF SUFFRAGE.

  WOODLAWN, Mo.

  Please give a brief history of the right of suffrage in this
  country.

  READER.

_Answer._—The history of suffrage has been a record of progress and
extension. The most limited form is observed in the first election
of the Virginia colony in 1607, and the most extensive to-day is in
Wyoming Territory. By the charter granted to the Virginia Company
the members of a council of settlers, chosen by a higher council
resident in England, were privileged to choose annually a President
from their own number. In accordance with this the first right of
suffrage that existed in any permanent American colony was exercised
by six members of the council, who, in May, 1607, chose Edward Maria
Wingfield as the first President. In 1619 the different towns of
Virginia elected, by general suffrage, twenty-two burgesses, who,
assembling at Jamestown, constituted the first legislative body
convened in America. In the following year, a few hundred miles
north, the Plymouth Fathers gathered on the deck of the Mayflower,
and exercised a still more extended right of suffrage in the choice
of John Carver as the first Governor of the colony. These privileges
continued, with only a few changes in Virginia, until the American
revolution, excepting that eighteen years after the election of
Carver, in Massachusetts, their mass assemblies were deemed too
large, and a representative government was established. Although
democratic in principle, a few laws passed by the New England
colonists restricted the privilege of suffrage. No person who had not
become a freeman by taking the oath of allegiance was permitted to
vote. No man, according to a law of 1631, was admitted to the freedom
of the body politic who was not a member of some of the churches
within the limits of the same. No Quaker was permitted to become a
freeman. The two latter restrictions, however, were soon removed. The
power of the people was greatly increased through the results of the
revolution, yet in several of the original thirteen States the right
of suffrage was restricted to property-holders or rate-payers, and
otherwise limited for periods extending in some cases through one or
more decades of the present century. The tendency was constantly to
the wide limits of manhood suffrage, which was then prevailing rule,
but only as regards white citizens, until the fifteenth amendment
in March, 1870, extended the same right to colored citizens. The
present movement toward the extension of the right to women has
been successful in Wyoming Territory and to a certain extent in
Massachusetts, which permits women to vote for members of the Board
of Education. The agitation, also, of the educational qualification
of electors has resulted in late years in a slight limitation of the
right of suffrage in a few of the States, notably Massachusetts.


ELIZA COOK.

  OHIO.

  Please give a short sketch of Eliza Cook, the English poetess.

  MRS. RANKIN.

_Answer._—Eliza Cook, who is now residing in the village of Merton
in Surrey, England, was born in Southwark in 1817. In early life she
established a considerable reputation through the poems which she
contributed to several of the leading magazines of London. In 1840
these poems were collected and with others published in one volume,
since which time she has issued several editions of her lyrics that
are read with as much interest in our country as in England. In 1849
she published a magazine entitled _Eliza Cook’s Journal_, which
was quite successful for many years. Although the effects of age
are beginning to be noticeable, she still contributes to various
magazines.


A HISTORY OF OUR FLAG.

  MILTON, Ind.

  Please give a history of our National flag.

  HARRY WOODARD.

_Answer._—In June, 1777, a committee having been appointed by
Congress to confer with General Washington concerning a design for
a National flag, reported in favor of a flag containing thirteen
stripes, alternately red and white, and a blue field adorned with
thirteen white stars. This was adopted June 14, and the design was
carried to the upholstering shop of Mrs. Ross, No. 239 Arch street,
Philadelphia, where the first National flag was made. The original
design required six-pointed stars, but, upon Mrs. Ross’ suggestion
that five-pointed stars would be more symmetrical, the pattern was
changed. This lady was afterward given the position of manufacturer
of government flags, which occupation upon her death was retained
by her children. The stars and stripes were first unfurled at the
battle of Saratoga upon the occasion of the surrender of Burgoyne.
By an act of Congress, Jan. 13, 1794, the design was changed so as
to incorporate fifteen stripes and fifteen stars, and one star was
to be added for every subsequent State admitted. This, however,
was repealed in 1818, when the original number of stripes were
established, the stars continuing to increase as new States were
admitted. In designing a flag the field should be one-third the
length and cover the width of seven stripes. Of the colors, red
represents courage, white, integrity, and blue steadfastness, faith
and love.


INDIA, BROWN, AND YELLOW INKS.

  BLACKBERRY STATION, Ill.

  Please give a recipe for making India ink, also recipes for making
  yellow and brown inks.

  ELMER WEYANT.

_Answer._—Pure India ink, or sepia, is made only in China, but a good
imitation and common substitute is made as follows: Ivory black,
ground to an impalpable powder, is made into a paste with weak gum
arabic water, perfumed with a few drops of essence of musk and half
as much essence of ambergris. This is pressed into cakes, ready for
use. Brown ink may be made with a strong decoction of catechu. The
shade can be varied by cautiously adding a little weak solution
of bichromate of potash. A yellow ink may be made with a strong
decoction of yellow dyeing ingredient with alum and gum arabic.


ONE OF OUR NEW BRIGADIER GENERAL.

  CHICAGO.

  Please give a short sketch of General Mackenzie, lately appointed
  Brigadier General in the regular army.

  M. J. FOREMAN.

_Answer._—Ranal S. Mackenzie was born in New York in August, 1840.
Graduating from West Point in 1862, he was made Second Lieutenant
of Engineers. He immediately entered active service in the Ninth
Corps, and was wounded at the second battle of Bull Run. When Lee,
in 1863, advanced into Maryland, Mackenzie was very busily employed
in constructing bridges for the Union forces which followed in the
rear of the rebel army. He took part in the various battles of the
Army of the Potomac in Maryland and in West Virginia, and in May,
1864, had charge of a company before Richmond. He passed through the
battle of the Wilderness, and in June was wounded before Petersburg.
For his gallantry he was appointed Brigadier General of Volunteers.
Resuming the command of his company, he continued his efforts against
Petersburg. At the battle of Five Forks he commanded a division of
cavalry with so much skill that he was brevetted Major General. After
the close of the war he retained the command of a company in his old
corps. In March, 1867, he was promoted to the Colonelcy, and in 1870
he was transferred to the cavalry and sent to the Mexican frontier.
In quelling the depredations on the Texas border and in putting down
the Indian insurrections in New Mexico and Arizona he has since
displayed considerable military ability. Previous to his present
promotion he had charge of the army in New Mexico, Santa Fe being his
headquarters.


SOUND AND SENSE.

  WYOMING, Ill.

  Can sound be produced with no ear to hear?

  WILLIAM E. WHITE.

_Answer._—The word sound is used in different senses. In the sense
defined in the first definition given by Webster and Worcester, the
answer to your question is “no;” but in the sense of his second
definition, it is “yes.” This second definition, as given in the
last edition of his Unabridged Dictionary, is as follows: “Sound—The
occasion of sound: the impulse or vibration which would occasion
sound to a percipient if present with unimpaired organs.” This use
of the word is strikingly illustrated in the expression “inaudible
sounds,” i.e., such as can only be heard by the help of instruments.


GENERAL ROBERT E. LEE.

  MONTICELLO, Ill.

  Please give a biographical sketch of the late rebel General, Robert
  E. Lee.

  JACOB A. RHOADS.

_Answer._—The Commander-in-chief of the rebel forces was born at
Westmoreland, Va., Jan. 19, 1807. At the age of 18 he entered
West Point, from which he graduated, the second in his class, in
1829. Receiving an appointment of Second Lieutenant in the Corps
of Engineers, he spent his time at various places, engaged in the
government surveys, until the breaking out of the Mexican war. During
the greater portion of the war he served under General Scott, who
considered him a very capable officer. For his excellent services he
was brevetted major, then lieutenant colonel, and soon afterwards he
was made colonel. At Chapultepec, he was wounded, but not seriously
enough to prevent his entering the City of Mexico. After the war he
was engaged on the Atlantic coast until his appointment in 1852 to
the superintendency of the Military Academy. In 1855 he was made
Lieutenant Colonel of the Second Cavalry, and was transferred to the
Texas border. While on leave of absence in Washington in 1859, he was
placed in charge of the troops which quelled the raid at Harper’s
Ferry. In March, 1861, he was made colonel, but when he learned of
Virginia’s secession he resigned and accepted an appointment in the
insurrectionary forces of his native State. Repairing to Richmond he
was made commander-in-chief of the forces of Virginia, with the title
of Major General. Soon after, by an act of the Confederate Congress,
he was made third in rank of the entire rebel forces, Samuel Cooper
and A. S. Johnston being his superiors. Because of his inactivity
before Rosecrans he was transferred in December to North and South
Carolina, where he remained until March, 1862, when he returned to
accept the position of commander-in-chief of all the Confederate
forces. In June he defeated McClellan and began his northward march,
routing the forces of Pope and invading the State of Maryland. The
bloody battle of Antietam was claimed as a victory by both sides,
but Lee thought best immediately to retire into Virginia. Until his
next invasion and defeat at Gettysburg in July, 1863, he remained on
the defensive. His subsequent retreat, his generalship in the battle
of the Wilderness and other engagements following it disclosed great
tact and prudence. The ability which he displayed in the defense of
Richmond excites the admiration of every impartial reader of history,
and does great credit to his military genius. This genius was more
than matched at last by that of General Grant, sustained by the
greater resources of the North, and he was compelled to surrender his
sword at Appomattox Court House. Subsequently he became President of
Washington and Lee College, located at Lexington, Va., where he died
Oct. 12, 1870.


VARIATIONS OF THE COMPASS.

  KENSETT, Iowa.

  It is said that the companions of Christopher Columbus were greatly
  alarmed when the variations of the compass was first remarked.
  Please explain why the needle of a compass points north, and also
  give the amount of its variation for different places.

  C. E. LOCKE.

_Answer._—Why the magnetic needle points northward is not positively
determined. There are several theories but none of them explain
all the phenomena of the needle. That which perplexes scientists
most is that in every place the needle is subject to variations. By
observations at Paris it was found that in 1681 the magnetic needle
varied 2 deg. 30 min. to the west, in 1865 18 deg. 44 min. to the
west. At London between 1580 and 1692 the needle varied from 10 deg.
15 min. E. to 6 deg. W. In Dakota Territory the average variation is
12 deg. 30 min. east, in Minnesota 11 deg. east, while in Montana
it is 20 deg. east. S. V. Clevenger, United States Deputy Surveyor,
says in a work on government surveys: “The needle does not point due
north, except in a few localities, and at no place does it continue
to point with a given angular distance from the north, for any stated
length of time. It changes secularly, annually, diurnally, and
hourly, and is further subject to fluctuations reducible to no method
of tabulation. In the vicinity of iron in any shape, or magnetic
sands, the needle is deflected toward the material attracting it.
This perturbation is known as local attraction. The author has known
the needle to vary 5 deg. in a distance of one mile, and 1 deg. 30
min. during two hours when stationed at one place.” The variation in
the magnetic needle of Columbus’ compass was probably caused by some
local attraction of which he knew nothing.


DISCOURAGEMENTS TO ANTARCTIC EXPLORATIONS.

  PALESTINE, Ind.

  Why is the north pole the object of more research than the south
  pole?

  SUBSCRIBER.

_Answer._—Soon after the discovery of America European navigators
began to search the arctic zone for a passage to Asiatic countries
which would be less dangerous and circuitous than that usually
traveled. Although the object of polar expeditions has changed
somewhat, yet one of the reasons which actuated them influences the
explorers of the present time. The nearness of this pole has rendered
it of greater interest than its southern counterpart. Expeditions
are fitted out more easily for the shorter voyage. Relief can be
procured with less delay. Other reasons are that from the closer
neighborhood of the continents, and from the action of the Gulf
Stream on the one side and the Japan current on the other, and from
the fact that the earth is in perihelion during the winter season of
the Northern hemisphere, and in aphelion during the winter of the
Southern hemisphere, the Arctic Sea is more free from ice, which
in the Antarctic region is an impregnable barrier in the way of
discovery.


WAGES IN ENGLAND AND AMERICA.

  OSKALOOSA, Iowa.

  Give a comparison of the wages of the United States with those of
  England.

  O. P. L.

_Answer._—The following is a comparison of the wages paid per week in
Chicago and Great Britain to various artisans:

                               Chicago.        Great Britain.

  Bakers                   $8.00 to $12.00     $6.50 to $6.60
  Blacksmiths               9.00 to  12.00      7.04 to  8.12
  Bookbinders               9.00 to  20.00      6.50 to  7.83
  Bricklayers               6.00 to  10.50      7.58 to  9.63
  Cabinetmakers             7.00 to  15.00      7.70 to  8.48
  Carpenters                7.50 to  12.00      7.33 to  8.25
  Farm laborers                                 3.40 to  4.25
  Laborers, porters, etc    5.50 to   9.00      4.50 to  5.00
  Painters                  6.00 to  12.00      7.25 to  8.16
  Plasterers                9.00 to  15.00      7.68 to 10.13
  Plumbers                 12.00 to  20.00      7.13 to  8.46
  Printers                 12.00 to  18.00      7.52 to  7.75
  Shoemakers                9.00 to  18.00               7.35
  Tailors                   6.00 to  18.00      5.00 to  7.30
  Tinsmiths                 9.00 to  12.00      6.00 to  7.30


THE BANKERS’ CLEARING HOUSE, LONDON.

  DAVENPORT, Iowa.

  Tell us something of the purpose of the great Clearing House of
  London, and the amount of business done through it.

  J. BROWN.

_Answer._—The Bankers’ Clearing House, London, is the medium through
which bankers collect the checks and bills in their hands against
other banks. Instead of presenting these checks and bills at each
bank to which they are addressed, and receiving cash and notes in
payment, clearing bankers settle the whole amount delivered during
the day at this establishment in Postoffice Court, Lombard street, by
receiving or paying the difference in the totals for or against them
by a single check on the Bank of England. Every bank in London and
the country is represented by clearing bankers, and as their agents
send through the Clearing House all drafts payable in the city and in
the country, the amount passing through this establishment every year
is enormous. The total amount for the year ending April 30, 1882, was
£6,382,654,000, or nearly $32,000,000,000. The total clearings of the
Bankers’ Clearing House, Chicago, in the year ending Dec. 31, 1882,
amounted to $2,366,526,185. This represented only the transactions of
banks doing business in Chicago. It is estimated that the new rule
as to settlement applied during the past year has reduced the total
clearings nearly 25 per cent below what they would have been under
the old rule. London is the center of exchange for the world, and the
volume of its bank clearings must necessarily be enormously greater
than that of any other city. The totals of bills, checks, and drafts
passed through the London Clearing House, between 1869 and 1881
inclusive, foot up £68,010,643,000, or over three hundred and forty
billion dollars. The rise and fall in trade not only in England, but
in large degree the world over is mirrored in the annual records of
these clearings for the period mentioned. Whereas in 1869 the total
clearings were but 3,626,396,000 pounds sterling, they increased
each year until 1873, when they amounted to £6,070,948,000. Then,
in consequence of the widespread commercial depression the total
trade transactions fell off, and the London bank clearings fell to
£5,936,772,000 in 1874, £5,685,793,000 in 1875, and £4,963,480,000
in 1876, the lowest point touched. Not until 1880 did the clearings
rise to nearly six billions again. In 1881, for the first time, did
they reach and pass the total in 1873, indicating general business
prosperity throughout the world.


CHICAGO AND MILWAUKEE COMPARED.

  SHOSHONE AGENCY, W. T.

  How does Milwaukee compare with Chicago in the amount of grain
  handled in one year?

  WM. H. ROME.

_Answer._—The following are the statistics of receipts and shipments
at Milwaukee for 1882:

              Receipts, bu. |            Shipments, bu.
                            |
  Wheat           7,816,471 | Wheat           1,788,479
  Oats            2,581,808 | Oats            1,600,916
  Barley          4,653,192 | Barley          2,927,273
  Rye               491,006 | Rye               440,369
  Corn            2,037,680 | Corn            1,454,144
  Flour (brls)    3,340,854 | Flour, (brls)   4,248,050
                 —————————— |                ——————————
    Total in bu  32,613,994 |   Total in bu  27,327,405

The statistics of Chicago during the same period are:

              Receipts, bu. |            Shipments, bu.
                            |
  Wheat          22,326,680 | Wheat          19,905,319
  Oats           26,975,137 | Oats           23,975,177
  Barley          2,066,636 | Barley          4,130,069
  Rye             2,052,214 | Rye             1,928,874
  Corn           49,224,522 | Corn           49,264,167
  Flour (brls)    4,378,864 | Flour (brls)    3,995,532
                 —————————— |                ——————————
   Total in bu  122,350,074 |  Total in bu  117,182,590


AMERICAN AND ENGLISH SHIP-BUILDING.

  VAN WERT, Ohio.

  How does American ship-building compare with the ship-building of
  Great Britain?

  J. W. NICODEMUS.

_Answer._—During the year 1880 there were constructed in the United
States for ocean traffic 412 sailing vessels, having a tonnage
of 53,610, and 166 steam vessels, having a tonnage of 40,617. In
addition to this, for the service of the lakes and rivers, were
constructed forty-eight sailing vessels, with a tonnage of 5,447 and
182 steamers, with a tonnage of 38,237. In the same period Great
Britain constructed 353 sailing vessels, with a tonnage of 57,534,
and 474 steamers, with a tonnage of 346,361. The total number of
American vessels plying the ocean was, at that time, 17,932, with a
tonnage of 2,803,923, while Great Britain boasted of 25,185 vessels
and a tonnage of 6,574,513. Including the shipping upon the inland
lakes and rivers, the total shipping of the United States was 21,547
vessels, having a tonnage of 3,577,816. The reason for this enormous
difference between the two countries is due partly to the greater
cost of labor and material in the United States; partly to many more
ways of employing capital profitably in the United States than
there are in other countries; partly to the subsidies paid by the
British Government to encourage the establishment and maintenance of
British ocean lines of transportation; partly to the vastness of the
British Empire and the exemption of British vessels and British goods
carried in their vessels from heavy port dues and duties in trading
to British ports; and partly from the American law forbidding the
granting of the American flag to vessels built in other countries,
even when owned by American citizens, and forbidding the restoration
of our flag to American-built vessels after they have once gone under
other colors, whatever the cause. American-built vessels compare in
all other respects, except cost, favorably with the same classes of
British vessels, and in many particulars American builders have done
much to improve all classes of sea-going craft.


CELEBRATED PAINTINGS.

  RAVANNA, Mo.

  What and where are some of the most celebrated paintings?

  A READER.

_Answer._—By general agreement among art critics, Michael Angelo and
Raphael stand at the head of the line of master painters. Conspicuous
among the great paintings of the former are “The Last Judgment,” “The
Conversion of St. Paul,” and “The Crucifixion of St. Peter;” and
among those of the latter, “The Dispute Concerning the Sacrament,”
the “Madonna di Foligno,” and the “Madonna del Pesce, or Virgin of
the Fish.” The “Last Judgment” is a large fresco painting, sixty
feet high by thirty feet wide, occupying the wall opposite the
entrance of the Sistine Chapel, in the Vatican Palace at Rome. Over
300 figures are represented in “the most violent attitudes and most
admired disorder.” “The Conversion of St. Paul” is another large
fresco painting in the Vatican. “The Crucifixion of Peter,” also
in the Vatican, is one of the last from the hands of Angelo. “The
Dispute Concerning the Sacrament” is a fresco representing, above,
a convocation of the saints around the Almighty, the Savior, and
the Virgin, enveloped in heavenly glory, while beneath the ceremony
of the consecration of the sacrament is depicted. This is found in
the Camera della Segnatura of the Vatican, Rome. “The Madonna di
Foligno,” in the Vatican gallery, derives its name from the city
of Foligno, which is represented in the back-ground. The “Madonna
del Pesce,” now in the gallery at Madrid, Spain, represents the
Virgin and Child enthroned, with St. Jerome on one side and on the
other an archangel with the young Tobit, who carries a fish, from
which circumstance the name is derived. “The Madonna di San Sisto”
is considered by many critics the best of Raphael’s works. It is
located in the gallery of Dresden, Germany, and represents the
Madonna standing upon the clouds surrounded with glory, holding in
her arms the eternal Son. Saint Sixtus and Saint Barbara kneel at the
sides. It was originally painted on wood, but has been transferred
to canvas. The painting of “The Last Supper,” by Leonardo da Vinci,
is recognized as one of the masterpieces. It was originally painted
by order of the Duke of Milan on the walls of the refectory in the
Dominican Convent of the Madonna delle Grazie. The picture is now in
a state of decay, but several very fine copies have been made; one
of them, at the Royal Academy, London, is considered almost, if not
quite, as good as the original. Rubens’ paintings of the “Descent
from the Cross” and “Elevation of the Cross,” at Antwerp, rank high
as masterpieces. The “Adoration of the Trinity,” by Albert Durer, at
Vienna, and his two pictures containing life-size figures of Peter
and John, Mark and Paul, presented to the Council of Nuremberg,
Germany, are also very famous. All of the above and many others, the
productions of painters barely less noted, are classed as works of
the great masters; and artists and amateurs are constantly going on
pilgrimages to the temples and art galleries which are so favored as
to enshrine them.


THE SCOTTISH POET, WM. KNOX.

  HALSTEAD, Kan.

  Please give a short biographical sketch of William Knox.

  LINNIE REED.

_Answer._—William Knox, a Scottish poet, familiar to the readers of
“Scott’s Diary,” was born at Roxburgh in 1789. Very little has been
recorded concerning his life, which terminated at the comparatively
early age of 36. He was very industrious, and in addition to his
published volumes contributed to the _Literary Gazette_ and to
various other magazines. In 1818 he published a collection of poems
under the title of “The Lonely Heath,” and in the succeeding year
wrote “Mariomne,” “A Visit to Dublin,” “Songs of Israel,” and “The
Harp of Zion.”


THE PLANETS IN FEBRUARY.

  WYANETT, Ill.

  In or near what constellations are the planets at present?

  C. A. H.

_Answer._—During the month of February, 1883, Mercury will be a
morning star after the 10th, and will be found in Capricornus until
near the end of the month, when it will enter Aquarius. Venus will
also be a morning star while in Sagittarius. Mars can be observed
near the sun in Capricornus; Jupiter nearly stationary between Taurus
and Gemini, and Saturn nearly stationary between Aries and Taurus.


JOHN PHŒNIX.

  ABINGDON, Ill.

  Will you please give a short sketch of “John Phœnix,” the humorous
  California writer of twenty years ago.

  C. SNYDER.

_Answer._—This noted humorist was an officer in the regular army.
His real name was George Henry Derby. He was born in Massachusetts;
was appointed to the military academy from that State, and graduated
a second lieutenant of ordnance in 1846; same year was transferred
to the Topographical Engineer Corps, a branch of the army since
abolished. Lieutenant Derby was brevetted for gallantry at Cerro
Gordo, Mexico, being wounded in the action. He was the author, over
the nom de plume of John Phœnix, of “Phœnixiana” (’56), and the
“Squibob Papers.” Many of his most popular productions were written
while he was on the staff of the commanding general of the Military
Department of the Pacific, engaged on the improvement of the harbor
of San Diego, Cal., which accounts for his being referred to as a
Californian writer. Captain Derby died May 15, 1861, in New York
City, aged only 38.


ORIGIN OF THE WHIG PARTY.

  DURAND, Ill.

  Why is J. Quincy Adams classed with the Whig Presidents when the
  Whig party was not organized until 1836.

  E. S. CAPRON.

_Answer._—The National Republicans, to whom J. Quincy Adams belonged,
dropped that name and took the name of Whigs in 1832. Adams, who
was one of the Whig leaders from the first, is usually classed as
the first of the Whig Presidents, because the National policy he
represented and maintained when President was substantially the
policy advocated by the Whigs of 1832. In 1834 there was a State
convention held in New York City, which gave organized form to the
Whig party in that State, and this organization became National in
1836, when Wm. H. Harrison was first nominated by the Whigs for the
Presidency. A still higher degree of organization was effected at
the first delegate National convention of the Whig party, held in
Harrisburg, Pa., Dec. 4, 1839, when Harrison was nominated for the
great campaign of 1840, in which he was elected.


EARLY AMERICAN COINAGE.

  DES MOINES, Iowa.

  Name the earliest American coins.

  E. WILSON.

_Answer._—The earliest coinage that can be called American, in
the sense of Anglo-American, was ordered by the original Virginia
Company, only five years after the founding of Jamestown. The coin
were minted at Somers Islands, now known as the Bermudas. For a long
while the standard currency of Virginia was tobacco, as in many of
the early settlements of the Northwest it was beaver skins, and other
pelts reckoned as worth such a fraction of a beaver skin or so many
beaver skins. The accounts of the fur traders and pioneers in their
dealings with the Indians were kept in beaver skins instead of coin
until some years after the opening of this century, and in some
parts of the Dominion of Canada they are still kept so. In 1645 the
Assembly of the Virginia Colony, after a preamble reciting that, “It
had maturely weighed and considered how advantageous a quoine would
be to this colony, and the great wants and miseries which do daily
happen unto it by the sole dependency upon tobacco,” provided for the
issue of copper coins of the denominations of twopence, threepence,
sixpence, and ninepence; but this law was never carried into effect,
so the first colonial coinage of this country was that struck off by
Massachusetts under the order of the General Court of that colony,
passed May 27, 1652, creating a “mint howse” at Boston, and providing
for the mintage of “12 pence, 6 pence, and 3 pence pieces, which
shall be for forme flatt, and stamped on the one side with N. E., and
on the other side with XIId., VId., and IIId., according to the value
of each peece.” In 1662, from this same mint appeared the famous
“pine tree shillings,” which were two-penny pieces. This mint was
maintained for thirty-four years. In the reign of William and Mary
copper coins were struck in England for New England and Carolina.
Lord Baltimore had silver shillings, sixpences, and fourpences
made in England to supply the demands of his province of Maryland.
Vermont and Connecticut established mints in 1785 for the issue of
copper coin. New Jersey followed a year later. But Congress had the
establishment of a mint for the confederated States under advisement,
and in this same year agreed upon a plan submitted by Thomas
Jefferson, and the act went into operation on a small scale in 1787.
After the adoption of the Constitution of the United States in 1789
all the State mints were closed, as the Constitution specifically
places the sole power of coining money in the Federal Government.


DIFFERENCE OF TIME.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  What is the difference of time between Chicago and the principal
  cities of the world?

  E. A. JORDAN.

_Answer._—The difference in time between Chicago and Washington is
42 minutes. Keeping this in mind, the reader can easily determine
the difference of time between Chicago and other cities named in
the following table, which shows the difference of time between
Washington City and some of the chief cities of the globe, as
calculated at the United States Naval Observatory, Washington:


_Time Table._

At 12 o’clock noon, Saturday, at Washington it is—

  12:12 p. m. Saturday at New York, U. S.
  12:24 p. m. Saturday at Boston, U. S.
  4:31 p. m. Saturday at Lisbon, Portugal
  4:55 p. m. Saturday at Edinburgh, Scotland.
  5:07 p. m. Saturday at London, England.
  5:17 p. m. Saturday at Paris, France.
  5:58 p. m. Saturday at Rome, Italy.
  6:02 p. m. Saturday at Berlin, Prussia.
  6:14 p. m. Saturday at Vienna, Austria.
  6:22 p. m. Saturday at Cape Town, Africa.
  7:04 p. m. Saturday at Constantinople.
  11:01 p. m. Saturday at Calcutta, India.
  12:54 a. m. Sunday at Pekin, China.
  2:48 a. m. Sunday at Melbourne, Australia.
  4:51 a. m. Sunday at Auckland, New Zealand.
  8:58 a. m. Saturday at San Francisco, U. S.
  9:40 a. m. Saturday at Salt Lake, U. S.
  11:08 a. m. Saturday at New Orleans, U. S.
  11:18 a. m. Saturday at Chicago, U. S.
  12 noon Saturday at Lima, Peru.


VALUE OF RARE AMERICAN COINS.

  DES MOINES, Iowa.

  Is it true that coin collectors sometimes pay as high as $12 for a
  single American silver dollar? If so, why?

  E. WILSON.

_Answer._—It is true that United States silver dollars of certain
issues command very high premiums. The silver dollar of 1794, on
which the image of Liberty has flowing hair, is quoted at $12.50;
the “flying eagle dollars” of 1838 and 1839 are quoted at $15 each;
so are the dollars of 1851 and 1852 with “Liberty seated;” so is
that of 1858, with the same figure; while the excessively rare silver
dollars of 1804 are quoted at $200 each. The half-dollar of 1796,
with a filleted head and fifteen stars, commands $15; and that of
the next year, with sixteen stars, commands $16. The value depends
entirely on the rarity of these coins, since while the dollar of
1804 is quoted at $200, the “spread-eagle dollar” of 1803 is worth
but $1.25. The fifteen and sixteen-star dollars belong to the period
when it was the law that an additional stripe should be added to
the United States flag whenever a new State was admitted. In the
mintage they undertook to add a star for each State, but the flag was
restored to the established rule of thirteen stripes, and the Goddess
of Liberty on the dollars was relieved of the burden of carrying a
star for each new State.


THE VISIBLE ZONES OF THE SUN.

  BUSHNELL, Ill.

  Which zone of the sun is presented to our view, the polar or
  equatorial?

  G. W. PORTER.

_Answer._—The sun’s equator is almost coincident with the plane of
the ecliptic, the inclination being only about seven degrees, in
consequence of which the equatorial zone of the sun is continually
presented to the view of terrestrial observers, and they may see
every part of the sun’s surface in the course of each year.


BUTTERINE.

  GIRARD, Ill.

  What are the ingredients used in the manufacture of butterine?

  A SUBSCRIBER.

_Answer._—This substitute for butter is made from tallow or lard, as
the chief component, with cocoanut, olive, and palm oils to give it
the necessary flavor and consistency; salt and a little annatto for
coloring. If this recipe were always followed and the compound called
by its right name it would not be objectionable; but manufacturers
do not hesitate to add other ingredients that are unwholesome and
injurious, and palm the stuff off for butter.


FINENESS OF UNITED STATES COIN.

  MOUNMOUTH, Ill.

  What are the proportions of pure metal in the coins of the United
  States?

  READER.

_Answer._—The gold coins are nine-tenths fine; the silver coins,
nine-tenths fine; the copper-nickel coins, such as the 5-cent piece
and 3-cent piece, are one-fourth nickel and three-fourths copper; the
bronze coins are 95 per cent copper and 5 per cent tin and zinc. The
alloy in the gold coins is silver and copper; in the silver coins,
copper.


NATIONAL DESCENT OF THE PRESIDENTS.

  HARTLEY, Iowa.

  Please give the parentage of each of the Presidents of the United
  States.

  W. WILLIAMS.

_Answer._—The parents of Washington and Adams were of English
origin; those of Jefferson, Welsh; those of Madison, Monroe, and J.
Q. Adams, English; those of Jackson, Scotch-Irish; of Van Buren,
Dutch; of Harrison and Tyler, English; of Polk, Scotch-Irish; of
Taylor, Fillmore, and Pierce, English; of Buchanan, Irish; of
Lincoln, English; of Johnson, probably English; of Grant, English;
of Hayes, Scotch; of Garfield, English, though his mother was of
Huguenot descent; of Arthur, Irish. It seems hardly worth while to
give the names of parents on both sides, as few of our readers care
particularly for the names of grandfathers and grandmothers of great
men unless such ancestors were something more than ordinary.


THE ORDER OF DUMAS’ WORKS.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  It is said that the novels written by Alexander Dumas should be
  read in a particular order, each one being a continuation, as it
  were, or in some respects a sequel, to those preceding it. Is this
  so, and if so, in what order should they be read?

  INQUIRER.

_Answer._—Each of the following works is in one sense complete in
itself, yet they also constitute several series, so related that
the reader better take them up in the following order: The “Three
Guardsmen” series—“The Three Guardsmen,” “Twenty Years After,”
“Bragelone,” “The Iron Mask,” “Louise Lavaliere;” the “Memoirs of
a Physician” series—“The Memoirs of a Physician,” “The Queen’s
Necklace,” “Six Years Later, or The Taking of the Bastile,” “The
Countess De Charnay,” “Andre de Travernay,” “The Chevalier.”


BUCHANAN’S CABINET.

  CHEROKEE, Kan.

  Who were Buchanan’s Cabinet officers?

  WILLIS SWANK.

_Answer._—The Secretaries of State during the administration of James
Buchanan were Lewis Cass and Jeremiah S. Black; Secretaries of the
Treasury, Howell Cobb, Philip F. Thomas, and John A. Dix; Secretaries
of War, John B. Floyd and Joseph Holt; Secretary of the Navy, Isaac
Toucey; Secretary of the Interior, Jacob Thompson: Postmasters
General, Aaron V. Brown, Joseph Holt, and Horatio King; Attorneys
General, Jeremiah S. Black and Edwin M. Stanton.


GOVERNOR COLES, OF ILLINOIS.

  ASKFORT, N. Y.

  Please give a brief sketch of Colonel Coles.

  MYRON HURLBUT.

_Answer._—Edward Coles, an early Governor of Illinois, was born in
Albemarle County, Va., the home of Jefferson, in December, 1786.
He in his youth became prominent in our country’s politics, and in
1810 was appointed private secretary of President Madison. He served
as Minister to Russia in 1817, and, returning the following year,
liberated his slaves. From 1823 to 1826 he was Governor of Illinois,
which position he filled with considerable executive ability. His
death occurred in Philadelphia, July 7, 1868.


WHY WATER FREEZES SOFT.

  SHANK, D. T.

  What is the reason hard water becomes soft by freezing?

  MARTIN SHANK.

_Answer._—By freezing the mineral substances are precipitated and the
water becomes soft, in the same manner as by boiling. For like reason
filthy water will produce comparatively clear ice.


HIGHEST RANK IN U. S. ARMY.

  PLATTVILLE, Ill.

  What is the order of rank of generals in the United States Army?
  What changes have been made in the rank of the highest army
  officers since the war of the Revolution?

  A SUBSCRIBER.

_Answer._—The highest army officer in the active service of the
United States is General; the next inferior, Lieutenant General;
then Major General, and finally Brigadier General. Until George
Washington was made Lieutenant General, in July, 1798, the highest
office was Major General. After his death, in 1797, the title of the
chief army officer continued to be Major General until 1864, when
Grant was appointed Lieutenant General. In July, 1866, the office of
General was created.


THE FATAL HOMERIAN RIDDLE.

  OAKLAND, Cal.

  What was the answer Homer gave to the fisherman who gave him a
  riddle to solve?

  JENNIE SMEDLEY.

_Answer._—The story is that one day Homer, meeting a number of
fishermen, asked them: “Fishermen, sprung of Arcadia, have we aught?”
And they answered: “What we caught we left behind. What we caught
not we bear with us.” Homer could not explain it. He then remembered
that the oracle had said “beware of riddles.” In despair he wrote his
own epitaph and died within three days. This story comes from a lost
work of Aristotle, so it is said, but it is decidedly fishy, and is
classed with the numerous other fictions regarding the blind poet.


TABLE FOR MEASURING AN ACRE.

  WILTON, Iowa.

  Please give an easy rule for measuring an acre when the length of
  one side is known.

  A SUBSCRIBER.

_Answer._—To measure an acre in rectangular form is a simple question
in arithmetic. One has only to divide the total number of square
yards in an acre, 4,840, by the number of yards in the known side or
breadth to find the unknown side in yards. By this process it appears
that a rectangular strip of ground—

   5 yards wide by 968 yards long is 1 acre.
  10 yards wide by 484 yards long is 1 acre.
  20 yards wide by 242 yards long is 1 acre.
  40 yards wide by 121 yards long is 1 acre.
  80 yards wide by 60½ yards long is 1 acre.
  70 yards wide by 69½ yards long is 1 acre.
  60 yards wide by 80⅜ yards long is 1 acre.


NUMBER OF EURO-AMERICAN CABLES.

  FAIRMOUNT, Ind.

  How many submarine cables connect Europe with America?

  MILTON C. COX.

_Answer._—There are three Anglo-American cables, with an aggregate
length of 6,450 miles; also, the old French cable, which is 3,329
miles long; the direct United States cable from Ireland, 2,360
miles; the new French cables, 3,461 miles, and the Brazilian cable,
extending from Portugal to Brazil.


DISCOVERY OF ELECTRIC LIGHT.

  STEWARTSVILLE, Mo.

  Who first produced electric light?

  J. C. ADAMS.

_Answer._—It is uncertain when electric light was first produced by
artificial agencies. The first successful display occurred in 1810,
when Sir Humphrey Davy with a battery of 2,000 elements entertained
the Royal Institution by producing an electric light with an arc
three inches long between carbon points.


ALTITUDES OF WESTERN CITIES.

  EVERGREEN, Neb.

  What are the altitudes of Buffalo, Chicago, Des Moines, St. Paul,
  Yankton, Omaha, and Fort Kearney?

  MANY WESTERN READERS.

_Answer._—The city of Buffalo, N. Y., is elevated above the sea
level about 580 feet; Chicago about 690 feet. The average altitude
of the State of Iowa is about 1,000 feet, varying from 445 feet at
the mouth of the Des Moines River to 1,650 feet at Spirit Lake. The
average elevation of Minnesota is about 1,000 feet. The eastern part
of Dakota is 1,000 feet above the sea level, the central and northern
parts are about 2,500 feet, while in the Black Hills the mountains
reach the height of 7,000 feet. Omaha is 1,046 feet above the sea
level, and Fort Kearney 1,247 feet.


DESCENDANTS OF POCAHONTAS.

  SILOAM, Ark.

  Name some of the descendants of Pocahontas.

  A READER.

_Answer._—Among them are the Randolphs and Bollands, of Virginia;
John Randolph, of Roanoke, the associate of Thomas Jefferson,
Madison, Monroe, John Adams, and other fathers of the Republic was
the most distinguished of these.


366 REVOLUTIONS IN A YEAR.

  LAKEVILLE, Ind.

  How many rotations does the earth make in a year?

  C. A. B.

_Answer._—The earth makes 366 rotations in the 365 days composing
the year. This is a necessary condition of its making one complete
revolution around the sun in a year.


WHEN THE FOUR GOSPELS WERE WRITTEN.

  EXIRA, Iowa.

  When were the four gospels written?

  J. A. HALLOCK.

_Answer._—The time when each of the gospels was written is not
positively known. Matthew and Luke are generally conceded to have
been written between A. D. 58 and A. D. 60. Mark was written after
A. D. 62. It is thought that John was written about A. D. 78; but
Biblical critics are not agreed on these matters.


A RAILROAD COMPROMISE.

  LOCKPORT, N.Y.

  Is it true, as reported, that the Northern Pacific Railroad has
  secured control of the St. Paul, Minneapolis and Manitoba Railroad
  by the purchase of the latter’s stock?

  W. T. RANSOM.

_Answer._—No. The two roads recently came to an agreement not to
encroach on what they are pleased to call each other’s territory.
They also purchased of each other such branch lines as they had
begun which seemed to be at variance with this understanding as to
territory.


ORIGIN OF THE TEMPERANCE MOVEMENT.

  MARION, Ind.

  Please give a brief history of the temperance movements in this
  country.

  SAMUEL C. ZOMBRO.

_Answer._—The total abstinence societies of to-day are the outgrowth
of the old temperate or moderate drinking societies of England and
America. About 400 years ago an association was formed, the members
of which pledged themselves not to drink more than a specified
quantity of alcoholic liquors each day. A society somewhat similar
was inaugurated in Germany in 1600 called “The Order of Temperance,”
whose members were pledged never to become intoxicated and to that
end never to imbibe more than fourteen cups of wine per day. In
America, also, there were moderate drinkers’ organizations. In 1820 a
society was formed in New Jersey, the members of which agreed never
to drink more than one-half pint of rum or whisky per day. The first
total abstinence movement of any importance in this country began
in Saratoga County, New York, prompted by the Temperance Society of
Moreau and Northumberland.

Forty-three persons signed an agreement not to drink “rum, gin,
whisky, wine, or any distilled spirits or compositions of the same,
or any of them, except by the advice of a physician, or in case of
actual disease, also excepting wine at public dinners, under penalty
of 25 cents.” In 1813, The Massachusetts Society for the Suppression
of Intemperance was formed, but owing to the laxity of its rules it
was not very efficient. The American Society for the Promotion of
Temperance was inaugurated in Boston in February, 1826, and rapidly
grew into an extensive organization, having increased in three years
to 11 State associations and 1,000 local societies. About this
time the name tee-total came into use, having originated from the
vain attempt of a stuttering reformed Englishman to pronounce the
word “total.” In 1840 the Washingtonian Society was formed by six
drunkards in the city of Baltimore, who resolved to avoid their cups
and reform their associates. In five years its pledge had been signed
by 650,000 persons, most of whom had been tipplers or downright
drunkards. Other societies were soon formed; the Sons of Temperance
in New York, in 1842; the Order of Templars of Honor and Temperance
in 1845; and the Good Templars in 1851. Since the war many local
societies have been formed, and the Murphy movement has extended all
over the country.


NEW YORK ELEVATED RAILWAYS.

  TAOPI, Minn.

  Please give a short description of the New York elevated railroads.

  M. H. MILLER.

_Answer._—The demand of the people living in the outskirts of
New York City for more rapid transit than that furnished by the
horse cars began to be answered in 1868, when an elevated railway
extending a half-mile was constructed on Greenwich street as an
experiment. Three years later the West Side Elevated Railroad Company
obtained a charter, but before much could be accomplished it sold
its rights to the New York Elevated Railroad Company, in 1872. The
new organization proceeded rapidly to erect its roads, extending
from the heart of the city to the suburbs. In December, 1879, its
rolling stock consisted of 131 locomotives, 292 passenger cars,
and 8 service cars. The road was leased to the Manhattan Railway
Company in May, 1879. The Metropolitan Elevated Railroad was first
called the Gilbert Elevated Railroad, in honor of its projector, Dr.
Rufus H. Gilbert. Although the company obtained its charter in 1872,
work was not commenced until March, 1876. In two years it expended
$10.-300,000 in constructing its lines. In 1879 the road with its
rolling stock, consisting of fifty-six locomotives, 180 passenger
cars, and two freight cars, was leased to the Manhattan Elevated
Railroad Company, which now has a complete monopoly of the elevated
railroads of New York. The tracks of the Metropolitan are supported
on two rows of columns connected with each other at the top by strong
lattice-girders. The rails weigh fifty-six pounds per yard, and rest
upon yellow-pine cross-ties, 6 x 7 inches by 8⅜ feet long, separated
two feet apart. The engines weigh fifteen tons, and are capable of
a speed of forty miles an hour. The stations are about one-half
mile apart. The New York Elevated Railroad consists of a single row
of columns, supporting a lighter tramway than the Metropolitan.
Although at first this system of railways met with considerable
opposition, the people of New York now recognize that its convenience
far outbalances its unsightliness, noise, and other disagreeable
concomitants.


PAUL PRY.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  Who was the author of Paul Pry and who was the original of the
  character?

  INQUIRER.

_Answer._—The author was John Poole, an English dramatist, born in
1785. He was remarkably successful in the production of light drama,
including some roaring farces, of which the most conspicuous was
“Paul Pry;” “Hamlet Travestie,” with burlesque annotations; “Deaf as
a Post;” “Turning the Tables,” and “The Wife’s Stratagem,” adapted
from Shirley. It was long believed that Thomas Hill, the eccentric
editor of the _Dramatic Mirror_, was the original of Poole’s Paul
Pry, but Poole himself contradicts this notion in a biographical
sketch of himself that appeared a few years before his death, which
occurred in London, Feb. 5, 1872. In this sketch he says: “The
character of Paul Pry was suggested by the following anecdote,
related to me several years ago by a beloved friend: An idle old
lady, living in a narrow street, had passed so much of her time in
watching the affairs of her neighbors that she at length knew the
sound of each particular knocker within hearing, and could tell to
which house it belonged. It happened that she fell ill, and was
for several days confined to her bed. Unable to observe in person
what was going on outside, she stationed her maid at the window as
her substitute for the performance of that task. But Betty soon
grew weary of the occupation; she became careless in her reports,
impatient and tetchy when reprimanded for her negligence. ‘Betty,
what are you thinking about? Don’t you hear a double knock at No.
9? Who is it?’ ‘The first floor lodger, ma’am.’ ‘Betty! Betty! I
declare I must give you warning. Why don’t you tell me what that
knock is at No. 24?’ ‘Why, Lord, ma’am, it is only the baker with
pies.’ ‘_Pies!_ Betty? What _can_ they want with pies at No. 24? They
had pies yesterday!’ Of this very point I have availed myself. Let
me add that Paul Pry was never intended as the representative of any
one individual, but of a class. Like the melancholy of Jacques, he
‘is compounded of many samples,’ and I could mention five or six who
were unconscious contributors to the character. That it should have
been so often, though erroneously, supposed to have been drawn after
some particular person is perhaps complimentary to the general truth
of the delineation. With respect to the play generally, I may say
that it is original; it is original in structure, plot, character,
and dialogue—such as they are. The only imitation I am aware of is
to be found in part of the business in which Mrs. Subtle is engaged;
while writing those scenes I had strongly in my recollection Collin
d’Harleville’s ‘Vieux Celibataire.’ But even the little I have
adopted is considerably altered and modified by the necessity of
adapting it to the exigencies of a different plot.”


THE VOTE LAST NOVEMBER.

  BELOIT, Wis.

  What was the number of votes cast for the different parties in each
  of the States in the November election?

  W. W. LLOYD.

_Answer._—The following table, though liable to a few changes, is
substantially correct:

  ————————————————+——————————+——————————+—————————+——————————
                  |   Rep.   |   Dem.   |   Gbk.  |  Scat’g.
  ————————————————+——————————+——————————+—————————+——————————
  California      |   67,173 |   90,695 |         |
  Colorado        |   27,552 |   29,897 |         |
  Connecticut     |   54,853 |   59,014 |     697 |  [1]1,034
  Delaware        |   10,098 |   12,053 |         |
  Florida         |   20,139 |   24,067 |         |  [5]3,553
  Illinois        |  254,551 |  249,067 |  15,520 | [1]16,344
  Indiana         |  210,234 |  220,918 |  13,520 |
  Iowa            |  149,051 |  112,180 |  30,817 |
  Kansas          |   75,158 |   83,237 |  20,933 |
  Louisiana       |   33,953 |   49,892 |         |
  Maryland        |   74,515 |   80,725 |   1,833 |
  Massachusetts   |  119,997 |  133,946 |         |  [1]2,137
  Michigan        |  149,697 |  154,259 |   5,854 |  [1]1,114
  Minnesota       |   92,802 |   46,653 |   3,781 |  [1]1,545
  Mississippi     |   20,553 |   48,159 |         |  [5]9,729
  Missouri        |  128,239 |  198,620 |  33,407 |
  Nebraska        |   43,495 |   28,562 |  16,991 |
  Nevada          |    6,462 |    7,720 |         |
  New Hampshire   |   41,111 |   36,091 |         |
  New Jersey      |   97,869 |   99,962 |   6,063 |    [1]943
  New York        |  342,464 |  535,318 |  11,974 | [1]25,783
  North Carolina  |          |  111,763 |         |[2]111,320
  Pennsylvania    |  315,589 |  355,791 |  23,996 |[3]43,743
  South Carolina  |          |   67,158 |  17,719 |
  Tennessee       |   91,693 |  119,297 |   9,538 | [4]4,632
  Texas           |   27,625 |  164,087 |  41,126 |[5]12,160
  Virginia        |    4,342 |   94,184 |         |[6]99,992
  Wisconsin       |   94,606 |  103,630 |   2,496 |[1]13,800
                  +——————————+——————————+—————————+——————————
      Total       |2,553,821 |3,315,955 | 256,265 |
  ————————————————+——————————+——————————+—————————+——————————


To obtain a correct estimate of the Prohibition vote there should be
added to the above amounts the Republican vote of Kansas, 4,398 votes
cast in favor of a prohibition amendment in North Carolina, and 5,196
votes for prohibition candidates in Pennsylvania, which would swell
the number to 141,328.


NATIVITIES OF CHICAGOANS AND NEW YORKERS.

  ROCKFORD, Ill.

  Which has the larger ratio of foreign population, Chicago or New
  York, and of what elements is the foreign population of these
  cities composed?

  AN OLD SUBSCRIBER.

_Answer._—The foreign population of New York City, according to the
last census, constituted a little over 38 per cent of the whole;
the foreign population of Chicago was 40 per cent of the whole. Of
the foreign population of New York 198,595 were natives of Ireland,
153,482 of Germany, 23,767 of England, 8,683 of Scotland, and 929 of
Wales, 12,223 of Italy, 9,910 of France, 9,020 of Poland. 8,093 of
Bohemia, 7,024 of British America, 4,743 of Austria, 4,551 of Russia,
4,545 of Switzerland, 4,101 of Hungary, 3,194 of Sweden, 1,860 of
Holland, 1,644 of Cuba, 87 of Africa, 119 of Asia, 175 of Australia,
556 of Belgium, 747 of China. 1,096 of Denmark, 69 of Greece, 7
of Greenland, 20 of Japan, 100, of Luxemburg, 132 of Mexico, 893
of Norway, 66 of Portugal, 59 of Sandwich Islands, 427 of South
American Islands, 667 of Spain, 77 of Turkey, 814 of West Indies,
exclusive of Cuba; 17 of Central America, 35 of Atlantic Islands,
62 of Europe, nationality not given; 93 born at sea. Of the foreign
population of Chicago, 44,411 were natives of Ireland, 32,919 of
Prussia, 29,249 of other German States, 13,265 of Canada, 13,045 of
England, 12,930 of Sweden, 11,887 of Bohemia, 9,783 of Norway, 5,536
of Poland, 4,152 of Scotland, 2,626 of Bavaria, 2,556 of Denmark,
2,145 of Baden, 2,045 of Holland, 1,356 of Austria, 1,590 of France,
1,919 of Hanover, 1,357 of Italy, 1,923 of Mechlenburg, 1,612 of
Saxony, 1,459 of Switzerland, 1,408 of Wurtemburg, 484 of Belgium,
408 of Hamburg, 739 of Hessen, 300 of Hungary, 358 of Luxemburg, 235
of New Brunswick, 243 of Nova Scotia, 722 of Wales, 921 of Russia,
110 of Nassau, 258 of China, 107 of Australasia, 48 born at sea, 41
of South America, 61 of Spain, 59 of West Indies, 87 of Newfoundland,
81 of Oldenburg, 44 of Brunswick, 44 of Great Britain, what part not
stated; 330 of countries not specified.


SLAVERY IN CUBA.

  GRAPELAND, Texas.

  What is the condition of slavery in Cuba, and in what time will
  emancipation be complete?

  SUBSCRIBER.

_Answer._—According to a Cuban law, passed by the Spanish Cortes in
1870, all persons who should be born after June 23, 1870, and all
who should attain the age of 60, should be free after June 23, 1870.
This enactment, however, was evaded to a considerable extent. The
plantations were supplied not only with negro but also with Chinese
coolies, who were subjected to even greater servitude. In November,
1879, a new bill was passed by the Spanish Cortes, which provided
that all slaves from 55 upward should become free; that slaves
from 50 to 55 should be liberated Sept. 17, 1880; from 45 to 50,
September, 1882; from 40 to 45, in 1884; from 35 to 40, in 1886; from
30 to 35, in 1888, and those under 30 in 1890. The bill also provided
that the sum of 100,000 piastres should be set apart annually for
defraying the expenses of the emancipation, the owner to receive 350
piastres for each slave. This bill has gone into effect and is being
generally observed, although there is still some complaint of its
violation.


WASHINGTON TERRITORY.

  MANSON, Iowa.

  Please give a few facts concerning the climate, soil, and products
  of Washington Territory.

  W. CLEVELAND.

_Answer._—The Cascade range of mountains extends north and south
through Washington Territory, dividing it into two unequal parts,
which differ somewhat as to their climate and soil. West of the
mountains the climate is very moderate. The inhabitants do not
suffer either from extreme heat or extreme cold, the annual range
of the thermometer being from zero to 85 degrees. The rainy season
lasts three months in winter, during which the inhabitants suffer
no great discomfort. The soil on the river bottoms is a very rich
alluvium. The uplands have a clay loam, but considerable tracts
are sandy soil. About Puget Sound forests of fir and cedar extend
up to the summits of the mountains, while in the river bottoms may
be found the vine-maple, alder, and crab tree. Grain of all kinds,
nutritious grasses, hops, fruit, and vegetables grow abundantly.
East of the Cascades the climate is a little drier, and the summer
and winter heat a little more extreme. The soil is whiter than
that of the Mississippi Valley, being highly charged with alkaline
deposits. Herding now is the chief occupation of the settlers, though
it is expected that when the Northern Pacific Railway is completed
agriculture will become more prominent. Fruitful orchards, surrounded
by fields of wheat, oats, barley, and rye are not at all uncommon.


SACRAMENTO AND SAN JOAQUIN VALLEYS.

  EDGINGTON, Ill.

  Please give a description of the Sacramento and San Joaquin Valleys
  of California.

  A READER.

_Answer._—Between the Coast Ranges and the Sierra Nevada lie the
beautiful valleys of the Sacramento and San Joaquin, named from
the rivers which drain them. The climate of the country is very
uniform, the mean summer temperature of San Francisco, on the bay
into which these rivers empty, being 60 degrees, and that of winter
51 degrees. The rainy season commences in November and continues
until April, during which period, however, but little inconvenience
is occasioned. The dry season is such that crops readily mature and
may be harvested, threshed, and sent to market without being placed
under shelter. The soil is very productive, and, unless the rain
fails in its season, yields abundantly. The grasses are numerous and
nutritious. Wheat, oats, corn, and other cereals are grown quite
extensively. But in many portions of the valley the most lucrative
business is the cultivation of orchards and vineyards. Grapes,
apples, pears, plums, and in the southern part apricots, oranges, and
other tropical fruits grow in abundance. On the verdant slopes of
the mountains sheep-grazing is carried on on a large scale. Although
these valleys offer many inducements to settlers, land may still be
obtained in some places at moderate prices.


EX-GOVERNOR THROOP, OF NEW YORK.

  BUCKLIN, Mo.

  Please give a sketch of the late ex-Governor Throop, of New York.

  F. M. BEERS.

_Answer._—Enos Thompson Throop, at one time very prominent in
politics, was born at Johnstown, N. Y., Aug. 21, 1784. Choosing law
as his profession, he was admitted to the bar in 1806 and began
practice at Auburn. He early established an enviable reputation,
and in 1814 was chosen to represent his district in Congress. He
was afterward appointed by Governor Yates Circuit Judge of the
Seventh District. In 1828 he was elected Lieutenant Governor, along
with Governor Van Buren, and when the latter accepted a position in
Jackson’s Cabinet he succeeded him. In 1830 he was re-elected, but in
1832 declined a third term. He soon after removed to Michigan, where
he again became prominent in political affairs. As age, however,
came upon him his health failed and he returned again to his native
State. He died in his 91st year at Willow Brook, N.Y., on the shore
of Owasco Lake.


CLOCKS AND NOON-MARKS.

  DANVERS, Ill.

  How many correct noon-marks can be made during a year?

  H. M. VALENTINE.

_Answer._—Four correct “noon-marks” are made in a year, on the
following days: Dec. 24, April 15, June 14, and Sept. 1. Owing to
the inclination of the earth’s axis and its unequal movement in
its orbit, solar days vary in their length. The average solar day
corresponds to the twenty-four hours of our clocks, which keep what
is called mean time. If a clock were so constructed as to give the
real solar time for all periods of the year, it would be observed
that sometimes when the solar clock pointed at noon, the ordinary
clock, keeping mean time, would be pointing at figures between 11:45
and 12, or at other times between 12 and 12:15. Four times each year,
however, upon the days mentioned, the two clocks would coincide, and
the shadow of a dial, or noon-mark, would point due south at noon by
the clock.


THE FATHER OF THE HUMANE SOCIETY.

  BEDFORD, Iowa.

  Please give a short sketch of Henry Bergh, so long the President of
  the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals.

  FRANK ATKINSON.

_Answer._—Henry Bergh, the philanthropist, was born in New York,
in 1823. He received his education at Columbia College, where he
manifested a considerable love for literature. He afterward obtained
some notoriety as an author by writing a drama entitled “Love’s
Attractions,” a poem entitled “Married Off,” and several tales and
sketches. In 1863 he was made Secretary of the United States Legation
to Russia, and subsequently Vice Consul. Returning to this country,
he founded the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to
Animals, which was incorporated in 1866. This association has grown
into considerable magnitude, having branches in most of the States
and receiving the support of the best citizens. The society endeavors
to prevent cruelty to all kinds of animals by securing the passage
and enforcement of laws to accomplish that object. It also takes into
consideration things which pertain to the health of the people, such
as purity of meat, milk, etc. As a minor illustration of its good
work, a few years ago sportsmen were accustomed to shoot pigeons
at shooting matches; but by an effort of the Humane Society glass
balls have been substituted. Mr. Bergh continues to preside over the
association.


WEATHER SIGNS.

  AURORA, Ill.

  Now that Vennor and the Signal Service, or “Old Probabilities,” are
  engrossing so much of the public attention, we are in danger of
  forgetting the old weather proverbs. Cannot Our Curiosity Shop call
  to mind a few of these, and let its readers test them alongside of
  the prognostications of Tice, Vennor & Co.

  CONSTANT READER.

_Answer._—The editor of Our Curiosity Shop is neither a prophet
nor the son of a prophet. The best he can do to meet this demand
is to give the following quotations from a lecture on “Weather
Prognostics”, delivered by Mr. William Marriott, before the
Meteorological Society of England:

    When round the moon there is a brugh (halo),
    The weather will be cold and rough.

    When the sun goes pale to bed,
    ’Twill rain to-morrow, it is said.

    When the clouds are upon the hills,
    They come down by the mills.

    Mackerel sky and mares’ tails
    Make lofty ships carry low sails.

    When the wind veers against the sun,
    Trust it not, for back it will run.

    When the wind is in the south,
    It is in the rain’s mouth.

    When the mist creeps up the hill,
    Fisher, out and try your skill.

If larks fly high and sing long, expect fine weather.

When sea-birds fly out early and far to seaward, moderate winds and
fair weather may be expected.

If rooks go far abroad, it will be fine.

Cranes soaring along and quietly in the air foreshow fair weather.

If kites fly high, fine weather is at hand.

    Wild geese, wild geese, ganging out to sea,
    Good weather it will be.

When owls whoop much at night, expect fair weather.

Bats or flying mice, coming out of their holes quickly after sunset,
and sporting themselves in the open air, premonstrate fair and calm
weather.

Chickweed expands its leaves boldly and fully when fine weather is to
follow.

White mist in winter indicates frost.

When fires burn faster than usual and with a blue flame, frosty
weather may be expected.

In winter, when the sound of the breakers on the shore is unusually
distinct, frost is indicated.

    Clear moon,
    Frost soon.

In winter, when the moon’s horns are sharp and well-defined, frost is
expected.

    If the wind is northeast three days without rain
    Eight days will pass before south wind again.

If wind follow sun’s course, expect fair weather.

All the above prognostics, it may be remarked, are in strict
accordance with scientific observation.


FIRST MICHIGAN STATE ELECTION.

  GREENVILLE, Wis.

  When did the first State election occur in Michigan?

  J. H. STANLEY.

_Answer._—In the year 1835 Michigan adopted a State constitution and
chose Stevens T. Mason, the Territorial Governor, as its first State
Governor. It then demanded of Congress a recognition as a State and
the rights of representation. This request Congress agreed to grant,
providing the petitioning State would accept the boundary line
claimed by Ohio. Not until January, 1837, would Michigan accept such
terms, and then only on condition that it should receive, in lieu
of the disputed strip on the south, the territory on Lake Superior
now known as the Upper Peninsula of Michigan. Immediately after this
the State was formally admitted. By special permission the State was
allowed to cast three electoral votes in the Presidential contest
of 1836-7. In the same year in which it was admitted, Mr. Mason was
re-elected to the position of Governor, which office he continued to
hold until 1839.


THE LONGEST THROWS, LEAPS, AND RUNS.

  CAMBRIDGE, Iowa.

  What is the longest throw on record with a base ball? What is the
  longest single standing jump? What is the fastest time ever made
  by man running 100 yards? What is the fastest mile ever made by a
  horse?

  A. APLIN.

_Answer._—The longest throw with a base ball for the year 1882 was
132 yards 1 foot, made by E. N. Williamson, the third baseman of the
Chicago league nine. The longest standing jump with artificial aid
was made by G. W. Hamilton, at Romeo, Mich., Oct. 3, 1879. With 22
pound weights he jumped 14 feet 5½ inches. The longest standing jump
without artificial aid was performed by J. J. Tickle, Sept. 2, 1871,
at Manchester, England, who cleared 10 feet 5 inches. The fastest run
of 100 yards was made by George Seward, an American, at Hammersmith,
England, Sept. 30, 1844, who accomplished the feat in 9¼ seconds. The
fastest recorded time ever made by a horse for one mile was 1 minute
39¾ seconds, which was accomplished by Ten Broeck, a running horse,
at Louisville, Ky., May 24, 1877. The fastest mile in heat racing
was performed by Ada Glenn, in 1 minute 41¼ seconds, running, at
Sheepshead Bay, L. I., Sept. 21, 1880.


BOLIVAR, THE LIBERATOR.

  ORANGE GROVE, Miss.

  Give a short historical sketch or the life of General Bolivar.

  FRANK.

_Answer._—Bolivar y Ponte, surnamed The Liberator, was a South
American patriot, who in July, 1783, was born in Caracas, a town in
the then Spanish province of Venezuela. His father, having obtained
considerable wealth, like many of the early adventurers, sent his
son to Madrid to pursue the study of law. When Venezuela in 1810
endeavored to throw off the yoke of Spanish oppression, Bolivar
joined the cause of the patriots and began service under Miranda.
Soon his own ability eclipsed that of his senior officer and he was
given a separate command. Defeating the Spaniards in August, 1813,
he entered Caracas at the head of his victorious army in triumph.
He was immediately appointed dictator; but his enjoyment of that
office was suddenly terminated by the reappearance of the Spaniards,
who in 1814 defeated and drove him from the province. His defeat,
however, did not discourage him. In 1817 he led the patriots in a
battle against Morillo and again found himself a conqueror. Venezuela
chose him to be her President, and in 1819 New Granada did him like
honor, the two States uniting to form Colombia. In 1823 his love
for liberty and hatred of Spain caused him to lend assistance to the
revolting Peruvians. The latter were successful, and as a reward for
the excellent service of the Liberator, Bolivia, named in his honor,
was erected into a separate State, and Bolivar was made its President
for life. For a few years he remained President of both Colombia and
Bolivia. He died in December, 1830.


ENGLISH SOVEREIGNS.

  HUNTINGDON, Pa.

  Who have been sovereigns of England since the reign of King John?

  W. S. C.

_Answer._—The following, beginning with John, the grantor of Magna
Charta, have been sovereigns of England:

John—Sixth son of Henry II.

Henry III.—Eldest son of John.

Edward I.—Eldest son of Henry III.

Edward II.—Eldest surviving son of Edward I.

Edward III.—Eldest son of Edward II.

Richard II.—Son of the Black Prince, eldest son of Edward III.

Henry IV.—Son of John of Gaunt, fourth son of Edward III.

Henry V.—Eldest son of Henry IV.

Henry VI.—Only son of Henry V.

Edward IV.—Grandson of Richard, son of Edmund, son of Edward III.

Edward V.—Eldest son of Edward IV.

Richard III.—Younger brother of Edward IV.

Henry VII.—Son of Edmund, eldest son of Owen Tudor by Katharine,
widow of Henry V.

Henry VIII.-Only surviving son of Henry VII.

Edward VI.—Son of Henry VIII. by Jane Seymour.

Mary I.—Daughter of Henry VIII. by Katherine of Arragon.

Elizabeth—Daughter of Henry VIII. by Anne Boleyn.

James I.—Son of Mary Queen of Scots, granddaughter of James IV. and
Margaret, daughter of Henry VII.

Charles I.—Only surviving son of James I.

  Commonwealth—{ Oliver Cromwell.
               { Richard Cromwell.

Charles II.—Eldest son of Charles I.

James II.—Second son of Charles I.

  William III. { Son of William Prince of Orange
    and        {   by Mary, daughter of Charles I.
  Mary II.     { Eldest daughter of James II.

Anne—Second daughter of James II.

George I.—Grandson of Elizabeth, daughter of James I.

George II.—Only son of George I.

George III.—Grandson of George II.

George IV.—Eldest son of George III.

William IV.—Third son of George III.

Victoria—Daughter of Edward, fourth son of George III.


WHO MADE MAXIMILIAN EMPEROR OF MEXICO?

  TAYLOR, Ill.

  What part did France take in placing Maximilian on the throne of
  Mexico?

  M. M. ALDIL.

_Answer._—Taking advantage of the war which occupied the attention
of the United States, Napoleon III., planned the conquest of Mexico.
With but little difficulty his army succeeded in this enterprise
and occupied the City of Mexico in 1863. He soon discovered the
barren nature of his conquest and the certainty of final failure.
To rid himself of the consequences of what had proved a most costly
enterprise, before he should be forced to a humiliating abandonment
of the country, he tempted Maximilian, Archduke of Austria, to accent
the crown of Mexico. To give eclat to the affair and the color of
popular approval, he ordered an election. This was dominated by
French troops and Napoleon’s Mexican accomplices, and the result was
an apparent popular vote to adopt an imperial form of government and
invite Maximilian to accept the throne. In 1864 he was received with
festivities and other marks of distinction planned by the French
and their Mexican supporters. The Mexican patriots, however, still
maintained an organization. When driven out of the capital President
Juarez retired to San Luis Potosi, then to Monterey, and finally
to Chihuahua, and with his Cabinet still maintained the form of a
central, national head of the republic. The French availed of the
excuse that Maximilian was in possession of the government to return
to France, and leave him to his own resources. The guerrilla bands
of patriots which had kept up the harassment of the imperial troops
with more or less persistency from the first, gathered strength, and
at last, deserted by Napoleon, attacked on all sides by the rallying
militia of the republic, the unhappy Emperor undertook to escape from
the country, was captured, and finally executed at Queretaro, June
19, 1867. The French were wholly responsible for placing Maximilian
in Mexico and for abandoning him to his unhappy fate.


TRADES UNIONS.

  JACKSONVILLE, Ill.

  Please give us information as to the origin, object, and extent of
  trades unions.

  W. A. LEWIS.

_Answer._—The various trade societies are the outgrowth of the old
English guilds, which originated in the beginning of the eleventh
century, and had for their prime object the relief or support of
infirm guild-brothers, the burial of the dead with proper religious
services, etc. In time, however, these organizations became better
classified and more exclusive. One guild was confined to the
merchants, another to the woolen manufacturers, another to the
cutlery manufacturers, etc.: the objects, at the same time, becoming
more comprehensive. In order to secure skilled workmen and prevent
competition with the inexperienced, the craftsmen secured the
passage of apprenticeship laws. In the case of woolen and several
other trades apprentices were required to serve manufacturers seven
years. Employers and employes were then united in these efforts, but,
finally, as the manufacturing industries became more profitable and
improved, and machinery was introduced, the rich masters withdrew
from the craftguilds, and began to hire children and men who had not
served a complete apprenticeship. This action on the part of the
employers caused the first “trade society” to be formed, in 1796,
called the Institution, which had for its object the protection of
its members against the encroachments of capitalists, and to secure
the passage of stricter apprenticeship laws. Since that time the
trades unions have increased in number and membership, until they
include nearly all the craftsmen of England, and from protective
associations they have grown into societies for the general
improvement of the laboring classes. To its efforts mainly are due
the passage of the eight-hour law of Great Britain and the statute
granting the Saturday half-holiday. In the United States similar
organizations are found, to which, especially in large cities, nearly
all the workmen belong.


THE RED SEA.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  Is it generally believed by Bible scholars that the Red Sea was so
  called because of the destruction of Pharaoh and the Egyptian army?

  ANN HALLIDAY.

_Answer._—The drowning of Pharaoh and his host in the Red Sea had
nothing to do with its name. It takes this from a peculiar reddish
color remarked at certain seasons of the year in parts of this sea,
due to marine plants, or to reddish animalculæ, called by sailors
“whale feed,” which float on it like a scum; or to the reefs of red
coral which abound in many parts of it; or, possibly, to the fact
that its upper coast was one of the boundaries of Edom, “the red.” No
Biblical scholar of any repute has ever asserted that the sea took
its name from the overthrow of Pharaoh.


DESCRIPTION OF A CREAMERY.

  FORT DODGE, Iowa.

  The farmers of this section of the country need to know what a good
  creamery is. Tell us what the inside of a really good creamery
  looks like.

  MANY READERS.

_Answer._—A Chicago inquirer says: “Oblige butter and cheese
consumers with a description of a first-class creamery. Some of us
have a very vague notion of such an establishment.—E. D. Smith.”
Another inquiry comes from Neligh, Neb. So some care has been taken
to obtain a description of a thoroughly well-constructed factory of
this kind. This is the more important as the dairy business of the
West is growing with wonderful rapidity, and nothing has done more
to develop this industry than the recent introduction of creameries.
The term creamery was formerly applied to an establishment fitted
up expressly for the purpose of manufacturing butter, but now the
name is given to factories where both butter and cheese are made.
Milk is brought in spring wagons from dairy-farms for a distance of
six miles or less, and cream is gathered anywhere within a radius
of fifteen miles to be manufactured into butter and cheese. This
product thus handled in larger quantities, in a scientific manner,
with effective labor-saving machinery and proper surroundings, makes
it possible to obtain the best results, and such product is always
marketable at prices much higher than dairy butter. The factory of
the Aurora Creamery Company, built at Aurora, Ill., about a year ago
is generally regarded as a model establishment, and will furnish an
example for this description. To operate a creamery successfully two
things are absolutely necessary, viz., a good spring of living water
of low temperature, say 50 to 54 deg., and good drainage; without
these features there is no prospect of permanent success in the
undertaking. The factory named has a spring located about 200 feet
off which discharges, both winter and summer, 750 gallons of pure
water per hour, temperature 52 deg., with 5 feet 9 inches fall, while
drainage is supplied by a 2-foot square stone sewer which empties
into the river, through which a slough is drained, and into which
there is a 5-foot fall from the factory. The main building is of
brick with a 12-inch wall: size, 32 × 70, 20 feet high; right wing,
20 × 24; left wing, 18 × 24, and rear extension, 18 × 26. The room
in which the cheese is manufactured is 30 × 40. It contains a fine
upright 9-horse-power engine, a Wir’s self-agitating rotary cheese
vat with a capacity for 12,000 pounds of milk and a gang cheese
press. The butter room, 30 × 30 feet, contains one churn with a
capacity of 400 gallons, and one with a capacity of 150 gallons, a
power butter worker, sink with steam pipes to scald, and revolving
brush for washing cans, 3 cream vats 300 gallons each, a receiving
vat into which the milk is strained, and from which it is drawn into
deep pails, or sets, which are placed in three cemented water vats
of capacity sufficient to cool 20,000 pounds of milk daily. The left
wing of the factory contains a 16-horse power boiler, which furnishes
steam to run the machinery and heat the building; a seventy-barrel
water tank, which is placed over the boiler; a Davidson steam pump
and coal bin which will store fifty tons of coal. An improvement
which, it is claimed, is found in no other factory, is an elevated
“whey vat” placed over the boiler-room, into which the whey is
raised by a rotary pump, and from which the farmers draw their
supply of whey to be carried into the country. When all that is
wanted has been drawn out a gate is opened, and the balance is run
into the river, after which the tank is scalded out and kept sweet
and clean. This is a vast improvement over the pestilence breeding
arrangement which is sunk in the ground, and is located near the
butter and cheese rooms of most other factories. The right wing of
the factory contains a driveway, a receiving-room, weighing platform,
and stairway to office. The extension holds 150 tons of ice, and
contains a refrigerator with a capacity of 30,000 pounds of butter.
In the second story is a neat office, store-rooms, and curing room,
to which the cheese are raised by an elevator. The lower floors are
made of 2 × 6 joists, dressed and matched and imbedded in cement;
under which is a four-inch coating of grout, so that there is no
possible chance for the milk to leak through the floor and produce
the sickening stench which is so common in many factories. Special
attention has been given to ventilation in every part of the building
and the whole establishment has the appearance in neatness of a tidy
farmhouse kitchen. The sum of $10,000 was expended in real estate,
buildings, and fixtures of this factory, but a good creamery with a
comfortable outfit of medium capacity could be put up for much less
money. The machinery for churning and working the butter is as simple
as it is ingenious. The churn is a great square chest revolving on
an axis running through its longest diameter; the butter-workers are
fluted wooden cones running around a circular disk inclined at an
angle to the horizon, so that the buttermilk runs off as fast as it
is expressed. The apparatus for stirring the cheese curd and pressing
the cheese, and a score of other nicely contrived instruments,
operate with the uniformity and precision of clock work.


SPEED OF RAILWAY TRAINS.

  WAUKEGAN, Ill.

  How does the speed of railroad trains in this country compare with
  that of trains in Europe?

  C. D. ADAMS.

_Answer._—The fastest recorded railroad speed in the United States
is given in the New York Clipper Almanac, as follows: The train
which left West Philadelphia for Jersey City over the Pennsylvania
Railroad at 7:35 a. m., Sept. 4, 1879 (Edward Osborn, engineer), made
1 mile in 50¼ seconds; 3 miles in 2 m. 36¼ sec., and 5 miles in 4
m. 50 sec. A train on the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railroad
made the run from Hamburg to Buffalo, N. Y., 10 miles, in 8 minutes.
The locomotive Hamilton Davis and six cars, on the New York Central
Railroad in 1855, made 14 miles in 11 minutes. A new Fontaine engine
and two coaches, carrying W. H. Vanderbilt and party, ran from
Amherstburg to St. Thomas, Can., over the Canada Southern Railroad,
111 miles, in 98 minutes—no stop. Probably the fastest run ever made
for any considerable distance in England was that of the special
train carrying the Duke of Wellington from Paddington to Slough, 18
miles, in 15 minutes. But these are exceptional runs; what is of
more importance is to compare regular time-table speed. The London
_Engineer_ says, commenting on a series of articles on this subject
which have appeared in the German journal, _Die Verkehrszeitung_, in
the _American Railroad Gazette_, and in other papers, “it appears
that railroad speeds in Great Britain, on the Continent, and in the
United States are much slower than most people suppose. If we take
for instance, the run from London to Edinburgh, a distance of 397
miles via York, this is made in 9 hours by great Northern trains, the
average speed being 44.1 miles per hour. From Euston the distance
is 401 miles, and London and Northwestern trains make the run in 10
hours, or 40.1 miles an hour. By the Midland Railway the distance is
404 miles, and the time 10 h. 5 min., or very nearly the same speed.
Some of the fastest trains in the world are those run between Leeds
and London. From King’s Cross the distance by the Great Northern is
186½ miles. From St. Pancras by the Midland is 196 miles. The fastest
train on the Great Northern makes the run in 4 h. 5 min., or an
average speed of 45.4 miles an hour. The Midland trains traverse the
distance in 4 h. 30 min., giving an average velocity of 43.5 miles an
hour. The fastest train in the world is the Flying Dutchman, broad
gauge, which makes the run to Swindon at 53½ miles an hour. The Great
Northern trains run from London to York, 188 miles, at 48 miles an
hour, and at least one train runs to Peterborough at 51 miles an
hour. The run from London to Grantham has been made repeatedly at 51
miles an hour. On the United States railways the quickest run appears
to be that made between Jersey City and Philadelphia, 89 miles, made
at the rate of 47⅔ miles an hour. There is not in the world a train
timed to run 60 miles an hour, although it is, of course, certain
that that velocity is often exceeded. If a speed of 60 miles an hour
could be maintained continually between London and Edinburgh, the
journey would occupy only 6 hours and 36 minutes; and allowing for
three stops of 10 minutes each on the route, the time would be under
7¼ hours, instead of 10 hours. So far as the machinery of a railway
is concerned—by which we mean the road, the rolling stock, and the
signals—there is nothing to prevent an average speed of 60 miles an
hour being maintained. That it is not attained is certain.”


THE UNITED STATES CIVIL LIST.

  OSKALOOSA, Iowa.

  What officers are included under the civil service?

  L. A. H.

_Answer._—The civil officers of the United States are those employed
by the several departments. In 1876, in reply to an inquiry made
by order of Congress, the following official statement was made:
Department of State, 430; Treasury, 12,482; War Department, 1,489;
Navy Department, 131; Postoffice Department, 44,897; Interior, 2,475;
Department of Justice, 528. Total number of civil officers, 62,427.


GREAT FIRES.

  JOLIET, Ill.

  Which was the greatest fire, that of London, Moscow, or Chicago?

  AN INQUIRER.

_Answer._—The great fire of London, which occurred in 1666, destroyed
about two-thirds of the city; but there is no estimate of the value
of the property. The burning of Moscow, in September, 1812, destroyed
property which has been valued at $150,000,000. The great Chicago
fire of 1871 consumed $192,000,000 worth of property. The area burnt
over in the Chicago fire was greater than that covered by either the
London or Moscow fire.


PRESIDENT JACKSON’S DOUBLE MARRIAGE.

  OWENSVILLE, Ark.

  Who was the first husband of Andrew Jackson’s wife, and what was
  the cause of the separation?

  SUBSCRIBER.

_Answer._—Mrs. Jackson was formerly the wife of Mr. Lewis Robards,
of Kentucky. While Mr. Robards and his wife were residing at the
home of Mrs. Donelson, the mother of Mrs. Robards, Andrew Jackson
became a boarder, and consequently quite intimate with the family.
In time, Mr. Robards became intensely jealous of his wife, which
culminated in his charging her with adultery and suing for divorce.
This charge, however, was neither proven nor generally believed.
Through the influence of Jackson, the Legislature in 1791 passed an
act legalizing the separation of Mr. and Mrs. Robards, but the legal
divorce from the courts was not obtained until 1793. After the act
of the Legislature, Jackson married Mrs. Robards, supposing that she
was lawfully divorced; but after the decision of the court, in order
to remove everything questionable, he was remarried.


THE BUNKER HILL FLAG.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  What flag, if any, did the provincials use in the battle of
  Bunker Hill, June 17, 1775? What was the first flag used by the
  revolutionary army?

  H. J. H.

_Answer._—Reference to that standard work, “The Origin and Progress
of the Flag of the United States of America,” by George Henry
Preble, U. S. N., and other sources of information, shows that it
is uncertain what flag, if any, was displayed by the Americans at
Bunker Hill, in the famous fight of June 17, 1775. The flag raised on
Prospect Hill by General Putnam, a month later, July 18, 1775, was
red, with the motto, _Qui Transtulit Sustinet_, (who transplanted
still sustains) on one side, and “An Appeal to Heaven” on the other.
This latter motto was emblazoned on the white flag with a green
pine tree carried by the privateers commissioned by Massachusetts,
soon after this. The first cruisers commissioned by Washington
also bore “the pine tree flag.” Before the battle of Bunker Hill,
indeed, immediately after the battle of Lexington, on the 19th of
the preceding April, the provincial troops of Connecticut carried
a standard bearing the arms of that colony and the Latin motto
above cited. As General Putnam and his Connecticut troops took a
prominent part in the battle of Bunker Hill, it is presumable that
this flag was displayed in that action, and by parity of reasoning
it may be inferred that the colonial flags of Massachusetts and
New Hampshire were carried into the action by the militia of those
colonies. Precisely what these were it is almost or quite impossible
to determine with certainty. Indeed, there seem to have been several
different flags. The “union-flags” so frequently mentioned in the
accounts left us of the revolutionary movements of 1774 and the
early part of 1775 were, in most instances, the English red ensign,
with such mottoes as “Liberty and Union,” “Liberty and Property,”
or simply “Liberty.” Peculiar devices were employed by the patriots
of different neighborhoods. Not until Jan. 2, 1776, was the first
common standard raised. This was the “Great Union,” as it was
christened, adopted by General Washington, and first displayed at
his headquarters in Cambridge, Mass., on the date above given. It
consisted of thirteen stripes, alternately white and red, with the
crosses of St. George and St. Andrew in the union where the stars now
glitter.


ORIGIN OF PORTERHOUSE STEAK.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  Can Our Curiosity Shop tell us why steaks cut from the small end of
  the sirloin are called porterhouse steaks?

  EPICURE.

_Answer._—Colonel Thomas F. De Voe, a New York butcher, author of
“The Market Book,” “The Market Assistant,” and other works of similar
nature, gives the following account of this now popular cut of beef:
Martin Morrison kept a favorite porterhouse at No. 327 Pearl street,
New York, near the old Walton House. It was a popular resort with
many of the New York pilots, because here they were always sure
of a pot of ale or porter and “a hot bite,” including one or two
substantial dishes. On one occasion, in 1814, Morrison had enjoyed
an unusual number of calls for steaks, and when an old pilot, who
dropped in at a late hour, called for something substantial to
eat, he was forced to cut from a sirloin roasting piece which he
had got for the next day’s family dinner. The old pilot relished
his steak amazingly and called for another. This disposed of, “he
squared himself in front of his host and vociferated, ‘Look ye here,
messmate, arter this I want my steaks off the roasting piece! Do
you hear that? So mind your weather eye, old boy!’” The old pilot’s
companions soon learned to appreciate these cuts, and it was not
long before they were all insisting on having them. Accordingly,
Morrison’s butcher, Thomas Gibbons, of the Fly Market, asked him why
he had ceased to order the large sirloin steaks. Morrison explained
that he had found that cuts from the small end of the sirloin of the
beef suited his single customers best, both in size and quality,
and directed that thereafter, instead of sending him the sirloin
roasts uncut, he have them cut into chops or steaks, as he should
direct. Gibbons’ daily order, “Cut steaks for the porterhouse,” soon
gave these the name of “porterhouse steaks,” by which they became
known all through the Fly Market, particularly as this excellent cut
rapidly became popular in all the public houses of the city. The name
is now familiar to housekeepers on both sides of the Atlantic, at
least wherever the English language is spoken.


SOLDIERS’ HOMESTEADS.

  CEDAR FALLS, Iowa.

  Is a soldier who served more than three years in the army during
  the late rebellion, and who almost immediately afterwards took up
  a homestead claim of 120 acres of land, whereon he is now living,
  entitled to enter forty acres more in another place?

  A. N. WILSON.

_Answer._—The following letter from Commissioner McFarland, in answer
to a similar inquiry from Mr. A. H. Field, of Indian River, Mich.,
answers this question officially. Observe that the answer turns upon
the important fact that Mr. Field entered his homestead of only
eighty acres after the passage of the act approved June 22, 1874,
hence the Commissioner holds that he is not entitled to the benefits
of the act, whereas if he had made final proof of his claim before
June 22, 1874, he would be entitled to an additional eighty acres.

“WASHINGTON, D. C., Feb. 14, 1883.—A. H. Field, Esq., Indian River,
Mich.—Sir: I am in receipt of your letter of the 31st ult., in which
you state that you served four years in the army during the late
civil war, and that in 1878 you made a homestead entry of eighty
acres—all that you could get in that locality—and have lived on
the same ever since, and made final proof. You ask if you are not
entitled to an additional entry of eighty acres. In reply, I have to
state that _you are not_. The homestead act of June 8, 1872, provides
that any soldier who served for ninety days in the army during the
war of the rebellion, and was honorably discharged, who may have
_heretofore_ entered under the homestead laws a less quantity than
160 acres, shall be permitted to enter a sufficient quantity of land,
which, added to that embraced in the original entry, shall not exceed
160 acres. Such provision was carried into the Revised Statutes of
the United States (Sec. 2306), which statutes were approved June 22,
1874, and since that date if such a soldier elects to enter a less
amount of land than 160 acres, he must abide by his election. Very
respectfully,

  “A. C. MCFARLAND, Commissioner.”

Mr. Field writes to THE INTER OCEAN, inclosing this letter from the
Commissioner of the General Land Office, and complaining that this
law inflicts a hardship on him and other soldiers in the late war,
who, like himself, deferred their entries until after the passage of
the above act. He says: “It seems that it is unfortunate for me, as
an old soldier, that I did not locate my land previous to June, 1874.
I ought to be entitled to eighty acres of land more as well as any
other class of soldiers.” Whether this complaint is or is not well
founded, the fact remains that the law is as above stated.


FINDING ONE’S POSITION AT SEA.

  PLYMOUTH, Wis.

  By what method do sailors at sea determine their exact position?

  DOBS.

_Answer._—The mariner determines his latitude by observing the
meridian altitude of a celestial star whose declination or distance
from the equator is known. In the northern hemisphere for an
approximate answer the pole star is generally taken, the altitude
of which is nearly the latitude of the place. If an observer were
standing upon the equator and looking to the north he would see the
pole star on the horizon, with no altitude. If he should move three
degrees north the pole star would have an altitude corresponding.
At Chicago it is above the horizon about 41 degrees 50 minutes,
corresponding to the latitude of this city. Owing to the apparent
revolution of the pole star about a central axis, which is the true
pole of the heavens, the accurate latitude can only be obtained by
observing its least and greatest altitude and taking one-half their
sum. The longitude of any place computed from Greenwich, Washington,
or other prime meridian, is easily determined by observing the
Greenwich or Washington time when the sun passes the zenith meridian.
In other words, knowing the difference in time between Greenwich and
the place of observation, the longitude of the place may be readily
computed. A difference of time amounting to one hour represents 15
degrees of longitude east or west, as the case may be. The difference
in time between Chicago and Washington is forty-three minutes, which
makes the longitude of Chicago 10 degrees 45 minutes, reckoning
from the legal prime meridian of the United States, which is that
of Washington. Every ship carries a marine chronometer, which is a
time-keeper of the most careful construction, whose accuracy has been
tested with the utmost precision—which is plainly a matter of the
utmost importance to a vessel when it is remembered that an error
of four seconds of time represents about one and one-tenth statute
miles, enough to wreck a ship on a lee shore when the captain,
following the chronometer, supposed himself at a safe distance from
the shoal or shore.


YEARS FOR PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION.

  STREATOR, Ill.

  Is there any easy rule for finding the years on which Presidential
  elections have been held or are to be held?

  A. C.

_Answer._—Every year divisible by four, without exception, is the
year for the election of President and Vice President of the United
States.


U. S. BONDED DEBT—WHEN PAYABLE.

  BARTON, Wis.

  When and in what sums does the bonded debt of the United States
  fall due?

  W. MUNGER.

_Answer._—Several of the later issues of bonds are payable at the
pleasure of the government, but the following cannot be redeemed
except by purchase in the market until specified dates. Four per
cents payable July 1, 1907, $738,829,600; 4½ per cents payable Sept.
1, 1891, $250,000,000; Pacific Railway 6’s payable Sept. 1, 1895,
$3,002,000; Pacific Railway 6’s payable Sept. 1, 1896, $8,000,000;
Pacific Railway 6’s payable Sept 1, 1897, $9,712,000; Pacific Railway
6’s payable Sept. 1, 1898, $29,383,000; Pacific Railway 6’s payable
Sept. 1, 1899, $14,526,512.


THE SIGNS OF THE ZODIAC.

  GENEVA, N. Y.

  Who first devised the signs of the zodiac, and for what purpose?

  CHAS. W. SMITH.

_Answer._—Representations of the zodiacal signs are found among
the ancient writings of the Hindoos, Persians, and Chinese, and
among the carvings on the ruins of Egyptian temples. There is such
a degree of similarity in the characters that a common origin must
be supposed. The signs of the zodiac embrace the twelve important
constellations, which, owing to the motions of the earth, appear to
revolve through the heavens within a belt extending nine degrees
on each side of the sun’s apparent annual path, and within or near
which all the planets revolve. Since the sun appears successively
in each of these twelve constellations during the year, the zodiac
was divided into twelve equal parts, corresponding to the months.
These signs and their subdivisions were used in measuring time and
as the basis of astronomical and astrological calculations and
predictions. Astronomers now, for convenience, use the same signs,
giving to each constellation an extent of thirty degrees, although
the constellations vary in size. These signs are Aries representing
the ram; Taurus, the bull; Gemini, the twins; Cancer, the crab;
Leo, the lion; Virgo, the virgin; Libra, the balance; Scorpio, the
scorpion; Sagittarius, the archer; Capricornus, the goat; Aquarius,
the water-bearer; and Pisces, the fishes. On the 20th of March the
sun enters Aries, and at midnight Virgo, the opposite constellation,
will be overhead. During the month of April the sun will pass
into Taurus, and at midnight Libra will be overhead. The early
astronomers were astrologers, and claimed to be able to predict the
future careers of individuals and nations by observing the positions
and movements of the planets, and condition of the weather, at the
most important periods of men’s lives. A man born when the sun was in
the constellation Scorpio was believed to be naturally bent toward
excessive indulgence of the animal passions; one born when the sun
was in Aries was destined to be a great scholar or ruler; one born
when the sun was in Pisces was predestined to grovel or be a servant,
and so on. All this is regarded now as exploded superstition, except
by fortune-tellers and their dupes.


AREAS OF ENGLAND, SCOTLAND, AND IRELAND.

  HOUGHTON, Mich.

  What are the areas of England, Ireland, Scotland, and Wales? Also,
  what is the area of the county of Cornwall?

  W. J. UREN.

_Answer._—England has an area of 50,914 square miles, or 32,584,735
acres; Ireland, 32,524 square miles, or 20,815,460 acres; Scotland,
30,462 square miles, or 19,496,132 acres; Wales, 7,397 square miles,
or 4,734,486 acres. The county of Cornwall contains 1,390 square
miles, or an acreage of 869,898.


TO SELECT HOUDAN FOWLS.

  CLINTON, Iowa.

  By what marks can I tell Houdan fowls I am about to purchase a
  pair, if they are what they are represented to be—of pure breed.

  J. ALLEN.

_Answer._—Houdans stand and walk erectly; the males weigh from eight
to nine pounds; the hens from five to seven pounds. They are lumpy in
shape, are evenly speckled white and brown, with large comb, crest,
and beard. Refuse any that have not pink-white feet, black and white
plumage, and good crests.


THE FIRST CABLE MESSAGE.

  FAIRPOINT, Minn.

  What was the first message sent on the Atlantic cable?

  FRANK PALMER.

_Answer._—The first message on the Atlantic cable of 1858, which soon
proved a failure, was a congratulatory dispatch from Queen Victoria
to President Buchanan. The first message on the successful cable
completed in 1866 was the announcement of the treaty of peace between
Prussia and Austria.


PRINCE NAPOLEON.

  AURORA, Ill.

  Will Our Curiosity Shop tell us what relation the Prince Jerome
  Bonaparte, lately arrested in France for issuing an insurrectionary
  proclamation, bears to Napoleon I. and oblige many readers?

  T.

_Answer._—Jerome Bonaparte, the father of this Prince Jerome, was
the youngest brother of Napoleon I. In 1803, when he was only 18
years of age, he married Miss Elizabeth Patterson, of Baltimore. This
act was displeasing to Napoleon, who passed a decree annulling the
marriage on the ground that his brother was not of age and the bans
were not published in France. Soon after the return of Jerome to his
native country he was made King of Westphalia, and at the suggestion
of Napoleon, married Catherine, daughter of the King of Wurtemburg.
Of this marriage three children were born—Jerome Napoleon, in 1814,
who died in 1847; Napoleon Joseph Charles Paul, the subject of this
sketch, in 1822, who afterward took his elder brother’s name, and
the Princess Mathilde. The Prince first came into prominence by his
denunciation of the government of Louis Philippe and his sympathy
with the revolutionists, which caused his banishment in 1845. But,
in 1848, he returned and participated in the revolution. In 1852
he took his seat in the Senate and Council of State, receiving the
title of Prince and being declared by decree of the Senate the heir
of his cousin, Napoleon III., in case the latter should die without
issue. He took part in the Crimean war, commanding a reserve force at
Alma and at Inkerman. Before the close of the war he was recalled,
ostensibly on account of his health, and soon entered upon the
duties of several important civil offices. In 1859 he was married
to Princess Clothilde, daughter of the late Victor Emanuel, King of
Italy, by whom he has three children. In 1861 he visited the United
States, and, with his suite and the French Minister, accompanied
the Army of the Potomac, pushing as far South as Richmond. After
his return he sympathized to a certain extent with the democratic
feeling arising in France. For this seeming absurdity he was given
the name Plon-Plon. In 1876 he was returned to the French Assembly
from Corsica, but in the year following he was rejected. On the death
of the Prince Imperial, as the son of Napoleon III. is called, in
Zululand, in 1879, Jerome became the head of the Bonaparte family.
He was not popular with a majority of the leading Bonapartists,
many of whom refused to acknowledge him as their chief, and urged
the proclamation of the elder of Jerome’s two sons as the heir of
Napoleon III. Of late, however, there has been a reconciliation
between the ex-Empress Eugenie and Jerome, and the Bonapartists
generally seem disposed to acquiesce; so that, in case of the
Bonaparte’s coming to the front once more, his title of Prince may
become something more than an empty sound.


THE CORN CROP ESTIMATES FOR 1882.

  DUNLAP, Iowa.

  How much corn was produced in 1882? Are there any reliable
  statistics on the subject?

  W. H. DEDRICK.

_Answer._—According to the report of the Department of Agriculture
the corn crop of 1882 amounted to 1,624,917,800 bushels. These
figures have been questioned, but they are based on the estimates
of about 1,500 agricultural observers and reporters employed by the
bureau, and they are generally conceded to be a fair estimate. Of
course, all our crop statistics are only estimates.


CEDAR COUNTY, NEBRASKA.

  MELON, Iowa.

  Please give a short description of Cedar County Nebraska.

  SUBSCRIBER.

_Answer._—This county lies on the northern boundary of the State,
being washed by the Missouri River and drained by the several
branches of the Bow and Beaver Creeks. In many portions the land is
very rich and yields abundantly wheat, corn, and other cereals. In
1879 the corn crop of Cedar County amounted to 2,826,259 bushels, or
40 bushels per acre, which was the largest yield of any county in the
State. Orchards of choice fruit trees have been set out and thrive
well. The climate is like that of Southern Dakota and Northwestern
Iowa, very warm in summer and cold in winter, which latter, from the
dryness of the climate, is rendered more endurable than a higher
temperature in some of the more Eastern States. The population in
1880 was 2,899. St. Helena, the county seat, is a thriving little
town of 300 inhabitants.


THE SITE OF EDEN.

  WESTFIELD, Wis.

In Our Curiosity Shop of Jan. 11, C. A. Sharp asks for the location
of the Garden of Eden. The Bible tells us that “a river went out of
Eden to water the garden, and from thence it was parted and became
into four heads.” It then proceeds to give them in the order of
distance above the mouth of the Euphrates. But one of these rivers
is now known by its original name, and that is the Euphrates. Let
us, therefore, go down that and see if we can find the other three
tributary to it that will agree with the narrative. The first is a
large stream from the north. We at once recognize it as the Hiddekel.
This is the third river, and its head is far to the north, as is also
that of the Euphrates. The text says, “it goeth toward the east of
Assyria.” The marginal reading, I think, will be found to explain
this. It says “it goeth east to Assyria,” and the great Assyrian
Empire was upon it. As we go down these united rivers we find a
considerable stream from the northeast, the head of which is in the
mountains toward the Caspian Sea. If this is the second river, the
Gihon, the text says it “compasseth the whole land of Ethiopia.” This
expression has doubtless led to much confusion, as the mind has been
turned to Ethiopia, in Africa, and which seemed irreconcilable with
the text. But turn to the passage and we find the marginal reading
to be Cush, and Cush, or Cutha, was a country east of the Hiddekel,
through which this stream flows. We turn again to the narrative and
it says the first river is the Pison, and that it compasseth the land
of Havilah, where there is gold and precious stones. After leaving
the mouth of the second river, the Gihon, we find a stream having
its head in the mountains east of the Persian Gulf, and also a place
called Havilah. The country abounds in precious stones and valuable
minerals, and this, with the other three rivers, seems to fill the
conditions of the text. We will now hastily review the above to see
more clearly its coincidence with the account as given by Moses 2,500
years afterward, in the second chapter of Genesis. A river went out
of Eden to water the garden, and from thence it was parted into four
heads. The name of the first is Pison, etc.; this we find in the
stream coming from Persia, which fulfills its conditions. The second
is the Gihon; it too coming from the land of Cush agrees with the
text. The third, the Hiddekel, all admit to be the modern Tigris and
its connections with Assyria agree well with the record. The fourth
is the Euphrates, which flows as of old. But was there a place called
Eden from which these streams flowed? Turn to Isa. xxxvii., 12, in
the blasphemous letter sent to King Hezekiah by the commander of the
Assyrian army, and among the nations he has destroyed is Eden, which
from its connections with the other nations is supposed to have been
near the junction of the third and fourth rivers. And in the list of
nations trading with Tyre we find Eden connected with the nations in
the same vicinity. See Ezekiel xxiii., 23. Here then, at no great
distance above the Persian Gulf, near 30 degrees north latitude, in
a mild climate on a noble river, we may look for the home of the
progenitors of our race.

  E. H. FISHER.


OVER 2,700 COUNTIES.

  TOPEKA, Kan.

  I have just read a statement in a newspaper that there are 2,400
  counties in the United States, which is doubted. We therefore ask
  THE INTER OCEAN to give us the facts.

  R. E. HINCKLEY.

_Answer._—This is an understatement, since in 1880, according to the
census, there were 2,671 counties in the United States, including the
fifty-nine in Louisiana, locally called parishes. Here is the full
list of States and Territories:

                    No. of
    States.        Counties

  Alabama              66
  Arkansas             75
  California           53
  Colorado             32
  Connecticut           8
  Delaware              3
  Florida              45
  Georgia             137
  Illinois            102
  Indiana              92
  Iowa                 99
  Kansas              113
  Kentucky            117
  Louisiana            59
  Maine                16
  Maryland             24
  Massachusetts        14
  Michigan             82
  Minnesota            86
  Mississippi          75
  Missouri            117
  Nebraska             80
  Nevada               17
  New Hampshire        10
  New Jersey           21
  New York             60
  North Carolina       94
  Ohio                 88
  Oregon               26
  Pennsylvania         67
  Rhode Island          5
  South Carolina       33
  Tennessee            94
  Texas               232
  Vermont              14
  Virginia             99
  West Virginia        54
  Wisconsin            63
                    —————
                    2,472

  Territories.

  Arizona               7
  Dakota               94
  Idaho                13
  Montana              11
  New Mexico           14
  Utah                 27
  Washington           25
  Wyoming               7
  Dis. of Columbia      1
                    —————
    Total           2,671

There have been a number of new counties organized since the census
year, particularly in Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Texas, and other
States and Territories where the settlement of the country is
proceeding most rapidly. There are now about 2,730 counties in the
United States.


CARDINAL WOLSEY.

  _Colfax_, Ind.

  Please give a short biography of Cardinal Wolsey.

  SAMUEL SMITH.

_Answer._—Thomas Wolsey, the wily, skillful statesman and ambitious
Cardinal, whose life was so intimately associated with that of the
profligate king, Henry VIII., studied theology at Oxford, and in
1500, at the age of 29, took holy orders and became the rector at
Lymington. He was introduced into the royal court of Henry VII. as
chaplain, in which office he obtained the confidence of the king,
and was often consulted in important state affairs. His successful
diplomacy at the court of the Emperor Maximilian secured for him,
as a reward, the deanery of Lincoln. When Henry VIII. ascended
the throne he employed Wolsey as his almoner. With the talents of
a skillful diplomat, the ambitious priest obtained an influence
over this monarch even greater than he had previously held over
his royal father. In 1514 he was appointed Archbishop of York, and
in the following year became Lord Chancellor of England. The Pope
was not unmindful of his able supporter, who in the same year that
he became Chancellor was clothed in the resplendent robes of a
cardinal. Four years after he became legate. In the height of his
power he was the virtual sovereign of the kingdom, and in addition
he exercised throughout England and its dependencies, and to some
extent beyond these boundaries, nearly all the prerogatives of the
sovereign pontiff. His income was scarcely surpassed by that of the
king himself. Princes and even monarchs were among the suppliants for
his favor and influential offices. He aspired to sit on the papal
throne, and twice it seemed as if he would realize this aspiration,
but he was defeated through the intrigues and power of Charles V.,
whose elevation to the imperial throne, left vacant by the death of
the Emperor Maximilian, he had opposed in behalf of Henry VIII. His
almost regal power continued until Henry desired to put away his
wife, Catharine, aunt of Charles V., when Wolsey’s dilatoriness in
securing the divorce exasperated the king, and upon his refusing to
sanction Henry’s marriage with Anne Boleyn, he was soon dismissed
in disgrace. He was stripped of all his honors and estates, but
was suffered to retain his episcopal see of Winchester until the
following year, 1530, when a conspiracy against the king’s life
having been discovered, Wolsey was arrested us an abettor. He was on
his way to London to undergo trial on a charge of treason, when he
fell ill and died Nov. 29, 1530, at the Monastery of Leicester. Among
his last words were the following addressed to the Lord Lieutenant
of the Tower: “Master Kyngston, if I had served my God as diligently
as I have done the king, He would not have given me over in my gray
hairs.” As paraphrased by Shakespeare, these last words of the fallen
Cardinal are now immortal.


ALASKA.

  ROCK ISLAND, Ill.

  How does Alaska compare in size with New York State or Illinois;
  and what are its principal natural characteristics?

  A. N. BROWN.

_Answer._—Alaska, according to the report of Ivan Petroff, special
agent of the census of 1880, contains 531,400 square miles. This is
as large as all New England, together with New York, Pennsylvania,
New Jersey, Delaware, and the following seven grand States west
of the Alleghanies: Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin,
Kentucky, and Tennessee. It is a vast region, 2,200 miles in length
from east to west (measuring to the farthest of the Aleutian
Islands), and 1,400 miles broad. It has a remarkable coast line of
25,000 miles in extent, which is about two and a half times as much
as the sea coast of all the rest of the United States. The islands
of Alaska alone, according to the estimate quoted by Dr. Jackson,
comprise an area of over 31,000 miles, or twice as much as the total
area of Maine. The highest mountains in the United States are in
Alaska: Mount Fairweather, 15,500; Mount Crillon, 15,900: Mount Cook,
16,000, and Mount St. Elias, 19,500. It is remarkable for the number
and stupendous proportions of its glaciers. Says Dr. Jackson: “From
Bute Inlet to Unimak Pass nearly every gulch has its glacier, some of
which are vastly greater and grander than any glacier in the Alps.”
Hot and mineral springs abound. The Yukon River is one of the largest
in the United States, being for the first 1,000 miles from one to
five miles wide with five mouths, forming a delta seventy miles
across. According to Mr. Robert Campbell, of the Hudson’s Bay Fur
Company, including its chief tributary, the Pelly, it is navigable at
certain seasons for nearly 3,000 miles.

Nearly all the sealskins used in the markets of the world come from
two little islands belonging to Alaska. The skins of the sea otter
are also very valuable, and there are many choice land fur-bearing
animals. The waters are wonderfully rich in fish. Besides cod,
“Alaska can supply the world,” says Dr. Jackson, “with salmon,
herring, and halibut of the best quality.” It is also “the great
reserve lumber region of the United States.” There are “thousands
of square miles of yellow cedar, white spruce, hemlock, and balsam
fir that densely cover the southeastern section of Alaska.” Gold and
silver mines of considerable importance have been opened, and there
are indications that the Territory is rich not only in the precious
metals, but in other minerals, especially in iron, copper, and coal.
In the interior the climate along the Yukon is not unlike that of
Dakota. At Fort Yukon the thermometer often rises above 100 degrees
in summer, and indicates from 50 degrees to 70 degrees below zero in
winter. Along the immense southern coast and islands the climate is
moist and warm. At Sitka, according to records kept for forty-five
years, the mean spring temperature is 41.2 degrees; summer, 54.6
degrees; autumn, 44.9 degrees; winter, 32.5 degrees; for the whole
year, 43.3 degrees. “The surprising fact is brought to light,” adds
Dr. Jackson, who takes the above figures from the Alaska Coast Pilot,
“that the winter climate of Southern Alaska for forty-five years past
has been the average winter climate of Kentucky and West Virginia,
and the average summer climate of Minnesota.” The mild climate
of this region is due to the warm Japan current of the Pacific,
the Kuro-Siwo. Generally of Alaska, Mr. William H. Dale, of the
Smithsonian Institution, says: “I come back convinced, from personal
inspection, that Alaska is a far better country than much of Great
Britain and Norway, and even part of Prussia.” The total population
in 1880 is given at 33,426, of whom 430 were white, 1,756 Creole or
mixed races, and the rest Indians—Innuits, 17,617; Aleuts, 2,145;
Thlinkets, 6,763; Hyda, 788, distributed as follows: The whites and
creoles are nearly all in Southeastern Alaska, the Aleutian Islands,
and Kadiak, which is the division including the south coast of the
Alaska Peninsula down to Zakharof Bay, with the adjacent islands,
the Kadiah group, the coast and islands of Cook’s Inlet, the Kenai
Peninsula, the coast of Prince William’s Sound, and valleys of rivers
running into the waters of these coasts. Since the census was taken
the white population has been greatly increased by the influx of gold
miners and speculators. This Territory is still without a regularly
constituted civil government. The laws of the United States “relating
to customs, lumber, and navigation” are extended over it, and the
Collector and Deputy Collectors have authority to arrest persons
violating these laws and send them to Oregon or California to be
tried in United States courts. Otherwise the government is mainly
a provisional one, organized by the people and enforced by general
consent. It is high time that this state of things was ended.


THE AGE OF BENEDICT ARNOLD.

  OGDENSBURG, N. Y.

  What was the true age of Benedict Arnold? No doubt you are aware
  that authors do not agree as to the time of the birth of General
  Arnold. Will you please give us light?

  R. W. J.

_Answer._—It is true that authors differ as to the age of Benedict
Arnold. Appleton’s Cyclopedia says he was born Jan. 3, 1740.
Lossing’s Cyclopedia of History gives the time as Jan. 3, 1741, and
other authorities do not agree. We prefer to adopt the facts given
by the Hon. Isaac N. Arnold, of this city, who has just written and
published what there is good reason to believe is the most carefully
prepared and impartial history of the American arch traitor of
Revolutionary times that has ever appeared. This historian fixes
Arnold’s birth on Jan. 14, 1741, and his death on June 14, 1801, in
London.


METROPOLITAN POLICE.

  WARSAW, Ind.

  In what respect do metropolitan police differ from city police?

  A. B.

_Answer._—Metropolitan police are appointed and supported by the
State or central government, while city police receive their
appointments from the city magistrates. The city of London is guarded
by 11,667 metropolitan policemen and 842 city policemen. At one time
the city of New York was protected by metropolitan police, but for
various reasons, one of which was because it restricted the free
exercise of the spoils system so common with city governments, the
act authorizing the appointment of such police was repealed.


WAS CHRIST BORN IN B. C. 4.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  Is it certain that Christ was born four years before the Christian
  era?

  CHICAGO.

_Answer._—All investigations prove conclusively that it is impossible
to determine to the satisfaction of chronologists in general
either the day, month, or year of Christ’s birth. It is almost
universally admitted that this event preceded the commencement of
the Christian era as now reckoned. St. Clement, the earliest of the
“church fathers,” fixes it on Nov. 18 in the twenty-eighth year
of the Emperor Augustus, a little more than two years before the
beginning of our era. Since the death of Herod the Great, according
to Josephus, must have occurred before Easter of B. C. 4, modern
scholars are generally agreed that Christ’s birth could not have been
later than B. C. 4; and there is strong reason to believe that it was
in B. C. 6 or 7. See McClintock and Strong’s “Cyclopedia of Biblical
Literature,” under “Jesus Christ.” As to the day and month of
Christ’s birth the differences are still more difficult to overcome.
Modern investigation is strongly against Christmas, or any day in
mid-winter, as unseasonable either for the shepherds to be watching
their flocks in the fields, or for the congregating of the people
from all parts of the kingdom to be registered and taxed, which was
the occasion of Mary and Joseph’s being at Bethlehem. These two
arguments are used, along with others, by the Biblical scholars who
hold severally to the opinions that the nativity was not earlier in
the year than March, and, one party says, in March, another in April
or May, another in June, and still others in July or August.


GROWTH OF ENGLISH INTEMPERANCE.

  RANTOUL, Ill.

  Is it true that drunkenness continues to increase in England,
  notwithstanding the wonderful success of English and American
  temperance reformers and the large number of total abstainers
  enrolled by the Salvation Army?

  A TEETOTALER.

_Answer._—Whatever the explanation, and whether or not it constitutes
an additional argument for the temperance movement, it is declared
to be a fact that the number of persons charged with drunkenness in
1881 was 1,622 more than the number charged in 1880, being 174,481
to 172,859. Furthermore, according to the excise reports there was
7½ per cent more beer drunk in 1881 than in 1880, the total quantity
being 970,785,564 gallons in a population of 26,000,000, or about
31 gallons for each man, woman, and child. The increase in the
population during the decade of 1871-1881 was 3,256,020, which is
about 1.43 per cent a year, while the increase in drunkenness was
nearly 1 per cent in the last year.


TEMPERANCE IN COMMON SCHOOLS.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  What is the text of the bill recently proposed in the Illinois
  state Legislature to require teachers to give instruction in
  temperance? Who introduced it? What are the arguments used in its
  favor?

  A TEACHER.

_Answer._—The following is the bill introduced Jan. 31 in the
General Assembly of this State, by the Hon. Jesse D. Jennings, of
Fayette County: “Be it enacted,” etc., “that they (the directors)
shall direct that elementary instruction be given in physiology
and hygiene, which shall give special prominence to the effects of
alcoholic drinks, stimulants and narcotics upon the human system.
The certificate of qualification held by any person who desires to
teach shall show that satisfactory examination has been passed upon
the effect of alcoholic drinks, stimulants, and narcotics upon the
human system.” The advocates of the bill maintain that, in view of
the admitted evils of intemperance, and particularly the moral and
physical injuries to individuals and society resulting from the use
of alcoholic drinks, stimulants, and narcotics, it is of the highest
practical importance that the youth of the public schools be properly
instructed as to the effects of these insanity engendering poisons.
They say that since the State, for purposes of revenue, and also
professedly with the desire of preventing abuses, has authorized
men and women to publicly offer these poisons for sale, it is
morally bound to warn the youth of the land not to use them except
as medicine, or in the arts, as other poisons are sometimes used.
They hold that those who admit the iniquities of intemperance, but
are opposed to sumptuary legislation, cannot reasonably oppose this
recourse to educational remedies for these appalling evils. If the
law requires road commissioners, when repairing the highways, to hang
out danger lights wherever they open cess-pools and sewers, or make
other perilous chasms in the road, the advocates of this bill argue
that it is the duty of the State licensing the opening of liquor
shops to throw enough light on the traffic to prevent young people
from falling into drunkenness in the dark.


CANADIAN DENOMINATIONAL STATISTICS.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

Herewith I hand you the denominational statistics of Canada, as given
in the government returns for 1881. Those recently given in Our
Curiosity Shop, on the authority of Rand, McNally & Co.’s Atlas of
the World, are out of date:

  Roman Catholics         1,791,982
  Methodists                742,981
  Presbyterians             676,155
  Church of England         574,818
  Baptists                  275,291
  Congregationalists         26,900
  All other denominations   236,683
                          —————————
    Total                 4,324,810

  K.


TWO INDIANA TEMPERANCE RESOLUTIONS.

  OREGON, Ill.

  Please give us the temperance planks in the platforms of the
  Indiana Democracy and Indiana Republicans, as adopted in their
  conventions of last summer.

  A PROHIBITIONIST.

_Answer._—The Indiana Democracy met in convention last August: after
wrestling with the few prohibition delegates for a brief moment, they
adopted the following resolution:

“The Democratic party is now, as it has always been, opposed to
all sumptuary legislation, and it is especially opposed to the
proposed amendment to the constitution of Indiana known as the
prohibitory amendment, and we are in favor of the submission of the
proposed amendment, as well as other proposed amendments, to the
people, according to the provisions of the constitution for its
own amendment: and the people have the right to oppose or favor
the adoption of any or all the amendments at all stages of their
consideration, and any submission of constitutional amendment to
a vote of the people should be at a time and under circumstances
most favorable to a full vote, and therefore should be at a general
election.” The Republicans, several days later, on Aug. 9, adopted
this resolution: “The Republican party resolves that reposing trust
in the people as the fountain of power, we demand that the pending
amendments to the constitution shall be agreed to and submitted by
the next Legislature to the voters of the State for their decision
thereon. These amendments were not partisan in their origin, and
are not so in character, and should not be made so in voting upon
them. Recognising the fact that the people are divided in sentiment
in regard to the propriety of their adoption or rejection, and
cherishing the right of private judgment, we favor the submission
of these amendments to a special election, so that there may be an
intelligent decision thereon, uninfluenced by partisan issues.”


PASSION PLAYS.

  BERLIN, Wis.

  What is the origin and history of the “Passion Play,” of which we
  hear so much lately?

  F. PECK.

_Answer._—This recent dramatical representation of the passion of
Christ claims its origin and justification in sentiments akin to
those which it is said inspired the old religious dramas, known as
“Moralities,” or “Miracle Plays.” The first composition of this
nature is ascribed to Ezekiel, a Jew, who, in the third century,
adapted the story of Israel’s exodus from Egypt to the Grecian stage.
His object was to arouse the patriotism of his exiled and despondent
countrymen and excite in them a hope for the re-establishment of
their kingdom in Palestine. In the fourth century, St. Gregory
Nazianzen, the Bishop of Constantinople, having noticed the effect of
the Grecian drama upon the people, concluded that the readiest method
of extending the church of Christ was the dramatic presentation of
the sufferings of its author, which he accomplished in the drama
entitled “The Passion of Christ.” When the barbarians made their
inroads into Southern Europe, and the church began to extend its
influence northward into the lands of the Germans, Normans, and
Saxons, it found great difficulty in coping with the fascination
which the heathen festivals and performances exercised over the
uneducated minds of the people. In order to obviate this trouble,
miracle plays were introduced. Adapting the drama to the surrounding
circumstances, many of the heathen characters, slightly changed, were
retained. The play was supplied with humor by the artful caprices of
the impersonated devil. In one representation “Judas, assisted by the
devil, who sits upon the scaffold, hangs himself. When the hanging
is complete both slide down to hell on a slanting rope.” Soon after
the Reformation the miracle plays began to decline, and now they are
performed in only a few places, mostly in Southern Bavaria and the
Tyrol. The passion play of Oberammergau is famed the world over, and
attracts an immense concourse of visitors from all lands whenever it
is presented. In 1633 the flax in that neighborhood became diseased
and unfit for the spindle. To prevent the recurrence of any such
calamity the Oberammergau peasants made a vow to God that every ten
years they would present the sufferings of Christ upon the stage
in this way. This vow was kept until the beginning of the present
century, when the further performance of the play was prohibited.
Thereupon the peasants appealed to King Maximilian, who granted
them permission to continue their celebrations, providing certain
objectionable features were removed. This was agreed to, and in 1811
the drama, written by Pastor Weise, was first presented devoid of the
devil and comic personages. The gospel story commences with Christ’s
triumphal entry into Jerusalem, and closes with a scene previous to
the ascension. In a practical manner, the plot is developed. The
money changers are driven from the temple in anger. Judas smarts
under the rebuke which he received at the home of Lazarus. They
meet and plan the betrayal resulting in the crucifixion. The part
of Christ is impersonated by a peasant. The ignorant inhabitants
still regard these plays as the most impressive and effective method
of teaching the gospel and various moralities. The claim that the
passion play now occupying so much of the public attention was
inspired by religious motives is rejected by the public generally,
and is ridiculed by the press. There is an all but unanimous feeling
of opposition in England and in this country to having the passion of
the Savior, the solemn tragedy of Calvary, mimicked on the stage by
ordinary stage performers. This feeling led the late Mayor Grace, of
New York City, to refuse to license the presentation of the play in
that city, and his successor, Mayor Edson, has taken the same stand.
Salmi Morse, the manager, threatens to test the legality of this
interdiction. Such is the attitude of this matter at present.


RATIO OF BEEF TO LIVE WEIGHT.

  ROGERS PARK, Ill.

  What is the proportion of good meat in a well-fed beef animal
  compared with its live weight?

  A CONSUMER.

_Answer._—Sixty pounds of dressed beef for each 100 pounds of live
weight is considered a fair average, and indicates that the animal
was of good stock in first-rate marketable condition. Of course
the choice cuts, consisting of the ribs, sirloin and rump steak,
constitute only about half of this. So that an animal which weighs
1,000 pounds live weight will produce but about 600 pounds of dressed
meat, of which the choice cuts will amount to about 310 pounds and
the “coarse meat” to 290 pounds.


NAMES OF CERTAIN BLOOD RELATIVES.

  GROVE CITY, Ill.

  What relation are children of first cousins? What relation is a
  child to its parents’ first cousin?

  V. T. HOUSTON.

_Answer._—The children of first cousins are second cousins. A’s child
is “first cousin removed” to A’s first cousin, while he is second
cousin to the son or daughter of A’s first cousin.


FINDING LATITUDE AT SEA.

  GARRISON, Iowa.

Referring to the explanation of the method of determining latitude
by observations on the pole star, given in a recent issue of Our
Curiosity Shop, I venture to submit the following indication of the
common method by which sailors ascertain their latitude at sea.
It is true that latitude may be determined by means of a carefully
observed altitude of the polar star, providing the apparent time of
observation can be ascertained within a few minutes. This method
might frequently be used at sea when the horizon is well defined if
the star were of the first magnitude; but being only of the second
or third it is difficult to determine the altitude with certainty.
For this reason the usual method of finding the latitude at sea is by
taking the altitude of the sun when on the meridian. The latitude of
a place, being its distance from the equator, is measured by the arc
of the meridian contained between the zenith and the equator; hence,
if the distance of the sun from the zenith when on the meridian and
the declination be given the latitude is easily determined.

  B. F. HUSSEY.


AUTHORS, EDITORS, AND MANUSCRIPTS.

  MT. HOPE, Kan.

  Kindly explain the editorial rules governing the receipt and
  treatment of manuscript offered for publication, whether intended
  for newspapers, periodicals, or books. Suppose, too, that an author
  should send the manuscript of a book to a publisher on the promise
  that it would be returned if not accepted, how long ought it to
  be before he should be notified of its receipt and acceptance or
  rejection?

  W. S. W.

_Answer._—There is no definite general rule for these matters beyond
the common understanding that the editor must attend first of all to
the regular routine of his office, and manuscript must wait, until he
has time to read it. In the case of contributions to a periodical,
it is understood unless contributors specifically request the return
of their contributions and inclose postage stamps for this purpose,
that the editor, if he does not use them, is at liberty to consign
them to the waste basket. It is not unusual for contributions to
literary magazines and standard reviews to lie on the editors’ tables
for a month or six weeks before the verdict “accepted” or “rejected”
is pronounced. A glance at a contribution, even the mere subject,
indicates to the editor whether the article is likely to suffer by
delay. Stories and many other contributions will keep; current news
and kindred matters will not. These manuscripts must be read at once;
those must wait; and how long, only the editor is in the position to
determine. Even after articles are accepted the same law prevails,
and the circumstances of each particular issue determine what is to
be used and what “held over.” It frequently happens that editorials
which have cost the editor serious labor, and are actually in type,
are crowded out by unexpected events which must take precedence,
and are held back by a succession of such events until too stale to
be used, and the writer is forced to write “kill” over against the
children of his own heart and brain. Many a disgusted contributor
would feel less mortified and indignant at the rejection of his
offering if he could understand all the circumstances of the case.
The contribution rejected to-day might have been gladly accepted
had it come a day sooner. An article accepted yesterday and paid
for, perhaps never appears; why, only the editor can explain.
Even champagne tastes flat after it has stood a few moments;
witticisms are still-born if not ushered in at the right instant.
The book-publisher is subject to similar influences, but not in the
same degree as the editor of a newspaper or review. But many a book
manuscript has been rejected because out of season. Many another has
been rejected because the writer was impatient and the editor, rather
than keep him in such a mood and unwilling to take the responsibility
of publishing what he had not read with critical care, has relieved
himself by returning it “with thanks.” It is no slight matter for
an editor to read and so digest a book, in which the publisher is
asked to invest from $1,000 to $5,000, as to enable him to pronounce
a favorable judgment with confidence. Of course long and carefully
prepared manuscripts, especially books, are entitled to more
consideration than ordinary newspaper contributions; and should never
be destroyed until the authors have been courteously notified that
they are not wanted, and have had ample time to send for them. In the
supposed case of the above question, acknowledgment of receipt of the
book manuscript should have been mailed as soon as it came to hand,
unless it was received by express or as registered mail matter, and
from thirty to sixty days, according to the length and nature of the
book would not be too long to grant the editor or publisher before
expecting a decision. Except in special cases, editors of newspapers
do not receipt by mail for contributions sent to them.


RAILROAD MILEAGE.

  OSHKOSH, Wis.

  Please give a few statistics in reference to railroad construction
  in the United States and in the more important foreign countries.

  W. L. FROST.

_Answer._—The number of miles of railroad in the world constructed
prior to Jan. 1, 1881, was 226,442, of which sum 93,671 miles
were within the United States. Germany had built 21,037 miles;
Great Britain and Ireland, 17,696; France, 15,287; Russia, 13,571;
Austria-Hungary, 11,471; British India, 8,615; Canada, 6,891; Italy,
4,999, and Spain, 4,264. During the year 1881 the railway mileage of
this country increased to 104,813 miles, to which the year 1882 added
10,821 miles, making a grand total of 115,634 miles. To build these
great highways and properly equip them about $5,750,000,000 have been
expended. Iowa during the past year took the lead, having constructed
953.37 miles, and Texas followed close after with 817 miles of new
road.


A FEW AMERICAN WORTHIES.

  MANSON, Iowa.

  Please name five or more of the greatest of the following classes
  of Americans: Orators, poets, historians, inventors.

  GEORGE BELL.

_Answer._—Any answer to such a question is largely a matter of
personal opinion. Among political orators Patrick Henry, James Otis,
Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, Thomas Pike, Sergeant Smith Prentiss,
John C. Calhoun stand among the most illustrious. As to pulpit
orators, it would be invidious to name one without designating at
least fifty who are evidently of the same rank. Our great poets have
not been many. First among them have been and still are, as regards
fame, William Cullen Bryant, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, George
Denison Prentice, and Nathaniel P. Willis. Whittier, T. Buchanan
Read, Holmes. Lowell, Miller, Holland, Saxe, Morris, Mrs. Sigourney,
are poets not soon to be forgotten. Irving, Sparks, Prescott,
Bancroft, are among our most eminent historians. Fulton, inventor
of the steamboat; Morse, inventor of the first practical electric
telegraph; Whitney, inventor of the cotton-gin, and Howe, inventor
of the first successful sewing machine, are among the first of the
ten thousand American inventors who have done the world noteworthy
service. Edison and several hundred other inventors, who have
improved upon the inventions of their predecessors until they have
doubled, trebled, and in some instances quadrupled their value to the
world, are quite as worthy to be remembered.


RAILROAD LAND GRANTS.

  OSHKOSH, Wis.

  Give us the total amount of public lands granted by the United
  States to aid in the construction of railways, and oblige a
  subscriber.

  W. L. FROST.

_Answer._—The table below shows the total land grants made by the
United States down to 1880, as given in “The West in 1880.”

  States and                Acres       Acres
    Corporations.          Granted.   Certified.

  Illinois                2,595,053   2,595,053
  Missouri                2,985,160   1,828,005
  Iowa                    6,795,527   3,940,270
  Michigan                4,712,480   3,328,987
  Wisconsin               4,808,486   2,672,803
  Minnesota               9,992,041   6,925,351
  Kansas                  9,370,000   3,851,536
  Pacific Railroad      159,486,766   8,831,687
                        ———————————  ——————————
    Total               215,203,807  42,847,403

These grants, amounting in the aggregate to 215,203,807 acres, or
over 355,000 square miles, are only about 6,000 miles less in area
than all the original thirteen States of the Union taken together,
and is more than 60 per cent greater than the total area of the
German Empire. Fortunately for the country, a number of these grants
have been forfeited; yet, as above shown, 42,847,403 acres, or more
than the total area of England and Wales together, had been actually
certified to the States and roads named before June 30, 1879; and
many acres have been certified since that time. The exact amount
down to date is not yet published. To avoid taxation, the railroads
entitled to public lands delay taking their certificates until the
settlement of the country and opportunity for selling make it to
their interest to do so. A large amount of the land covered by the
above grants will be certified to the grantees on demand.


POPULATION OF THE GLOBE.

  UNIONVILLE, Iowa.

  Please state in Our Curiosity Shop the estimated present population
  of the world. Also, the population of the United States according
  to the revised census of 1880.

  A. J. R.

_Answer._—The population of the entire globe is still far from being
definitely determined. Hardly two original investigators agree. In
this country the estimates of Drs. Behm and Wagner are generally
accepted as the most reliable, yet their latest figures differ from
those of two years before by upward of 22,000,000. Then they stated
the population of the entire globe at 1,455,923,500, whereas now they
state it at 1,433,887,500, distributed as follows:

  Europe                    327,743,400
  Asia                      795,591,000
  Africa                    205,823,200
  America                   100,415,400
  Australia and Polynesia     4,232,000
  Polar regions                  82,500

One might infer from this that instead of increasing, as would
be naturally expected, the human race is dying out: but closer
inspection shows that the estimate of the population of China has
been reduced about 55,000,000. Accepting this and all the other
estimates, there seems to be an increase in other countries of about
33,000,000; part of which is due to the fact that the geographers had
the benefit of the census takers in different countries in 1880 and
1881, showing the growth of five to ten years. The total population
of the United States in 1880, according to the revised census, is
50,155,783.


DRINKING FROM SKULLS.

  BURLINGTON, Iowa.

  What is the origin of the expression “A soldier’s drinking cup,” as
  applied to a human skull?

  WM. A. T.

_Answer._—Thomas Middleton was a dramatic writer who flourished in
the early part of the seventeenth century. In “The Witch,” one of his
most celebrated plays, when “the Duke” takes a bowl and is told that
it is a skull, he exclaims:

                  “Call it a soldier’s cup;
    Our Duchess, I know, will pledge us, tho’ the cup
    Was once her father’s head, which, as a trophy,
    We’ll keep till death.”

The barbarous custom of converting the skulls of enemies into
drinking cups was a common one in ancient times among the fierce
tribes of Northern Europe; and was not unknown to the more civilized
regions of the South. The Italian poet, Marino, makes a conclave of
friends in Pandemonium quaff wine from the skull of Minerva. In his
“Wonder of a Kingdom,” Torrent makes Dakker say:

    “Would I had ten thousand soldiers’ heads,
     Their skulls set all in silver, to drink healths
     To his confusion who first invented war.”

The old Scandinavian sagas represent as among the delights of the
immortals the felicity of feasting and drinking to drunkenness from
the skulls of the foes they had vanquished on earth. Mandeville goes
further, and represents the Guebres as exposing the dead bodies of
their parents to the fowls of the air until nothing but the skeletons
remained, and preserving the skulls to be used in a spirit of
devotion as drinking cups.


GENERAL WILLIAM W. AVERELL.

  ETNA, Mo.

  Give a short sketch of General Averell.

  M. M. SHANES.

_Answer._—General William W. Averell was born in the State of New
York in 1830. At the age of 25 he graduated at West Point, and
began his military career as Lieutenant of mounted riflemen on the
Western frontier. In the rebellion he took an active part in the
battles of Bull Run, Yorktown, Williamsburg, Fair Oaks, Malvern Hill,
Fredericksburg, Kelly’s Ford, Opequan, Fisher’s Hill, and various
other engagements in West Virginia, Tennessee, and the Shenandoah
Valley, at the same time being successively brevetted Major,
Lieutenant Colonel, Colonel, Brigadier General, and Major General, U.
S. A. In 1865 he resigned, and in the following year represented the
United States as Consul General in Canada. Afterward he retired to
accept the Presidency of a manufacturing company in New York.


PRINCE GORTSCHAKOFF AND THE UNION.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  What was the action of the late Prince Gortschakoff during our
  civil war that is alluded to in the recent obituary notices of that
  diplomat as a reason for the gratitude of Americans?

  O. N. ADAMS.

_Answer._—Prince Alexander M. Gortschakoff, who was at that time the
Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs, when invited, at a critical
time in the history of our civil war, to associate Russia with
England and France in their unfriendly attitude toward the United
States, involving, among other things, a proposition to recognize the
independence of the Southern Confederacy, positively declined. The
following extract from one of his state papers at that juncture shows
his disposition toward this country, which he quickly emphasized by
dispatching a Russian fleet to New York as a proof of his friendship
and sincerity; an act which greatly alarmed and disconcerted both
England and France, since many of their politicians jumped to the
inference that there was a secret treaty of alliance between the two
countries, and that in case of a rupture Russia would openly take
sides with the United States. These are the words of the dispatch
alluded to, and Americans should not soon forget them:

“The North American Republic not only presents itself to us as an
indispensable element of the international balance of power, but,
besides that, it is a Nation toward which our most august Emperor
and the whole of Russia have always had a most friendly disposition,
because both countries are in the ascendant period of their
development, and seemed called to a natural unity of interests and
sympathies, proofs of which have already been given on both sides.”


WOOD USED AS FUEL.

  MOLINE, Ill.

  How does the amount of wood used as fuel in Illinois compare with
  the quantity used in Pennsylvania, New York State, Iowa, and
  Kansas? State the average for each inhabitant, and tell the average
  price of such fuel in each of these States, so far as the market
  prices can be ascertained.

  D. MORGAN.

_Answer._—The extent to which wood is used as fuel in the United
States, and the estimated value of the same, are among the subjects
investigated by the present Census Bureau. The special agent in
charge of this investigation estimates that there were 32,375,000
persons in the United States in 1880 using wood as fuel for domestic
purposes, consuming 140,537,439 cords, valued at $306,950,040.
Besides this, there were about five and a quarter million cords
consumed for other purposes, making a total of nearly three hundred
and twenty-two million cords, as follows:

      Uses.                            Cords.            Value.
  Domestic use                       140,537,439      $306,950,040
  Railroads                            1,971,813         5,126,714
  Steamboats                             787,862         1,872,083
  In mining and amalgamating
    precious metal                       358,074         2,874,593
  Other mining operations                266,771           673,692
  Manufacture of brick and tile        1,157,522         3,978,331
  Manufacture of salt                    540,448           421,681
  Manufacture of wool                    158,208           425,239
                                     ———————————      ————————————
      Grand total                    145,778,137      $321,962,273

The amount of wood used for domestic purposes is given by States as
follows:

    States.                Cords.        Value.

  Alabama                6,076,754    $8,727,377
  Arizona                  170,017       724,572
  Arkansas               3,922,400     5,095,821
  California             1,748,062     7,693,731
  Colorado                 426,719     1,638,783
  Connecticut              525,639     2,371,532
  Dakota                   422,948     2,028,300
  Delaware                 177,306       751,311
  District of Columbia      26,902        80,706
  Florida                  609,046     1,230,412
  Georgia                5,910,045     8,279,245
  Idaho                     09,910       383,689
  Illinois               5,200,104    14,136,662
  Indiana                7,059,874    13,334,729
  Iowa                   4,090,649    14,611,280
  Kansas                 2,095,438     7,328,723
  Kentucky               7,994,813    13,313,220
  Louisiana              1,944,858     4,607,415
  Maine                  1,215,881     4,078,137
  Maryland               1,152,910     3,170,941
  Massachusetts            890,041     4,613,263
  Michigan               7,838,904    13,197,240
  Minnesota              1,669,568     5,873,421
  Mississippi            5,090,758     7,145,116
  Missouri               4,016,373     8,633,465
  Montana                  119,947       460,638
  Nebraska                 908,188     3,859,843
  Nevada                   155,276       972,712
  New Hampshire            567,719     1,964,669
  New Jersey               642,598     2,787,216
  New Mexico               169,946     1,063,360
  New York              11,290,975    37,599,364
  North Carolina         7,434,690     9,019,569
  Ohio                   8,191,543    16,492,574
  Oregon                   482,254     1,254,511
  Pennsylvania           7,361,962    15,067,651
  Rhode Island             154,953       706,011
  South Carolina         3,670,959    11,505,997
  Tennessee              8,084,611    10,674,722
  Texas                  4,883,852    10,177,311
  Utah                     171,923       418,289
  Vermont                  782,338     2,509,189
  Virginia               5,416,112    10,404,134
  Washington               184,226       499,904
  West Virginia          2,241,069     3,374,701
  Wisconsin              7,206,126    11,863,739
  Wyoming                   40,218       224,848

From the above data we have prepared the following table showing the
average number of cords consumed for domestic purposes only (stated
in cords and hundredths of a cord), the average price per cord, and
total consumption for each man, woman, and child in each of the
States named in the above question:

                     Cords   Value     Cost
                      per     per       per
  States.           capita.  cord.    capita.

  In Pennsylvania    1.72    $2.05    $3.52
  In New York        2.22     3.32     7.37
  In Illinois        1.70     2.27     4.90
  In Iowa            2.45     3.57     8.75
  In Kansas          2.14     3.50     7.49

According to this exhibit the effect of the marvelous coal fields
of Pennsylvania and Illinois on the consumption and price of wood is
very apparent and significant. The above does not include the wood
converted into charcoal, of which there were 74,008,972 bushels,
valued at $5,276,736, consumed in the production of iron and the
precious metals in the twenty largest cities of the Union; which does
not cover probably half the entire amount used in this country.


LARGEST AMERICAN LOCOMOTIVES.

  KEOKUK, Iowa.

  What is the weight of the largest locomotive engine; and what is
  the number of its drive wheels?

  READER.

_Answer._—This question was referred to Messrs. Burnham, Parry,
Williams & Co., of the Baldwin Locomotive Works, and their reply in
full is subjoined:

“Replying to your favor of the 8th inst., we may say that there
has been considerable activity of late in the construction of very
large locomotives, the most approved railroad practice having
changed materially within the past few years with respect to the
weight of the engines employed. We have recently built some very
heavy locomotives for the Northern Pacific Railroad, which weigh,
in working order, exclusive of the tender, about 115,000 pounds.
The tenders with coal and water weigh about 65,000 pounds each,
additional, making the total weight of engine and tender some ninety
net tons. These engines have cylinders 20x24 inches.

The Central Pacific Railroad Company have recently built in their
Sacramento shops some very heavy locomotives with four pairs of
driving wheels coupled and a leading four-wheeled truck, which weigh
in working order, exclusive of the tender, about 123,000 pounds.
The weight of the tender, with coal and water, is about 65,000
pounds, making the total net weight of the engine and tender some
ninety-three net tons. These engines have cylinders nineteen inches
in diameter and thirty inches stroke, and are probably at this time
the heaviest engines in use in this country.”


BUTTER PRODUCT OF A GOOD COW.

  PEORIA, Ill.

  1. What may be fairly regarded as the average annual butter product
  of a good class of dairy cows? 2. Is not $50 an exorbitant price to
  pay for an average cow?

  YOUNG HOUSEKEEPER.

_Answer._—Of course the butter product depends on the kind of stock,
the pasturage and winter feed, the care of the cattle, and the skill
and industry of the butter-maker. The following statement of Mr.
Wm. Guinter, of Twin Grove, Wis., shows the average annual product
of butter realized by him from six cows, together with the average
value of this product: “I have kept a strict account for one year
of the income from six cows. I have sold 1,185 pounds of butter,
and counting four pounds a week of cream and butter for family use
of four persons, increases the total product to 1,393 pounds. The
highest price received per pound was 38 cents, and the lowest was
16 cents, making an average of 26 cents. The whole amount realized,
then, was $362.18, or $60.36 a cow. I have my cows come in fresh
in the fall on account of making a better quality of butter and
getting a better price. I keep them in good condition all winter:
feed chopped corn and oats and all the clover hay they want. Feed
about three quarts of chop twice a day to each cow. My cows are only
the common grade. I have clover pastures, but never turn cattle in
till the first or middle of May, so as to let it get a good start,
and then the pasture will be good all summer. Some of my neighbors
ask: ‘Do you think it pays?’ I do it whether it pays or not: but I
think it does. You can’t expect a great yield of milk from straw
and dry cornstalks. What stock you keep, keep well. It will pay.”
2. Obviously the value of a good milch cow depends somewhat on the
locality. A cow is worth more in the immediate neighborhood of a
good market than in a region remote from such a market. With the
above average product of a good cow, in pounds, to guide one, every
intelligent person can form a judgment as to whether it will be
profitable for him, taking the price of butter and feed in his own
market, to pay $50, or more or less, for a good cow.


VACCINATING IMMIGRANTS.

  WASHINGTON, Ill.

  Is it true that there are government physicians who examine all
  immigrants from Europe and compel them to submit to revaccination
  before they allow them to pass certain stations? If so, by what
  authority is this done?

  A DOUBTER.

_Answer._—The best answer to these questions is contained in the
reports of the supervising inspectors of the National Board of
Health, under whose authority, conferred by an act of Congress, the
examination, or inspection, of immigrants entering the United States
and traveling therein is conducted. The report of the Supervising
Inspector of the Western District, Dr. John H. Rauch, Springfield,
Ill., dated Nov. 10, 1882, shows that in this district there were
94,839 immigrants inspected between June 1 and Oct. 31, 1882, of whom
17,195, with or without their consent, were vaccinated, as the case
seemed in the judgment of the assistant inspectors to call for:

                                 Number         Number
    Stations.                 inspected.    vaccinated.
  Pitts. Ft. W. & Chi. R. R.     17,347          2,539
  Lake S. & M. S. R. R.          14,011          2,285
  Mich. C. R. R.                 22,330          6,145
  Grand Trunk R. R.               9,356          1,875
  Balt. & Ohio R. R.             10,688          2,348
  Indianapolis                   13,746          1,635
  St. Louis                       7,361            368
                                 ——————         ——————
      Total                      94,839         17,195

Cases of small-pox found on the trains by the inspectors are removed
to small-pox hospitals. There were seven such cases in October, 1882,
in the Western District.


BRIDGES AND RHYTHMIC VIBRATION.

  ST. PAUL., Minn.

  Does music weaken metallic or other bridges? If so, please explain
  why.

  A. M. G.

_Answer._—Measured vibrations are more trying to any kind of
bridges, and particularly to suspension bridges, than irregular
agitation. Music alone would not strain a bridge enough to injure
it materially; but a regiment of troops keeping step to music when
crossing a suspension bridge would subject it to a very severe
strain. Consequently it is customary to stop the music before troops
reach the bridge, and let the men break step, and march more or less
irregularly. The reason of all this is obvious. The structure will
naturally suffer least strain when at rest. When in uniform motion
the bridge acquires a momentum equal to its entire suspended weight
multiplied by the velocity of the motion. It is manifest that, in the
case of a heavy structure, a uniform downward vibration, be it ever
so small, would develop a momentum of many tons in the direction of a
breaking strain. The same disturbing forces acting irregularly, so as
to counteract one another, would be far less trying to the structure.


THE FRANCO-GERMAN WAR.

  VANDALIA, Ill.

  Please give us the principal dates in the Franco-Prussian War.

  T. M. K.

_Answer._—The Franco-Prussian war was formally declared, on the
part of France, July 19, 1870. The South German States, since
then incorporated with Prussia and the other North German States
in what is now called the German Empire, soon took sides and
the Franco-Prussian war became the Franco-German war. On Sept.
1 the Emperor Napoleon surrendered his sword at Sedan. The war
was protracted through the winter by the obstinate resistance of
Paris, but the German army entered the city on Feb. 28, 1871, and
ratifications of the preliminary treaty of peace were exchanged March
3. The severest fighting was over, and France was virtually at the
mercy of Germany at the end of the first four months.


NATIONAL DEBTS OF FRANCE AND GREAT BRITAIN.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  Which is the greater, the present national debt of France or that
  of Great Britain?

  J. C. C.

_Answer._—The present national debt of France is considerably larger
than the national debt of Great Britain. On Jan. 1, 1879, the former
was £794,481,439, and it has increased since then. On March 31, 1881,
the latter was £768,703,692.


THE LEANING TOWER OF PISA.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  In what city is the great belfry spoken of as “the leaning tower?”
  When was it built; and was it purposely constructed to lean as it
  does?

  S. L.

_Answer._—You probably refer to what is known as “the leaning tower
of Pisa,” in one of the oldest and most famous cities of Italy.
It is a campanile, or bell tower, commenced in 1174, by Bonannus
of Pisa, and William of Innsbruck. It is cylindrical in shape, 50
feet in diameter, 179 feet high, and leans about 13 feet out of
perpendicular. It is divided into eight stories, each having an
exterior colonnade, or gallery. The top is reached by 330 steps. It
was not purposely built to lean. The foundation settled more on one
side than on the other until it reached the present inclination,
which it has maintained with scarcely any perceptible increase for
hundreds of years. The defect in the foundation was discovered before
its completion, and the upper part of the structure was built in a
manner to counteract in part the inclination; and the grand chime of
bells, seven in number, of which the largest alone weighs 12,000
pounds, is mounted with reference to counteract this fault still
further. This magnificent tower is justly regarded as one of the
wonders of the world.


VIRGINIA STATE DEBT.

  OXFORD, Iowa.

  What proportion of the State debt of Virginia do the “Readjusters”
  intend to repudiate? What part of it was created during the late
  civil war? Is the State really unable to pay its creditors? Give a
  few of the chief features of this Virginia debt controversy.

  F. G. A.

_Answer._—The whole of the Virginia State debt was contracted before
the war, for railroads, canals, turnpikes, and public buildings,
including penal and charitable institutions. Of course any debts
made in aid of the rebellion were wiped out by section 4 of the
fourteenth amendment to the Constitution of the United States. On
Jan. 1, 1861, the State owed $33,248,141.63. On Jan. 1, 1870, owing
to non-payment of interest during the intervening ten years, the
debt had accumulated to $45,660,348. The constitutions of Virginia
and West Virginia (the latter of which had been constructed out of
Virginia during the war) both provided for an equitable apportionment
of this joint indebtedness; but the two States have never agreed on a
division. In March, 1871, the State of Virginia passed an act to set
aside one-third of the debt to West Virginia, which contained about
one-fifth of the population and one-third of the territory of the
original State and a trifling proportion of the public improvements
for which the debt was created, and to give the bondholders new bonds
payable in thirty-four years with 6 per cent interest annually, and
certificates promising that the payment of the remaining one-third
would be provided for in accordance with such settlement as should
thereafter be made with West Virginia. This left as the debt of the
present State of Virginia $29,614,793 (report of Second Auditor,
1881). The State’s creditors hastened to exchange old evidences of
indebtedness for the new bonds, which went forward rapidly until
about two-thirds of the whole were refunded, when, a majority of
Readjusters having been elected to the Legislature, the process of
refunding was stopped. The old bonds left outstanding by this sudden
change of policy constitute what is known as the “Peeler debt.” The
interest coupons on the new bonds were “receivable for taxes and
all dues and demands against the State,” and have been honored, but
the interest on the Peeler debt has been paid only in part. In 1879
the creditors proposed the exchange of the bonds then outstanding
for new bonds bearing 3 per cent interest for ten years, 4 per cent
for twenty years, and 5 per cent for ten years, making an average
of 4 per cent. The total principal of the debt at this time was
$29,367,958.06. Accordingly the “McCulloch bill” was passed, binding
the State to this settlement: and bonds to the amount of $8,000,000
were issued under this law. Senator Johnston, in an article in the
_North American Review_ setting forth the above facts, claims that,
had the law been faithfully executed, the surplus revenue of 1879,
after paying interest on all the State’s indebtedness and all State
expenses of the government and the public schools, would have been
more than $400,000, which would have gone to pay off so much of the
principal.

Senator Riddleberger, in his reply to Mr. Johnston, in the _North
American Review_ for April, 1882, declares that instead of there
being any surplus in the State Treasury at the close of 1879, the
Readjusters found, on their accession to power, Jan. 1, 1880, “a
great mass of the proposed McCulloch tax-receivable certificates
ready for issue. They were forced to borrow money to run the
government. Half a million of money, due by defaulting treasurers,
was uncollected and unsued for. Over $1,500,000 had been diverted
from the schools. The charitable institutions of the State were on
the verge of bankruptcy.” Nevertheless, the boast of the Virginia
press, that the mining, manufacturing, and agricultural resources
of the State are developing more rapidly than before the war, is
generally believed to be true; the crops of the six principal cereals
and potatoes, tobacco, and hay in 1881 amounted to $44,280,690,
and the live stock to $33,538,877; the taxable value of property,
real and personal, even at the low assessment prevailing, is
given at $308,455,135: facts which lead the world to believe that
Virginia is perfectly able to pay her debt. Taking the total debt
under the McCulloch bill at what Senator Mahone placed it at the
time of the passage of the bill, the annual interest would have
amounted to not quite $990,000, which, added to $565,000 for
public schools and arrearages, and $765,000 for current expenses
of the State Government, would make but $2,320,000. That same year
the net revenue, if faithfully collected, would have amounted to
$2,606,425.36, so that there would have been a remainder of $286,500
to apply as a sinking fund. Since then the Riddleberger bill has
become a law, and the debt has been scaled down to about $20,000,000,
instead of about $33,000,000, which is nearly what it would be had
the McCulloch law been carried out. As there is no provision for
the payment of the $15,239,370 set over to West Virginia, and which
the latter repudiates on the ground that she has offsets to all her
proportion of the original debt, it appears that the total loss to
the State’s creditors, adding the accrued interest on the latter
amount, is over $36,000,000, or fully 80 per cent of the amount
conceded by the act of 1871 to be the total sum then due them.


POINTS OF A GOOD SHOT-GUN.

  FOURCHE, D. T.

  What are the essentials of a good shot-gun? Name several prime
  quality guns.

  H. M. EASTMAN.

_Answer._—The following, in the opinion of skilled manufacturers and
practiced sportsmen of this city, are essentials of a first-class
shot-gun. The barrel should be of laminated or Damascus steel or
stub-twist (the former being generally preferred), and full choke or
modified choke bore. A taper bore is also highly esteemed. Length of
barrel, 28 to 32 inches; bore, 10 to 12 gauge. The gun should be a
breech-loader, with rebounding lock and extension rib. Pistol grip,
patent fore-end are points insisted on by some, although they are
hardly to be classed as essentials. The front action or bar lock is a
feature of many of the best guns. Among English guns the Greener and
Scott stand very high; among Belgian, Charles Daly; among American,
Parker, Colt, Remington, Nichols & Lefevre, and Baker; and in the
Northwest, the Abby gun, manufactured in this city, is a favorite.
Good English guns range from $350 to $400. Good American guns with
English barrels may be had at prices ranging from $200 to $300.


WEALTH OF THE UNITED STATES PER CAPITA.

  WOODLAWN, Mo.

  Please give the wealth of each State, together with the wealth per
  capita.

  READER.

_Answer._—The following statistics represent the amount of taxable
property, real and personal in each State and Territory, and also the
amount per capita.

                             Total.     Per capita.

  Maine                   $235,978,716    362.09
  New Hampshire            164,755,181    474.81
  Vermont                   86,806,755    261.24
  Massachusetts          1,584,756,802    888.77
  Rhode Island             252,536,673    913.23
  Connecticut              327,177,385    525.41
  New York               2,651,940,000    521.74
  New Jersey               572,518,361    506.06
  Pennsylvania           1,683,459,016    393.08
  Delaware                  59,951,643    408.92
  Maryland                 497,307,675    533.07
  District of Columbia      99,401,787    845.08
  Virginia                 308,455,135    203.92
  West Virginia            139,622,705    225.75
  North Carolina           156,100,202    111.52
  South Carolina           153,560,135    154.24
  Georgia                  239,472,599    155.82
  Florida                   30,938,309    114.80
  Alabama                  122,867,228     97.32
  Mississippi              110,628,129     97.76
  Louisiana                160,162,439    170.39
  Texas                    320,364,515    201.26
  Arkansas                  86,409,364    176.71
  Kentucky                 350,563,971    212.63
  Tennessee                211,778,538    137.30
  Ohio                   1,534,360,508    479.77
  Indiana                  727,815,131    367.89
  Illinois                 786,616,394    255.24
  Michigan                 517,666,359    316.23
  Wisconsin                438,971,751    333.69
  Iowa                     398,671,251    245.39
  Minnesota                258,028,687    330.48
  Missouri                 532,795,801    245.72
  Kansas                   160,891,689    161.52
  Nebraska                  90,585,782    200.23
  Colorado                  74,471,693    383.22
  Nevada                    29,291,459    470.40
  Oregon                    52,522,084    300.52
  California               584,578,036    676.05
  Arizona                    9,270,214    229.23
  Dakota                    20,321,530    150.33
  Idaho                      6,440,876    197.51
  Montana                   18,609,802    475.23
  New Mexico                11,363,406     95.04
  Utah                      24,775,279    172.09
  Washington                23,810,603    316.98
  Wyoming                   13,621,829    655.24
                       ———————————————    ——————
      Total            $16,902,993,543    337.00


THE OLDEST HISTORIANS.

  FOURCHE, D. T.

  Were there historians before Berosus, Manetho, and Herodotus, whose
  works have come down to us in Greek, Latin, or other European
  languages?

  H. M. EASTMAN.

_Answer._—Herodotus is the oldest of the Greek historians. He was
born 484 B. C. He is generally recognized as the father of history.
Berosus was an educated priest of Babylon, who lived about 260 B.
C., and wrote in Greek three books of Babylonian-Chaldean history,
the materials for which he declares he found in the ancient archives
of Babylon. Manetho was an Egyptian historian, of the priestly
order, who lived in the reign of Ptolemy Soter, in the beginning
of the third century B. C. He, too, obtained the materials for
his works from the temple records at his command, from which he
wrote two works, one on the religion and the other on the history
of Egypt. Only fragments of the writings of Berosus and Manetho
remain—preserved in the works of Josephus, Eusebius, and other later
writers. There are historical records on the ancient monuments of
Egypt, Babylon, and Assyria which date back to earlier days, but
except the historical books of the Old Testament, beginning with
those of Moses (who was born 1738 B. C.), and some of the writings of
Confucius (born 551 B. C.), there is nothing antedating the writings
of Herodotus that is regarded as history.


FORMS OF LEAD CRYSTALS.

  BURLINGAME, Kan.

  Why is east and west lead ore always in cubes, while it is not
  always so with lead found in north and south lodes?

  C. A. DAMON.

_Answer._—The primitive form of galena, or sulphate of lead, crystals
is the cube. Whenever left free to crystallize, subject to no
extraneous force or pressure, this ore takes that form. At cross
veins it takes modified forms, the angles and edges of the cubes
being replaced by faces, so as in many cases to form octahedral
crystals. Now just why lead seems to have been more free to take its
simple primitive form when crystallizing in east and west veins or
lodes than in veins running in other directions is still largely a
matter of theory or conjecture. Some theorists think that the north
and south magnetic currents, to which the polarity of the magnetic
needle is attributed, have something to do with this phenomenon, but
a great many other wise people think nobody knows.


NATIONS OF THE GLOBE.

  SILVER LAKE, Ind.

  How many nations are there on the globe? Has each of them a flag?

  J. F. CLYMER.

_Answer._—The following is a full list of the nations of the world,
each of which has its own distinctive national colors or flag: The
United States of America, Mexico, Nicaragua, Honduras, Guatemala, San
Salvador, Costa Rica, the United States of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru,
Bolivia, Chili, Argentine Confederation, Uruguay, Paraguay, Brazil,
Venezuela, Hayti, and San Domingo, which are all the independent
nationalities of North and South America and the West India Islands;
Great Britain and her dependencies in both hemispheres, France
and her dependencies in Asia, Africa, and Oceanica, the German
Empire, Austro-Hungary, Russia, Italy, Spain and her dependencies
in both hemispheres; Portugal and her dependencies in Asia and
Africa, Switzerland, Belgium, Netherlands and her dependencies in
both hemispheres, Denmark and her colonial possessions, Sweden and
Norway, Greece, Roumania, Servia, Montenegro, Turkey or the Ottoman
Empire, Andorra, San Marino, and Monaco; the only independent
States of Africa (except those wholly savage), Liberia, Orange River
Free State, Transvaal Republic, Morocco, and Abyssinia; the only
independent nationalities of all Asia—Persia, Burmah, Afghanistan,
Beloochistan, Siam, China, and Japan; finally the Sandwich Islands.
This makes a total of fifty-seven nations universally recognized
and diplomatically treated as such, although several of them, like
Afghanistan and Burmah, are little more than nominally independent,
and two of them—Monaco, with an area of only 5¾ square miles, or
less than a Congressional township in this country, and a population
less than 6,000, and San Marino, with an area of barely 23-8/10
square miles and less than 8,000 inhabitants—are so insignificant
in comparison with their great neighbors that it seems a mockery of
the name to call them nations. Indian tribes, Esquimaux, tribes of
Africa, Asia, and Australia, although taken into treaty relations as
independent or quasi independent peoples, are never correctly spoken
of as nations in the sense in which the term is used in international
law.


ENTERING LAND IN DAKOTA.

  HUSTON, D. T.

Nine-tenths of the persons who have inquired of me about Dakota land
entries since my brief note in THE INTER OCEAN did not inclose stamps
or postal cards for replies. I have answered all that did observe
this plain business rule. I am no land agent, nor have I land to
sell, so I ask you to publish the following notes, which will answer
nearly all the questions asked me. [A person should not invite a
general correspondence through a paper like THE INTER OCEAN, “whose
parish is the world,” unless he is prepared to employ one or two
stenographic correspondence clerks. In almost every instance that we
have published contributors’ invitations to Farm and Home readers to
write to them, these rash friends have sent us word that they were
deluged with correspondence.—ED]. Of course, in the beginning all
the government land in Douglas County, D. T., was subject to entry
under the pre-emption and homestead or timber-culture acts. But at
present there are not more than three hundred vacant quarters in the
county, and, since the timber-culture act only allows one such claim
in each section, these unentered quarters can be taken only under the
homestead and pre-emption acts. A timber-culture claimant is required
to plant ten acres of trees and protect and cultivate them for eight
years. As no settlement is required, these claims are in good demand,
the relinquishments selling for from $200 to $400, owing to location.
Under the pre-emption law the settler pays $2 to file his claim.
After he has lived upon the land six months final proof can be made
by paying $1.25 per acre. Under this entry the claimant is allowed
thirty-three months in which to prove up, at the end of which time,
if he has not complied with this requirement, the land is again open
for settlement. Under the homestead law the settler pays $14 to
enter. He has then six months in which to begin his residence on the
land, after which time, if he has not complied with the law, it can
be contested on the ground of abandonment. Where a settler is unable
to begin his residence and settlement within the time allowed by
law, he can dispose of the claim by relinquishing to the government
and allowing some one else to enter. Nearly all the land throughout
the central part of the county has been taken; and what government
land there is remaining is mostly in the western part and around the
borders of the county. Relinquishments range in price from $50 to
$300, owing to location and quality of the land.

  H. S. BROWN.


RECORDS OF THE BRITISH CELTS.

  DUNLAP, Iowa.

  Had the Celts, at the time of the invasion by Julius Cæsar of what
  is now England and Wales, any records by which their origin could
  be traced?

  J. H. G. ROGERS.

_Answer._—That they had any written records there is great reason
to doubt, although there are inscriptions on certain rude stone
monuments in parts of Wales, as in the southeastern counties of
Munster, Ireland, consisting of long and short lines, known as Ogamic
characters, the antiquity of which is not well determined. As far as
deciphered, these inscriptions throw no direct light upon the origin
of the Celtic race. Their spoken language, reduced to writing after
the introduction of Christianity, is the only key of any importance
to their origin. This language plainly marks them as an early
offshoot of the Aryan family, the common Asiatic stock from which
all the ruling races of Europe have descended. The descriptions left
by the Romans of the aborigines of Britain at the time of the Roman
conquest represent them as fierce, cruel barbarians. Neither Cæsar’s
Commentaries nor the writings of Tacitus and other historians of the
period of the Roman domination convey evidence that the Britons had
any knowledge of letters until the Roman and Greek characters were
taught them. Neither do these historians preserve any oral traditions
of the British bards or druids calculated to shed much light upon the
early history of the Celtic race.


REPUDIATING STATES.

  BEMENT, Ill.

  Name the States which have repudiated their debts, in whole or in
  part, and tell what party was responsible for the act in every case.

  J. C. MILLER.

_Answer._—Virginia, W. Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina,
Georgia, Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Mississippi, Louisiana,
Tennessee, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Minnesota have each of
them, at one time or another, repudiated a part of their State debts.
Illinois repented almost immediately in sackcloth and ashes, and
settled with her creditors. Indiana has settled everything but about
twenty old internal-improvement bonds, which will no doubt soon be
liquidated. Minnesota has recently determined to settle with her
creditors, although the railroads, in aid of which the repudiated
bonds were issued, were not constructed in conformity with the law,
and the bonds are badly tainted with fraud. In every case but that
of Minnesota and South Carolina repudiation came in under Democratic
regimes.


THE CAPITAL OF LOUISIANA.

  ALDEN, Iowa.

  What is the present capital of Louisiana? Some geographies say New
  Orleans, and others Baton Rouge. Please explain this discrepancy.

  TEACHER.

_Answer._—The capital of the first colonial government of Louisiana
was fixed at Biloxi, in 1699. It was transferred to New Orleans
in 1723. New Orleans was the capital of the Territory of Orleans,
organized in 1804 out of a part of the vast Louisiana purchase.
In 1812 the State of Louisiana was formed with New Orleans as
the capital. In 1847 Baton Rouge was made the seat of the State
government, and it remained so until after it came into possession
of the Union army during the late war. A provisional government was
established at New Orleans in 1864, and the State constitution of
1868 made that city the capital; but by the new constitution of Dec.
2, 1879, the honor of being the seat of the State government was
restored to Baton Rouge, where it was established in 1880.


ANGORA AND CASHMERE FLEECES.

  SEDAN, Kan.

  What are the distinctive differences between the “staples” of
  Angora and Cashmere goats? Which staple is the more valuable? What
  are the present prices of the same in the markets of this country?
  Give a few chief facts as to these two breeds of goats.

  T. S. R.

_Answer._—The Angora goat takes its name from the Turkish city and
village of Angora, in the interior, mountainous region of Asia
Minor (about 220 miles E. S. E. of Constantinople), which exports
2,000,000 lbs of mohair annually. The animals are highly prized, and
command from $250 to $1,250 for the finest males and $200 to $900
for females, there being several varieties. The Cashmere goat is
named from Cashmere, a province between India proper and Thibet. The
animals are most numerous in Thibet, but most of the wool—or mohair,
as it is technically termed—is manufactured in Cashmere, the 16,000
or more looms of which turn out about 30,000 shawls every year, worth
in London from £100 to £450. There are marked differences in the
“staples” of these two species of goats. They both have two coats.
In the case of the Angoras there is a coarse, short hair close to
the skin, and a long, curly, outer covering of the nature of wool,
very soft and silky and, in good varieties, from seven to nine inches
long. This is the more bulky and valuable part of the fleece. The
Cashmere goat, on the contrary, has a coarse, outer coat of different
shades from gray to black and a fine undergrowth of beautifully soft,
silky texture, almost downy. It is perfectly straight, of a uniformly
grayish color and glossy luster, and is fully double the length of
the Angora staple, the best grades measuring eighteen inches. This
is combed out of the animal’s coat in the spring, when it begins
to be shed, and the product is so light that it has been said that
the average yield is but three ounces per goat, which would require
the product of ten goats for the manufacture of a shawl a yard and
a half square. It is certain, however, that the yield of the finer
animals ranges from seven to nine ounces. The value of this mohair in
Cashmere is from 30 to 40 cents a pound. It is not exported to this
country to such a degree as to establish a market quotation. There
is some of the Angora mohair imported for manufacture in our Eastern
States, at prices ranging, according to quality, from 60 cents to $1
a pound. The Angora goat has been successfully introduced into the
British colonies of South Africa. Cape Colony alone exported in 1878
the sum of 1,300,585 pounds, valued at £105,313, or about 32 cents
a pound. It is believed that it can be raised with profit in the
mountainous parts of Georgia and Alabama, and still farther north;
and in the mountainous districts of California and Oregon.


AN EARLY CALIFORNIAN COIN.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  Please give the origin of the $20 gold piece of 1853, marked on one
  side, “San Francisco;” on the other, “Moffat & Co.” Is it worth
  anything above its face value?

  J. A. BLOSS.

_Answer._—It being impossible to find any quotation of the value of
the coin referred to, Messrs. Stevens & Co., well-known numismatists
of this city, were asked to answer the above questions. The following
is their reply: “The $20 gold piece here designated gives a good
deal of trouble to curiosity hunters and coin collectors in general;
very much as is the case with the silver dollar of 1878 with eight
feathers in the eagle’s tail. There is no premium on either of
them. There is no certain history of the Moffat & Co. pieces. They
were a private coinage and issued under miner’s law; and all ’49
Californians know the potency or persuasive powers of that law.
The quality or fineness of the pieces is below standard and their
value much below our current $20 piece. The San Francisco mint was
established in July, 1852, and very soon after that all private
coinages ceased. Most of these pieces find their way into the
brokers’ offices and are sold only at bullion prices.”


MOCHA COFFEE.

  MAYVILLE, D. T.

  Where does Mocha coffee come from, and what makes it so much higher
  priced than other coffee?

  EDWARD PALMER.

_Answer._—The genuine Mocha coffee is produced in the province of
Yemen, South Arabia. It takes its name from Mokha, the chief port of
exportation, on the Red Sea. Very little of it, and that of inferior
quality, is ever seen west of Constantinople. Mr. W. G. Palgrave,
the Arabian traveler, says: “Arabia itself, Syria, and Egypt consume
fully two-thirds of the annual crop, and the remainder is almost
exclusively absorbed by Turkish and Armenian esophagi. Nor do these
last get for their share the best or the purest. Before reaching the
harbors of Alexandria, Jaffa, Beyrout, etc., for exportation beyond
there, the northern bales have been sifted and resifted, grain by
grain, and whatever they may have contained of the hard, rounded,
half transparent, greenish-brown berry, the only one really worth
roasting and pounding, has been carefully picked out by experienced
fingers, and it is the less generous residue of flattened, opaque,
and whitish grains which almost alone goes on the shipping. So
constant is this selecting process that a gradation regular as
the degrees in a map may be observed in the quality of Mokha,
that is Yemen, coffee, even within the limits of Arabia itself in
proportion as one approaches to or recedes from, Wadi Nejran and the
neighborhood of Mecca, the first stages of the radiating mart.” About
10,000 pounds of this coffee are exported annually through the port
of Mokha, says another authority; but this seems to be consumed, as
Mr. Palgrave says, mainly in Africa and Turkey.

The Mocha sold in the markets of Western Europe and America is from
the East Indies. Some of it even never crossed the Atlantic, being
produced in the West Indies or Central or South America. The really
exquisite flavor of this choice, small berried coffee, together with
the almost fanatical prejudice of the Turks for it, because it is
raised in Arabia, and the limited production, sufficiently account
for the high price it commands.


INDEX OF PERIODICAL LITERATURE.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  A party of ladies studying Shakespeare are deeply interested in
  the Baconian theory. We find very little concerning it in books.
  Can you tell us if there are any valuable magazine articles on
  this subject, and where they may be found? What guide is there to
  periodical literature?

  MRS. M. B. W.

_Answer._—Happily we do now know where to direct not only this
correspondent but other inquirers where to find a complete index of
all periodical literature in the English language of any importance,
whether upon the above-named subject or any other. It is in “An
Index to Periodical Literature,” by William Frederick Poole, LL.
D., Librarian of the Chicago Public Library: published by James R.
Osgood & Co., Boston. This is the only work of the kind, except Dr.
Poole’s first and second indexes, published the one in 1848, and
the other in 1853, both of which are out of print and were mere
pamphlets in comparison with this noble volume, a royal octavo of
1,442 pages. Fresh from the press, it is brought down to a very
recent date. The answers to the above questions and another, from
two correspondents who wish to read up on the protective tariff and
free trade controversy, may serve to illustrate the advantages of
this invaluable index. Under William Shakespeare there are eight and
a half columns of references by title to articles in American and
English reviews and magazines on Shakespeare and his works, all of
which are alphabetically arranged. Running along the “A” column we
come to “Authorship of” (Shakespeare), “and Lord Bacon. (Delia Bacon)
Putnam, 7:1.—Frazer, 90:164. Same art, Liv. Age, 123:131.—Chamb,
J., 18:87—Nat. R. 5:72—Canad. Mo. 16:76—(A. Morgan) Appleton,
21:112, 481. 23:481. 24:14—(M. B. Benton) Appleton 21:336.-Blackw,
80:616.—(C. C. Shackford) No. Am. 85:493.—(A. G. Sedgwick) No. Am.
104:276.—(N. Hawthorne) Astan. 11:43.—(E. O. Vaile) Scrib. 9:743.—(J.
F. Clarke) No. Am. 132:163.—(W. H. Smith) Liv. Age, 51:481.—Harper,
34:263.—Nation, 2:402.—Scrib., 9:392.” This answers Mrs. M. B. W.’s
question as to where she and her Shakspearean Club are to look for
periodical literature on the Baconian theory of the authorship of
Shakespeare.

Now turn to “Tariff,” and there are nearly two columns of titles of
articles on this subject and where to find them; among them being the
following, arranged under the head of “Protective Tariff.”

“Protective, (J. C. Pray) Hunt, 2:119.—(H. J. Burton) Hunt,
11:254.—(M. D. L. Rodet) Hunt, 11:299.—(E. Everett) No. Am.,
19:223.—(A. H. Everett) No. Am., 03:160; 32:127.—No. Am., 35:265.—(F.
Bowen) No. Am., 73:90.—(H. Greeley) Am. Whig R. 2:111; 4:215; 5:201;
14:81. Ed. R., 72:321. Dem. R., 7:341; 9:329; 10:357; 14:291, 447;
19:163.—Am. Q., 10:444; 11:345.—So. R., 2:582; 6:206; 8:213.—Niles
R., 17:87; 19:331; 20:306, 354; 21:121, 147; 22:2, 292; 23:40, 118;
24:99, 116.—So. Lit. Mess., 8:421.”

Turning to the introduction of the book we find all the above
abbreviations clearly explained, and the place of publication of
each of the several periodicals referred to. For example: “Putnam,
7:1,” stands for Putnam’s Magazine, number 7, page 1; “Blackw.
80:616,” signifies Blackwood’s Magazine, number 80, page 616, and so
on. Every public library in the land—city, village, college, high
school, whatever its name—needs such a guide as this to periodical
literature, and it is easy to see that no private library of any
pretensions can do without it.


WHY 1900 WILL NOT BE A LEAP YEAR.

  TIPTON, Iowa.

  Will the year 1900 be a leap year? Robinson’s Arithmetic says that
  1896 will be a leap year but 1900 will not be. If this is true,
  please explain why.

  STUDENT.

_Answer._—The old Roman year contained but 355 days, divided into
twelve lunar months, with an intercalary month thrown in at certain
intervals, as became necessary, to atone for the fact that it
requires more than twelve precise lunar months to make a year. This
arrangement led to great confusion, and Julius Cæsar, in the year
B. C. 46, remedied the trouble in large degree by the introduction
of what is known as the Julian calendar, which regarded the year as
composed of 365¼ days. This was a great improvement, but as a matter
of fact the natural year contains 11 minutes 10 seconds less than
365¼ days, which difference amounts in a hundred years to 18 hours 36
minutes 40 seconds, or a little more than three-fourths of a day. As
a consequence, between the year A. D. 325—when the Council of Nice
established the rule for the determination of Easter Sunday—and the
year 1582 there was found to be an accumulated error of ten days.
Whereas the sun had crossed the equator at the vernal equinox of A.
D. 325 on March 21, it crossed it in 1582, according to the Julian
calendar, on March 11. Pope Gregory XIII., resolved on ending the
confusion attendant upon this imperfection of the generally accepted
calendar, ordained that what according to this mode of reckoning
would have been Oct. 5, 1582, be reckoned as Oct. 15; and to prevent
a repetition of the error he further ordained that every hundredth
year should not be a leap year, excepting the year 2000 and every
four hundredth year thereafter. Manifestly the omission of an entire
day every four hundredth year would be too much by about one day,
since, as above shown, the error in the Julian mode of reckoning
amounts only to 18h. 36 min. 40 sec. in a hundred years, or about
three days in four hundred years. This correction the Gregorian
amendment effects by the rule above stated, which took the years
1700, 1800, and 1900 out of the list of leap years, and left the year
2,000 in that list. This leaves but the small difference of 36 min.
and 40 sec. in a hundred years between the civil and natural years:
which amounts to no more than twenty-two seconds a year, or about six
hours in 1,000 years. In England the change from the old style of
reckoning to this new style was not ordered until 1751, by which time
the error that was but ten days in Gregory’s time had grown to eleven
days. The order took effect in England and the Colonies as regarded
all official dates and reckoning, in September, 1752, when eleven
days were left out of the calendar by reckoning Sept. 3 as Sept. 14.
This explains apparent discrepancies between authors who wrote in
the latter half of the last and the early part of this century. For
example, some early biographies of Washington say that he was born
Feb. 11, others that he was born Feb. 11, O. S., or Feb. 22, N. S.
Some biographical sketches of John Adams, Washington’s successor,
declare that he was born Oct. 19, 1735, without indicating that this
was according to the old reckoning, while others state that he was
born Oct. 30.


LEGISLATION FOR THE PEOPLE.

  DENVER, Col.

  Enumerate the acts passed since the Republicans have been in power
  which have served to benefit the people generally, and not some
  corporation or monopoly only. An elderly Democrat declares that the
  Republican party has never passed any such laws.

  C. S. HOLLEY.

_Answer._—It is useless to waste words on men so ignorant or
politically mendacious as “elderly Democrat.” The following
memorandum is for the benefit of younger and fairer minded men.
First of all there is the series of acts ending in the preservation
of the Union and the emancipation of 4,000,000 men who were so far
from being “monopolists” or holders of corporation shares that they
were slaves; as they would be to-day had the Democrats remained in
power. It would take columns to enumerate the laws brought forward
by Republicans and enacted since they came into power which have
immensely benefited the people at large, and not “only monopolies,”
as you express it. Among these are the laws which have brought
cheap postage and rapid postal transportation; the homestead and
timber culture acts; the establishment of the only thoroughly secure
national paper currency and general banking system this country has
ever enjoyed; the resumption of specie payments in the face of
Democratic and Greenbacker opposition; the maintenance of the public
credit against rebellion in the South and the Democracy in the North,
re-enforced subsequently by the Greenback party, both clamoring for
total or partial repudiation; the abolition of all duties on tea
and coffee; the establishment of State schools of agriculture and
industrial science, endowed by government land grants; the promotion
of American inventions, manufactures, and mining, until it is
considered that this country leads the world in useful inventions,
and the capital invested in its factories is nearly three times as
great as it was in 1860, when the Republicans came into power—the
number of hands employed being 2,738,885, or more than double as
many; the amount paid in wages, more than two and a half times as
much; the value of farms, forest, mine and other materials consumed
(nearly all American) about three and a third times as much; and
the value of the product almost three times as great. As some of
the consequences of the above industrial legislation, the public
lands are passing into the hands of the people in homesteads and
timber culture claims alone at the rate of 8,000,000 acres a year;
and the twenty years from 1860 to 1880 added as many farms to the
cultivated domain of the country as all its previous history. Gold,
notwithstanding all the products of our fields and mines, not only
stopped flowing out of the country, as it had done during all our
former history, but began to pour in from other lands, millions on
millions. While throughout all the vast interior of the country,
notwithstanding the marvelous multiplication of farms, farm products
are higher than in 1860, and nearly all manufactured goods that enter
into general consumption are lower. In the same brief period the
assessed taxes on real estate and personal property have mounted from
$12,084,560,005 to $16,902,993,543.


EARTHQUAKES.

  LAY, Col.

  Please tell us the cause of earthquakes. Are they due to internal
  convulsions of the earth or to atmospheric disturbances?

  JACOB SLONEKER.

_Answer._—According to that eminent physicist, F. W. Rudler (see
his contribution to the Encyclopedia Britannica on “Earthquakes”),
“even at the present day, after all that has been written on the
subject, but little is known as to the origin of earthquakes.” The
general opinion of investigators is that these agitations proceed
from within outward, and are not of atmospheric or other external
origin. True, Professor Alexis Perry, of Dijon, France, thought he
had discovered relations between the ages of the moon and these
recurrences, which seemed to sustain the theory of Zantedeschi, that
the liquid nucleus of the earth responds to the moon’s attraction in
tides, somewhat as the ocean does: but the theory that the earth has
a liquid nucleus covered with only a thin, solid crust, is losing
adherents continually. The theory of vibration communicated by
meteoric impact has been advanced as accounting for some earthquakes.
Another theory is that earthquakes are caused in some instances
by steam from water rushing into the bowels of volcanoes, or from
explosions of pent-up gases, generated by chemical decomposition of
minerals. Others believe that many of these phenomena are due to
magnetic disturbances, following eruptions in the sun. The prevailing
opinion still is that whatever their origin, whether of one cause,
or various causes, the vibrations of every earthquake can be traced
to a focus within the earth, and that this lies directly beneath the
point of greatest disturbance on the earth’s surface. After the great
shock at Naples in 1857, Mr. Mallet, aided by the Royal Society,
by determining the wave paths of the shock at twenty-six different
stations, was able to locate the focal depth of the earthquake at
about five and a half miles; and Dr. Oldham, by observations on the
wave effects of the earthquake which occurred at Cachar, India, on
Jan. 10, 1869, found that the focus of disturbance must have been
about thirty miles below the surface. This is very near the maximum
depth at which any earthquake is likely to originate, if we accept
the reasoning of that most eminent of all investigators of this class
of phenomena, Mr. Mallet, of Dublin, Ireland. There are credible
records of between 6,000 and 7,000 earthquakes between 1606 B. C. and
1842 A. D. Professor Fuch’s more careful observations of recent years
show that there were probably many times that number of unrecorded
ones, since he registered ninety-seven during the year 1875 and 104
during 1876. In view of this fact this subject appears to be one of
the most interesting problems of nature and is attracting growing
attention, which, it is hoped, will presently lead to definite,
satisfactory conclusions.


SOUTHEASTERN DAKOTA.

  PLANKINGTON, D. T.

Having seen questions in THE INTER OCEAN inquiring about Dakota,
and seeing no answers from this county, I concluded to write and
tell what I know of it. Aurora is the fourth county from the eastern
boundary and the third from the southern. It is considered by all
who have traveled over it as one of the finest in Southern Dakota.
The county is forty-eight miles long and twenty-four miles wide. In
the northwestern portion are situated the “Wessington Hills.” These
extend from northeast to southwest as far as the Missouri. Among them
are beautiful broad valleys and lakes of clear water. The climate
is all that can be desired. Last summer the days were warm and the
nights invariably cool, so that after a hard day’s work you could lie
down and rest sweetly. The past winter here, as in all other parts
of the Northern States, has been very cold and stormy. One month,
however, would take in all of the very cold weather. One foot would
cover all the snow that we have had this winter. The soil is a black
loam, varying in depth from one to six feet. The shallowest we have
found on our land is eighteen inches, and the deepest four feet. It
is very productive. Last year the crops yielded as follows: Corn
from 25 to 60 bushels per acre, wheat from 20 to 40 bushels, oats
from 50 to 80 bushels, barley from 30 to 60 bushels, rye from 40
to 60 bushels, flax from 7 to 22 bushels, buckwheat from 10 to 30
bushels, potatoes from 100 to 300 bushels, and all other vegetables
yielded enormously. The way this county is filling up is wonderful.
One year ago last fall there were only about 150 people in the
county, and to-day there are between 450 and 500, and scores more
coming on every train. If emigrants continue coming as they have done
for the last eighteen months, this county will soon be filled up.
Spring has already opened out with us, and farmers are putting in
their wheat and barley. Plankington, our county seat, which hardly
had a name eighteen months ago, is to-day a fine little village of
over 700 inhabitants. With early and deep planting this country will
grow almost anything.

  THOMAS JACKA.


INCOME OF THE CZAR.

  FORT WAYNE, Ind.

  Will you inform us through Our Curiosity Shop from what source the
  Emperor of Russia receives his income of $25,000 a day?

  S. S. COLEMAN.

_Answer._—The annual income of the Czar of all the Russias probably
averages a great deal more than $25,000 a day. The crown domains
comprise more than a million square miles, covering an area exceeding
that of all our New England, Middle, and Southern States. These
include cultivated lands, pastures, and forests in different parts
of this vast empire, which embraces in its despotic arms more
than one-sixth the entire land surface of our globe. Besides the
revenue from the above estates, the Czar derives a large income
from gold, silver, copper, and other mines in Siberia. The actual
total of his immense revenue from all these sources is not stated
in the government budgets or finance accounts, the crown domains
being considered the private property of the imperial family. In a
British consular report of 1867 the total income of the imperial
family is estimated at £2,450,000 sterling, which is an average
of about $33,500 a day. The imperial contributions to charities,
schools, theaters, etc., are estimated by the same authority at about
£450,000, leaving a net sum of £2,000,000 a year to “keep the family.”


GETTYSBURG AND WATERLOO.

  RED OAK, Iowa.

  What was the most destructive battle of the late civil war; and how
  did it compare with the battle of Waterloo as to numbers engaged
  and loss of life?

  INQUIRER.

_Answer._—The heaviest losses suffered by either side in any single
battle of the late war were at Gettysburg. The numbers engaged and
the losses are stated differently by different writers. Before
the Committee on the Conduct of the War, General Meade, the Union
commander, said: “Including all arms of the service, my strength
was a little under 100,000—about 95,000.” Understanding this to
include General French’s 7,000 men, who were by a blunder kept idle
at Frederick, and about 4,000 more of French’s force, who had been
detailed for special service—none of whom were brought into this
battle—it would appear that Meade’s force at Gettysburg was about
84,000 men of all arms. This corresponds very nearly with General
Humphrey’s statement that the Army of the Potomac in this action
comprised 70,000 infantry and 10,000 cavalry, with an artillery
force of 300 guns. Of the Confederate forces, General Humphrey says
that General Lee entered Pennsylvania with 85,000 infantry, 8,000
cavalry, and a due proportion of artillery. Greeley’s “American
Conflict” says: “Lee’s army, carefully counted by two Union men
independently, as it marched through Hagerstown, numbered 91,000
infantry, with 280 guns and 6,000 cavalry, while not less than 5,000
cavalry under Stuart advanced into Pennsylvania without passing
through Hagerstown.” The Union loss was 23,190, of whom 2,834 were
killed, 13,713 wounded, and 6,643 missing. The Confederate loss is
not officially stated. It is estimated by one writer (in the American
Cyclopedia) at 5,000 killed, 23,000 wounded, and 8,000 unwounded
prisoners—a total of 36,000, which is evidently an exaggeration.
Greeley’s “American Conflict” estimates Lee’s loss at 28,000, of whom
18,000 were killed and wounded, and 10,000 were unwounded prisoners;
while J. Watts de Peyster, in Johnson’s Cyclopedia, estimates Lee’s
loss at 31,600—18,000 killed and wounded, and 13,600 missing,
which includes the unwounded prisoners in our hands. In the battle
of Waterloo, the French army under Napoleon I. (according to P.
Nicholas, in Haydn’s Dictionary of Dates) numbered 71,947 men and 246
guns, and the allies 133,661 men of all arms and 260 guns—English,
under Wellington, 67,661; Prussians, 66,000 men. The loss of the
allies was 22,976: of whom 4,206 were killed, 14,539 wounded, and
4,231 missing. The French loss was 18,500 killed and wounded, and
7,800 prisoners, total 26,300; but other accounts, including some
French writers, make their loss about 30,000, the figures given in
most English and American cyclopedias.


FRAUDULENT HOMESTEAD AND TIMBER CLAIMS.

  LACROSSE, Wis.

  Is it not the intention of the pre-emption, homestead, and
  timber-culture laws to encourage actual settlement and improvement
  of the country, and are not these laws constantly used to encourage
  fraudulent speculation, to the disadvantage of bona fide settlers?

  CITIZEN.

_Answer._—Undoubtedly the laws mentioned were enacted for the benefit
of actual settlers, and not for the enrichment of speculators. The
following communication from Samuel Huckins, Esq., of Hartford, D.
T., just received, may be taken as an expose of the actual use made
of the laws in thousands of instances: “I have been a reader of your
worthy paper from the first year of its publication, and as I live
away out here in the far West I take a great interest in the doings
of Congress in regard to the public lands, of which THE INTER OCEAN
has so much to say. Now my theory and belief is, and always has been,
that the public lands should be given to those who will cultivate
and improve them—actual settlers who will make for themselves and
their descendants a home—and not throw this munificent gift of the
National domain into the hands of land-sharks and speculators.
Every person taking a claim, and those now holding claims under any
of the different acts of Congress, should occupy and cultivate such
lands according to the spirit and intent of the laws granting them
the same. I think Congress made a very grave error in giving persons
who had filed their entries of land under the homestead act the
privilege to pay $1.25 per acre for it instead of residing on the
land five years, thus giving those who never occupied the land, and
probably never will, a great advantage over the first settlers on
homestead land, who, in order to hold their claims, had to make the
required improvements and have an actual residence. I believe from
my personal knowledge that three-fourths of the land acquired under
the above act passed into the hands of capitalists and speculators.
The bogus homesteader would go to some money lender and get enough
money to prove up on his land—say $200 for 160 acres and $50 or $100
besides—giving a deed or mortgage on the same as security. In this
way the poor, honest home-seeker is cheated out of the land. There
are a great many claims out here, especially timber claims, held by
persons who have not fulfilled the requirements of the law, but as
the law is now administered they can hold them with impunity. A great
share of the land now covered by timber-culture claims on file is
in reality far more effectually covered with rank weeds than with
growing timber. Under the present system this law is of little value,
and keeps off the sincere home-seeker, who would improve the land
and help to build up schools and churches, and make for himself and
family a much needed home.”


ASSASSINATED ON GOOD FRIDAY.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  Please decide whether President Lincoln was assassinated on Good
  Friday, and settle a dispute.

  CONTESTANT.

_Answer._—President Lincoln was assassinated on Friday, April 14,
1865, which was Good Friday.


THE DISCOVERY OF MEXICO.

  CRAB ORCHARD, Ill.

  Who discovered Mexico?

  FELIX M. BURDETT.

_Answer._—The first knowledge of Mexico that reached the Spaniards
otherwise than by vague and uncertain stories of natives of the West
Indies came through two expeditions fitted out by Diego Velasquez,
who made the first European settlements in Cuba. The first of
these, under the command of Cordova, sailed from St. Jago de Cuba,
Feb. 8, 1517, and landed on the shores of Yucatan and Campeachy.
The second, commanded by Grijalvo, landed at various places on the
coast, but returned without penetrating into the interior or making
a settlement. It carried back such reports of the high civilization
and great wealth of Mexico, learned through the natives, as served
to intensify the determination of Velasquez to explore, and, if
possible, conquer the country. He fitted up a fleet of eleven small
vessels and placed them in command of Fernando Cortez, who set sail
from Cuba, Feb. 10, 1519; landed near the present city of Vera Cruz,
on March 4, and became the first actual explorer of the country, and
the founder of the Spanish dominion in Mexico.


TITLE OF PRINCE OF WALES.

  HEBRON, Neb.

  1. What is the origin of the title of the Prince of Wales? 2. Who
  pays the cost of the dinners given at the White House, and what is
  the annual expense on this account?

  JAMES KNOX.

_Answer._—1. On the conquest of Wales by Henry III. of England, he
bestowed the principality of Wales and earldom of Chester on his son,
afterward Edward I., as an office of trust and government. In 1343
Edward III. invested his son Edward, the “Black Prince,” with the
principality, and from that time the eldest son of the reigning King
has borne the title of Prince of Wales. 2. The President pays the
expenses of entertainments given at the Executive Mansion out of his
annual allowances, and the amount so expended is a private matter.


J. C. CALHOUN—WHIG PARTY.

  VOLGA CITY, Iowa.

  1. Why did John C. Calhoun resign the office of Vice President? 2.
  Who was his successor? 3. What caused the death of the Whig party?

  H. C. DAVIS.

_Answer._—1. Calhoun aspired to the Presidency at the end of
President Jackson’s first term. This led to a personal alienation
and final violent rupture between the two. Calhoun was elected Vice
President along with Jackson in 1828, but he resigned the office in
1831 for the above reason, and in order to accept the United States
Senatorship vacated by Mr. Hayne when the latter was elected Governor
of South Carolina. 2. Martin Van Buren, of New York, succeeded Mr.
Calhoun. 3. The growth of the Free Soil and Abolition parties in the
North killed the old Whig party.


GREAT FIRES OF HISTORY.

  FREDONIA, N. Y.

  How did the loss of lives and property in the great fire in Chicago
  compare with the losses in what are distinguished as the great
  fires of London and Moscow? Give a list also of the other principal
  fires recorded in history, and oblige

  A CONSTANT READER.

_Answer._—The loss of life and property in the willful destruction by
fire and sword of the principal cities of ancient history—Nineveh,
Babylon, Persepolis, Carthage, Palmyra, and many others—is largely
a matter of conjecture. The following is a memorandum of the chief
conflagrations of the current era:

In 64, A. D., during the reign of Nero, a terrible fire raged in Rome
for eight days, destroying ten of the fourteen wards. The loss of
life and destruction of property is not known.

In 70, A. D., Jerusalem was taken by the Romans and a large part of
it given to the torch, entailing an enormous destruction of life and
property.

In 1106 Venice, then a city of immense opulence, was almost wholly
consumed by a fire, originating in accident or incendiarism.

In 1212 the greater part of London was burned.

In 1666 what is known as the Great Fire of London raged in the city
from Sept. 2 to 6, consuming 13,200 houses, with St. Paul’s Church,
86 parish churches, 6 chapels, the Guild Hall, the Royal Exchange,
the Custom House, 52 companies’ halls, many hospitals, libraries,
and other public edifices. The total destruction of property was
estimated at $53,652,500. Six lives were lost, and 436 acres burnt
over.

In 1679 a fire in Boston burned all the warehouses, eighty dwellings,
and vessels in the dock-yards; loss estimated at $1,000,000.

In 1700 a large part of Edinburgh was burned; loss unknown.

In 1728 Copenhagen was nearly destroyed; 1,650 houses burned.

In 1736 a fire in St. Petersburg burned 2,000 houses.

In 1729 a fire in Constantinople destroyed 12,000 houses, and 7,000
people perished. The same city suffered a conflagration in 1745,
lasting five days; and in 1750 a series of three appalling fires:
one in January, consuming 10,000 houses; another in April destroying
property to the value of $5,000,000, according to one historian, and
according to another, $15,000,000; and in the latter part of the
year another, sweeping fully 10,000 houses more out of existence. It
seemed as if Constantinople was doomed to utter annihilation.

In 1751 a fire in Stockholm destroyed 1,000 houses; and another fire
in the same city in 1759 burned 250 houses with a loss of $2,420,000.

In 1752 a fire in Moscow swept away 18,000 houses, involving an
immense loss.

In 1758 Christiana suffered a loss of $1,250,000, by conflagration.

In 1760 the Portsmouth (Eng.) dock-yards were burned, with a loss of
$2,000,000.

In 1764 a fire in Konigsburg, Prussia, consumed the public buildings,
with a loss of $3,000,000; and in 1769 the city was almost totally
destroyed.

In 1763 a fire in Smyrna destroyed 2,600 houses, with a loss of
$1,000,000; in 1772 a fire in the same city carried off 3,000
dwellings, and 3,000 to 4,000 shops, entailing a loss of $20,000,000;
and in 1796 there were 4,000 shops, mosques, magazines, etc., burned.

In 1776, six days after the British seized the city, a fire swept off
all the west side of New York city, from Broadway to the river.

In 1771 a fire in Constantinople burned 2,500 houses; another in
1778 burned 2,000 houses; in 1782 there were 600 houses burned in
February, 7,000 in June, and on Aug. 12, during a conflagration that
lasted three days, 10,000 houses, 50 mosques, and 100 corn-mills,
with a loss of 100 lives. Two years later a fire, on March 13,
destroyed two-thirds of Pera, the loveliest suburb of Constantinople,
and on Aug. 5 a fire in the main city, lasting twenty-six hours,
burned 10,000 houses. In this same fire-scourged city, in 1791,
between March and July, there were 32,000 houses burned, and about as
many more in 1795; and in 1799 Pera was again swept with fire, with a
loss of 13,000 houses, including many buildings of great magnificence.

In 1784 a fire and explosion in the dock-yards, Brest, caused a loss
of $5,000,000.

But the greatest destruction of life and property by conflagrations,
of which the world has anything like accurate records, must be
looked for within the current century. Of these the following is a
partial list of instances in which the loss of property amounted to
$3,000,000 and upward:

                                                Property
  Dates. Cities.                               destroyed.

  1802   Liverpool                             $5,000,000
  1803   Bombay                                 3,000,000
  1805   St. Thomas                            30,000,000
  1808   Spanish Town                           7,500.000
  1812   Moscow, burned five days;
           30,800 houses destroyed             50,000,000
  1816   Constantinople, 12,000
           dwellings, 3,000 shops                   .....
  1820   Savannah                               4,000,000
  1822   Canton nearly destroyed                    .....
  1828   Havana, 350 houses                         .....
  1835   New York (“Great Fire”)               15,000,000
  1837   St. Johns. N. B.                       5,000,000
  1838   Charleston, 1,158 buildings            3,000,000
  1841   Smyrna, 12,000 houses                      .....
  1842   Hamburg, 4,219 buildings,
           100 lives lost                      35,000,000
  1845   New York, 35 persons killed            7,500,000
  1845   Pittsburg, 1,100 buildings            10,000,000
  1845   Quebec, May 28, 1,650
           dwellings                            3,750,000
  1845   Quebec, June 28, 1,300
           dwellings                                .....
  1846   St Johns, Newfoundland                 5,000,000
  1848   Constantinople, 2,500 buildings       15,000,000
  1848   Albany, N. Y., 600 houses              3,000,000
  1849   St. Louis                              3,000,000
  1851   St. Louis, 2,500 buildings            11,000,000
  1851   St. Louis, 500 buildings               3,000,000
  1851   San Francisco, May 4 and 5,
           many lives lost                     10,000,000
  1851   San Francisco, June                    3,000,000
  1852   Montreal, 1,200 buildings              5,000,000
  1861   Mendoza destroyed by
           earthquake and fire,
           10,000 lives lost                         ....
  1862   St. Petersburg                         5,000,000
  1862   Troy, N. Y., nearly destroyed
  1862   Valparaiso, almost destroyed
  1864   Novgorod, immense destruction
           of property                              .....
  1865   Constantinople, 2,800 buildings
           burned                                   .....
  1866   Yokohama, nearly destroyed
  1865   Carlstadt, Sweden, all consumed
           but Bishop’s residence,
           hospital, and jail;
           10 lives lost                            .....
  1866   Portland, Me., half the city          11,000,000
  1866   Quebec, 2,500 dwellings and
           17 churches                             ......
  1870   Constantinople, Pera suburb           26,000,000
  1871   Chicago, 250 lives lost, 17,430
           buildings burned, on
           2,124 acres                        192,000,000
  1871   Paris, fired by the Commune          160,000,000
  1872   Boston                                75,000,000
  1873   Yeddo, 10,000 houses                      ......
  1877   Pittsburg, caused by riot              3,260,000
  1877   St. Johns, N. B., 1,650 dwellings,
           18 lives lost                       12,500,000

From the above it appears that the five greatest fires on record,
reckoned by destruction of property, are:

  Chicago fire, of Oct. 8 and 9, 1871        $192,000,000
  Paris fires, of May, 1871                   160,000,000
  Moscow fire, of Sept. 14-19, 1812           150,000,000
  Boston fire, Nov. 9-10, 1872                 75,000,000
  London fire, Sept. 2-6, 1666                 53,652,500
  Hamburg fire, May 5-7, 1842                  35,000,000

Taking into account, with the fires of Paris and Chicago, the great
Wisconsin and Michigan forest fires of 1871, in which it is estimated
that 1,000 human beings perished and property to the amount of
over $3,000,000 was consumed, it is plain that in the annals of
conflagrations that year stands forth in gloomy preeminence.


LOSS OF THE LADY ELGIN.

  CRETE, Ill.

  When was the Lady Elgin lost, on Lake Michigan and how many persons
  were lost, and saved?

  JOHN MILLER.

_Answer._—The steamer Lady Elgin was cut to the water’s edge by a
sailing vessel named the Augusta, heavily loaded with lumber, which
struck her amidships, during the night, Sept. 8, 1860. She sunk
almost immediately. Carrying an excursion party from Chicago to
Milwaukee at the time, she had about 400 passengers on board. The
disaster occurred about twenty-two miles north of Chicago, nearly
off Glencoe. Many of the passengers and crew got on rafts and
portions of the wreck, and drifted toward the land. Some of these
came ashore between Glencoe and Evanston; but the most of them,
after getting within hail of the beach, despite the best efforts of
citizens and students of Evanston and Winnetka to assist them, were
swallowed up in the breakers and carried out into the lake by the
terrible undertow. Men with ropes around their chests plunged into
the breakers, seized exhausted, drowning men and women, and were
dragged in by main strength of men at the lines. Conspicuous among
these noble men was Mr. Edward W. Spencer, of Rock Island, Ill.,
then a student at Garrett Biblical Institute, who saved fourteen or
fifteen passengers, persisting until he was utterly exhausted; an
example of heroism which was suitably commemorated afterwards by the
presentation of a memorial watch and chain, given him by citizens
of Chicago and Evanston. Of the total list of passengers only about
one-fourth were rescued; 297 perished.


AUSTRALIA.

  COLMAR, Ill.

  What are the area and principal natural features of Australia, and
  the nationalities and chief occupations of its population?

  CHARLES L. BRICKWELL.

_Answer._—Australia, often spoken of as an island, is about ten
times the size of Borneo, the largest island of the world properly
so called, and is nearly half the size of South America. To be more
specific, it measures about 2,500 miles from east to west, and 1,950
from north to south, containing an estimated area of 3,000,000
miles. This is about the same as the entire extent of the United
States, exclusive of Alaska. Along the east and west coasts the
country is broken, rising at no great distance from the sea into
a succession of mountain ranges; but the vast interior is almost
as level as a gently undulating ocean-bed, which it evidently was
at no very distant period—geologically speaking. It seems to be
for the most part a great sandstone basin, rising toward the coast
in nearly every direction. The mountain range in the southeast,
known as the Australian Alps, rises to a height of 7,000 feet; the
granite and syenitic mountains on the west coast range from 800 to
3,000 feet in elevation, and those along the coast of Queensland,
and along the greater part of the north coast, from 1,000 to 4,000
feet. There are immense quantities of coal in Eastern Australia,
rich gold mines, some silver, and an abundance of iron, copper, and
tin. The broken and much of the mountainous regions are well wooded,
but the interior is comparatively naked, and much of it wears a
parched look, like the dry, treeless plains of Eastern Wyoming and
Colorado, which are available for flocks and herds the most of the
year, but not cultivable with profit without artificial irrigation.
There are millions of acres of fine agricultural and grazing lands
without entering this interior basis to any great distance; and the
governments of the several provinces are offering liberal inducements
to settlers. Few of the rivers of this vast country are navigable
to any great distance, although several of them may be made so for
a large part of the year by slight improvements of the channels.
Conspicuous among the latter are Murray River, 1,100 miles long;
the Roper and the Victoria. The regions beyond the seaboard are not
likely to develop rapidly until means of transportation are extended.
The railroad mileage of Australia is only a little over 4,042 miles,
or about the same as that of Minnesota, which is thirty-six times
smaller in area and began to be settled much later. The telegraph
lines measure over 30,000 miles. The climate of the Southern half
of Australia is quite similar to that of Southern Brazil or Cuba,
and that of the greater part of the rest of the continent is a good
counterpart of that of Southern Europe. The total population of the
five provinces of Australia, by the census of 1881, is as follows:

  New South Wales                          751,468
  Queensland                               213,525
  South Australia                          279,865
  Victoria                                 862,346
  Western Australia                         29,708
                                         —————————
      Total                              2,136,912

The above does not include aborigines, estimated to number 80,000.
The increase by immigration is not rapid. The population is mostly
of British origin, but it embraces also nearly 10,000 Polynesians
and 25,000 Chinese. The chief occupations are agriculture, grazing,
mining, building, and commerce. Manufactures do not flourish, the
colonies being dependent almost entirely upon the United Kingdom for
manufactured goods. The chief exports are wool, hides, preserved
meats, copper, lead, coal, and gold. The total quantity of gold mined
in Victoria alone, from the discovery in 1851 to the end of 1880,
amounted to 49,500,000 oz., valued at $990,000,000. The government
of the several provinces is similar to that of the provinces of the
present Dominion of Canada before their union.


ALDERNEYS AND JERSEYS.

  SCOTT, Ind.

  What is the difference between Alderney cattle and Jerseys, if any?
  Where did the breeds originate? Your answer will settle a dispute.

  A SUBSCRIBER.

_Answer._—Alderney, Jersey, and Guernsey are small islands in the
British Channel, just off the coast of Normandy, France; from which
the first, an isle of about four square miles in area, is separated
by only a very narrow strait. Jersey, about sixteen miles off the
coast, is a much larger and more fertile island, being about eleven
times the size of Alderney. While the cattle of the three islands
are all believed to have come from one common Norman stock, and pass
under the common name of the Alderney breed, the Jersey cattle have
been greatly improved by careful in-breeding, and are better milkers
as to quantity, though not as to quality, than the native cattle of
Alderney. Few cattle are exported from the latter island, while a
considerable number of Jersey cattle are exported to England and this
country, where nearly all the representatives of what is known as
the Alderney breed are Jerseys. It would not be correct to speak of
Alderneys and Jerseys as distinct breeds.


LOTTERY MATTER UNMAILABLE.

  SHELL ROCK, Iowa.

  Is it unlawful to send letters to lottery companies and lottery
  agents through the mails?

  A SUBSCRIBER.

_Answer._—Postal regulation 674 declares “No letter or circular
concerning lotteries, so-called gift concerts, or similar
enterprises, offering prizes,” etc., “shall be carried in the mail.
Any person who shall knowingly deposit or send anything to be
conveyed by mail in violation of this section shall be punishable
by a fine of not more than $500 nor less than $100, with costs of
prosecution.” Section 674 instructs postmasters and employes of the
railway mail service to withdraw letters and third class matter
addressed to lottery companies or agents from the mails and refer
them to the proper officers for prosecution of the person mailing the
same.


THE HIGH SEAS.

  UNION GROVE, Wis.

  1. What is meant by the “high seas” in article 1, section 8, of
  the Constitution of the United States? 2. Are the Great Lakes
  regarded as high seas? 3. If a crime were committed on any of the
  Great Lakes, where would the criminal be tried—in what court? 4.
  What persons are meant in the first clause of the ninth section of
  article 1 of the Constitution?

  ROBERT ROBERTS.

_Answer._—1. By the “high seas” is meant the open sea: that is the
waters outside of the civil jurisdiction of any country, which the
law of nations limits to one marine league, or three geographical
miles from shore. 2. The Great Lakes are regarded, beyond the limits
above designated, as high seas. 3. In the event of crimes committed
on the high seas, parties charged therewith are subject to the
jurisdiction of the Federal or United States courts in the district
which the vessel first enters after the commission of the crime, or
in the district where the offender is found. The courts of States
bordering on the great lakes have jurisdiction concurrent with that
of the United States courts where it can be shown that the crime
was committed within their limits, which extend to the central line
of the lakes bounding them. 4. In the clause of the Constitution
which reads: “The migration or importation of such persons as any
of the States now existing shall think proper to admit shall not
be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year 1808,” etc. The
word “persons” was understood to mean African slaves. This form
was adopted to avoid the use of the word slave in the Constitution,
the very thought of which was repugnant to Washington, Adams,
Jefferson, and other fathers of that instrument, whether from North
or South. The slave trade, in conformity with the above clause of the
Constitution, was promptly abolished in 1808.


UNIMPROVED LANDS—IMMIGRATION.

  GANGES, Mich.

  What proportion of the areas of Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois,
  Iowa, and Nebraska is still unimproved Also, please state the
  number of immigrants arriving in this country in 1882.

  H. H. H.

_Answer._—1. The census of 1880 gives the following statistics of
improved lands embraced in farms in the several States above named,
opposite which we place the total area of each State in acres:

               No. of     Improved        Total
  States.      farms.      acres.         acres.

  Ohio        247,189    18,081,091    26,278,400
  Michigan    154,008     8,296,862    37,705,600
  Indiana     194,013    13,933,738    23,264,000
  Illinois    255,741    26,115,154    36,256,000
  Iowa        185,351    19,866,541    35,856,000
  Nebraska     63,387     5,504,702    49,187,200

From this it appears that nearly one-third of Ohio, more than
three-fourths of Michigan, about two-fifths of Indiana, a little
more than one-fourth of Illinois, about three-sevenths of Iowa, and
almost nine-tenths of Nebraska remained unimproved as farm property
at the time of the last census. In settled States, the number of
acres included in cities, towns, and villages, in roads, lakes, and
navigable streams, will reduce the proportion of “unimproved acres”
by about 2 per cent of the total area. The statistician of Indiana
computes that there were in 1879, 249,686 acres, or 1⅛ per cent
of the total State area, embraced in roads outside of cities and
incorporated towns. 2. The total immigration into the United States
in 1882 numbered 788,992.


LAW AGAINST CRUELTY TO ANIMALS.

  ROSCOE, Ill.

  Please publish in Our Curiosity Shop in condensed form the law
  of this State to punish cruelty to animals. A person in this
  neighborhood, remonstrated with for cruelly beating his horse with
  a pitchfork, retorts that “a man has a right to pound his own
  horse.” Let us know the law for such cases.

  A SUBSCRIBER.

_Answer._—Chapter 38, section 50, of the Revised Statutes of Illinois
says: “Whoever shall be guilty of cruelty to any animal in any of the
ways mentioned in this section shall be fined not less than $3 nor
more than $200, viz.: By overloading, overdriving, cruelly beating,
tormenting, mutilating, or cruelly killing any animal; by cruelly
working any old, maimed, infirm, sick, or disabled animal; by failing
to provide any animal in his charge or custody with proper food,
drink, and shelter; by abandoning any old, maimed, infirm, sick, or
disabled animal; or by causing or knowingly allowing the same to be
done.”


EMANCIPATION IN JAMAICA.

  SHULLSBURG, Wis.

  In what year and by whom were the slaves of Jamaica emancipated?
  Also state the circumstances under which they gained their freedom.

  RICHARD IVEY, M. D.

_Answer._—In 1807 the British Government abolished the slave trade
in all British vessels and in British waters. The agitation against
slavery was kept up in Parliament from that time, growing more and
more irresistible every year, and spreading out into the farthest
provinces, until in 1832 the negroes of Jamaica revolted, under
the belief that emancipation had actually been decreed and that
their masters were holding them in slavery against law as well as
against natural right. The atrocities to be expected in a servile
insurrection ensued; hundreds of lives and millions of property were
destroyed. When the terrible tidings reached England it added new
fuel to the emancipation agitation, already at white heat, and in
1833 the famous English emancipation act was passed. The government
apportioned £6,161,927 among the owners of the slave population, of
309,338 persons; and after four years apprenticeship all of these
former slaves became absolutely free.


BARNBURNERS AND HUNKERS.

  GRAND RAPIDS, Mich.

  How and when did the political nicknames “Hunker” and “Barnburner”
  originate in the State of New York?

  J. H. P.

_Answer._—The Democratic party within New York State became badly
divided soon after the inauguration of Mr. Polk, in 1845, owing to
the slights put on Governor Silas Wright, of that State, to whose
immense popularity Polk really owed his election. Wright could not
carry all his friends over to Polk, as is shown by the fact that he
was elected Governor by 10,030 majority, while Polk carried the State
by 5,106. This, however, decided the electoral count in his favor.
Polk was really a weak man, and showed it in nothing more than in his
jealousy of Wright and annoyance at the general ascription, of his
election by the organs of both parties, to Wright’s influence. He
tendered Wright the choice of places in his Cabinet under constraint
of the general wish of the party, and knowing that this statesman
felt bound to retain the high office to which the people of New York
had exalted him. Wright declined, but asked that Azariah C. Flagg,
of New York, be made Secretary of the Treasury, and he understood
the President to promise this; yet afterward the latter declined to
make the appointment, and gave the portfolio of Secretary of State to
ex-Governor Wm. L. Marcy, of New York, who was by no means friendly
to Wright. The Collectorship of New York, it was understood, would be
given as Governor Wright and ex-President Van Buren should request,
but here again the President disappointed them. All this reminds us
forcibly of the divisions in the Republican ranks in the same State,
due to the Garfield-Conkling feud. The trouble rankled, and the
Democratic party became divided into two pronounced factions before
the election of delegates to the next gubernatorial convention. There
were the administration Democrats, calling themselves Conservatives,
and the “sore-heads” of those days, stigmatized as Radicals, because,
among other things, they were affected with anti-slavery, or
“free-soil” sentiments; whereas the administration party was strongly
pro-slavery. In the Democratic State Convention, held at Syracuse
early in 1847, the latter faction, by political manipulation, secured
the organization of that body, and decided nearly all the contested
seats in their own favor and made the State ticket and the State
Committee to suit themselves; in other words, “carried off the hunk,”
and fairly won the nickname of “Hunkers.” The other faction, led on
by Governor Wright’s friends, Mr. Van Buren, Colonel Samuel Young,
Michael Hoffman, and others, refused to support the ticket, and as a
consequence the Whigs carried the State by over 30,000 majority in
the gubernatorial election. One of the Hunker orators likened the
Wright and Van Buren faction to the Dutch farmer who burned his barn
to rid himself of the rats, and thenceforward the name Barnburners
was fastened on them, and the two nicknames, Hunker and Barnburner,
were bandied back and forth until after the latter joined with the
Liberty party, in 1852, to support Mr. Van Buren as the Free Soil
candidate for the Presidency. There is no difference of opinion as
to the origin of the term Barnburner as above given, but Webster’s
dictionary defines hunkerism as hostility to progress: “Bartlett’s
Americanisms” defines “Hunkers” as a name given to a faction of the
Democratic party because of devotion to old principles, from the
Dutch “honk, place, post, home;” while others insist that the term
grew out of the triumph of the administration faction at the Syracuse
convention referred to above, which led them to imagine that they
were “all hunk,” as the New York boys exclaim in certain games when
they have reached their goal or “home” without being intercepted by
the contestants on the other side of the game. Hunk, in this sense,
is evidently a corruption of the Dutch “honk” or “home,” handed
down by the Dutch children. As the Hankers did “carry off the hunk
at Syracuse, did imagine themselves all hunk,” and were “hostile to
progress,” either or all of the above explanations may be accepted
without doing violence to history, whatever the consequences to
philology.


COMMITTEE OF THE WHOLE.

  CLINTON, Mich.

  What is meant when it is said “the House went into committee of the
  whole?” Please explain the whole subject.

  SUBSCRIBER.

_Answer._—Messages from the President and other matters of great
importance are usually referred to a committee of the whole House,
where general principles are digested in the form of resolutions,
which are debated and amended until they get into a shape that
meets the approbation of a majority. These resolutions, after being
reported and confirmed by the House, are then referred to one or more
select committees, where they are reduced into the form of bills or
joint resolutions. It is found that the sense of the House is better
learned in committee, because in all committees everyone speaks
as often as he pleases. No gag law can be applied in committee by
moving the previous question. The form for going from the House into
the committee of the whole is for the Speaker, on motion, to put
the question that the House do now resolve itself into a committee
of the whole to take into consideration such a matter, naming it;
to which the deliberations of the committee must be confined. If
determined in the affirmative, he leaves the chair and takes a seat
elsewhere, as any other member, and the person appointed chairman
seats himself at the clerk’s table. The Speaker usually appoints
a chairman, but the committee has full power to set him aside and
select its own chairman. In case of the committee’s getting into
violent disorder the Speaker, who is clothed with authority to call
in the Sergeant-at-arms, if necessary, to enforce order, may take
his chair, and at the tap of his gavel every member is required to
take his proper seat, such action having the effect to dissolve the
committee. Cases of this kind are rare. Usually when the committee is
ready to rise the chairman rises, the Speaker immediately resuming
the chair; if the business is unfinished, the chairman of the
committee reports progress and asks permission for the committee to
sit again, which the House may or may not consent to. If the business
is finished the chairman tenders his report.


SAMUEL ADAMS, THE GREAT ORGANIZER.

  CARBONDALE, Ill.

  Give a short biographical sketch of Samuel Adams, of revolutionary
  times.

  CHARLES L. H.

_Answer._—Samuel Adams was one of the very first who organized
measures of resistance against the encroachments of Great Britain on
the rights of the colonies. He drew up the famous petition of the
General Court of Boston to the King, in 1764, against taxation on
trade. He was elected a Representative in the Massachusetts House of
Representatives in 1765, was chosen Clerk, and served in that body
ten years. It is said that he was the first to suggest the congress
of colonial delegates that assembled in New York in 1765, and was
the father of the non-importation agreement of 1789, intended to
check the use of British manufactures and other foreign imports and
foster home manufactures and, still more, a spirit of independence.
He was Chairman of the committee that waited on the Royal Governor
and Council in 1770, on the day after the Boston riot and massacre,
and demanded the removal of the troops. He was one of the signers
of the declaration of independence: was one of those who matured
the plan of the Continental Congress, to which he was a delegate
from Massachusetts from 1774 to 1782, and signed the articles of
confederation, which were the constitution of the country until
replaced by the present Federal Constitution. He was Lieutenant
Governor of Massachusetts from 1789 to 1794, and Governor from 1794
to 1797. He was born in Boston Sept. 27, 1722, graduated at Harvard
in 1740, and died in Boston Oct. 2, 1803.


ORIGIN OF THE CAUCUS.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  Can you tell us the origin of the American caucus?

  JOHN ALLEN.

_Answer._—The origin of the term “caucus” is traced back to the
Caucus Club, Boston, of revolutionary days. This club was composed
mainly of persons engaged in ship-building. It was one of the most
radical opponents of British oppression. It and the Merchants’ Club
of the same period, used to meet before elections and agree on
candidates for town and provincial offices. “Caucus” is believed to
be a corruption of “caulkers.”


THE YORK SHILLING.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  To settle a dispute please inform us through Our Curiosity Shop
  whether the United States ever issued a coin called the “York
  shilling?” Was there not a coin of some kind called a York shilling?

  READER.

_Answer._—The United States certainly never did mint any such coin.
Neither did New York itself before the adoption of our present
Constitution, under which individual States are not permitted to
coin money. Most of the original thirteen States had issued bills of
credit during colonial times, which had depreciated in the several
colonies in different degrees, according to provisions made for their
redemption and other incidents. In New England, after the adoption
of the Federal decimal system, the pound in paper currency was worth
only $3.33⅓ and the shilling 16⅔ cents, equal to six shillings to
the dollar. This standard prevailed also in Virginia, Kentucky,
Tennessee, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, Mississippi, Alabama, and
Florida. In New York the paper currency pound was worth only $2.50,
and so the shilling was reckoned but 12½ cents, equal to eight
shillings to the dollar. This last is the “York shilling,” a money of
account. The only coin that ever passed by that name is the Spanish
real, known along the Ohio and Lower Mississippi as “a bit,” which,
until a few years ago, was current through the country at 12½ cents,
the value, as above shown, of the New York paper currency shilling of
the olden times. In Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, and Maryland
the pound was worth $2.70, making the shilling worth 13½ cents, or
7s. 6d. to the $1. In Georgia and South Carolina the pound was worth
$4.20, and the shilling 21-3/7 cents, or 4s. 8d. to the dollar. Such
was the force of habit that, long after the old colonial paper money
passed out of use, people continued to buy and sell and keep accounts
in pounds and shillings; and schoolboys were required to familiarize
themselves with the rules for reducing the several State currencies
to Federal currency.


THE GREAT NAPOLEON’S DEFEATS.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  1. Was Bonaparte repulsed at Acre? 2. Was he forced to leave Egypt?
  3. Did he make a disastrous retreat from Moscow? 4. Did the Duke
  of Wellington suffer defeats parallel to those endured by Napoleon
  Bonaparte?

  THOMAS WILSON.

_Answer._—1. In 1799, after laying siege to the stronghold of Acre,
Syria, for sixty-one days, Napoleon Bonaparte resolved to raise
the siege and return to Egypt, where his presence was demanded by
the threatening state of affairs, which culminated at last in the
great battle of Aboukir, in which he defeated Murad Bey, for the
second time, with great slaughter. There is no doubt that, although
victorious over the Ottoman and Egyptian armies, the almost utter
annihilation of the French fleet by the English and Turks in the
famous naval battle of the Nile, some months before this, and the
menacing state of affairs in France, made it prudent for Napoleon
to take advantage of the prestige of this victory to retire from
Egypt, leaving the government of the country he had conquered to
General Kleber, who soon after this totally defeated the Ottoman
army, 70,000 strong, before Heliopolis. Not until after Kleber
was assassinated and months of the unwise administration of his
successor, General Menou, did the insurrection fomented by the
English, and finally assisted by an English naval and land force,
compel the French under Menou, to withdraw from Egypt, nearly two
years after Bonaparte himself had returned to France. Taken all in
all the French expedition into Egypt, planned by Napoleon Bonaparte,
although distinguished by several brilliant exploits, must be
regarded from a political and military standpoint as a failure. 3. So
was the expedition to Moscow, which, after a succession of victories,
ended in a disastrous retreat in midwinter, forced upon the French,
not by arms, but by threatening starvation and other results of the
burning of Moscow. 4. The Duke of Wellington, although several times
compelled to retreat before French armies during campaigns in the
Netherlands and in Spain, never suffered any disasters comparable
with those inflicted on Napoleon; neither did he ever exhibit, even
at Waterloo, where, with the allies, he had double the strength
of the French army, such marvelous generalship as made Napoleon
Bonaparte for many years more than a match for all the powers of
Europe combined, the arbiter of all their thrones.


FUNDED AND FLOATING DEBT DEFINED.

  IROQUOIS, D. T.

  Explain the terms “floating debt,” “funded debt,” and “sinking
  fund.”

  QUERIST.

_Answer._.—“Funded debt” is government or corporation indebtedness in
the form of bonds or other evidences of money stipulated to be paid
at stated intervals, and usually bearing interest payable annually or
oftener. “Floating debt” is indebtedness, such as unsettled accounts,
scrip in the nature of due bills, etc. not funded. A sinking fund
is money set apart out of taxes, earnings, or other income, for the
redemption of government or corporation bonds or other specific
tokens of indebtedness.


ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION.

  FAYETTE, Iowa.

  I am very anxious to learn how to make an incubator, or have one
  made, for hatching chickens by artificial means. Will you oblige
  myself and other readers by giving such minute directions that a
  carpenter can make one by following them?

  E. J. ALLCOTT.

_Answer._.—Similar requests are made by C. A. Brace, Esq., of
Persia, Iowa; L. R. S., Cameron, Neb.; Q., of Elk Grove, Wis.,
and several others, some of whom desire to know what success has
attended experiments in artificial incubation with modern apparatus.
Conflicting reports as to this latter question, together with the
fraudulent methods taken by some persons engaged in vending pamphlets
that cost the publishers not to exceed 8 cents a copy, containing
directions for making apparatus of this sort, at the extortionate
price of $2, and selling ready-made incubators at exorbitant prices,
has made caution advisable in treating this subject. Reports received
within the past six weeks from twenty different persons, who have
experimented with incubators, indicate that in about twelve cases
out of twenty the average success is encouraging, and in the cases
of the others the average results are quite discouraging. It is very
certain that in a climate incident to such sudden and extreme changes
as ours success demands skill and constant attention. None but
absolutely fresh eggs must be selected, a temperature hardly varying
from 103 deg., and a proper degree of moisture must be maintained,
with sleepless vigilance. Let the eggs be chilled even for a few
minutes and the consequences are disastrous. For a comparatively
inexpensive incubator make a box 4 feet long, 3 feet wide, 6 inches
deep, outside measurement, with a tight board lid and a zinc bottom;
using boards 1¼ inches thick, nailed or screwed together. This is
the heater. Of the same kind of boards make an egg-drawer 4 feet
long, 2 feet 11½ inches wide, 5 inches high, outside measure, and 4
inches deep on the inside, with slats nailed in crosswise, instead
of a board for the bottom. The slats better be of inch-thick lumber,
not more than 1 inch wide, and set one inch apart. Over these slats
on the inside tack a piece of coarse sack the full length and width
of the box. Draw it tight and tack it securely to the slats and the
ends of the box. Next make a frame 3 feet 7 inches long and 32 inches
wide, using inch-square strips for the end pieces and inch-wide
strips of half-inch thickness for the sides. Strain stout muslin over
this frame and tack it firmly. Lay this, muslin side down, on the
coarse cloth in the egg drawer. This is to support the eggs. Next
bore twenty half-inch holes in each side of the egg drawer, 1¾ inches
apart, and as close to the frame with the muslin bottom as can be
done and yet allow this frame to slide easily underneath twenty slats
a half-inch square each, which must be run through the box from hole
to hole, to keep the eggs in position. Arrange the eggs between these
slats, resting on the muslin of the muslin frame. It will be seen
that by moving this frame about two inches backward or forward the
eggs can be turned half over. Make a box of precisely the same length
and breadth as the heater, but eight inches deep instead of six.
Nail on a tight bottom of inch flooring stuff; bore twelve half-inch
holes in this bottom, into which insert as many tin tubes of the same
diameter, seven inches long, for ventilators. Fill all the space
between the pipes with sawdust to within about an inch of their tops.
Next set the egg drawer on top of this ventilator box, and set the
heater, the first box described, on the top of the egg drawer. Take
common inch-boards, one foot wide, and nail one on each side and
across one end of this pile of boxes, driving the nails along the
lower edge of each board into the ventilator box, and along the upper
edge into the heater box; raising the latter off of the egg-drawer
barely enough to let the latter slide easily back and forth between
the heater and ventilator.

As the incubator stands now, the egg-drawer is protected from the
cold, underneath, by the ventilator box with about six inches of
sawdust: but it must be similarly protected on the sides and top.
Set this nest of boxes, as now arranged, on a couple of trestles
made of pieces of scantling, four feet eight or ten inches long,
with short legs eight inches long, and build another box 27 inches
high (outside) around them, long enough and wide enough to form a
sawdust chamber 8 inches wide along both sides and the back end of
the incubator, and rising 8 inches higher than the top of the heater.
Next get two tin pipes, 12 or 13 inches long and about 2½ inches in
diameter, seamed together, as solder melts; also get two such pipes
about 6 inches long, and two elbows. Bore a 2½-inch hole through the
sawdust-box and the heater-box entering the latter about 9 inches
from the front and 2 inches below the lid, and slide one of the
longer pipes through these holes. Attach one of the elbows and one
of the 6-inch pipes outside. Put the other pipe into the heater from
the opposite side, about 9 inches from the back end of the heater.
Two kerosene lamps, set on brackets, on the outside of the sawdust
box, with their chimneys thrust up into the short pipes, will supply
all the heat that is required for hatching the eggs. If the lamps
smoke, drop them low enough to admit a little air to enter between
the chimneys and the inside of the pipes. Opposite where each of
these tin flues enters the heater, bore three three-quarter-inch
holes through the top of the heater, nine or ten inches apart, in a
line about three inches from the side. Slide six tin tubes of the
same diameter, fifteen or sixteen inches long, through these holes
to within a half-inch of the zinc bottom of the heater. Now fill
the sawdust chamber around the incubator and on top, putting earth
instead of sawdust just around the hot-air flues, to avoid fire. As
the zinc directly under where the hot-air flues enter the heater is
apt to get overheated, it is best before covering the heater with
sawdust to lay a piece of zinc or tin, about a foot square, on the
zinc bottom as an equalizer of the temperature. Keep a thermometer in
the egg drawer to test the temperature. This drawer will hold about
250 eggs.

This is the incubator; directions for using it will be given
hereafter.


M. A. Bevard, Derby, Iowa—General Hull took part in the revolutionary
battles of White Plains, Trenton, Stillwater, Princeton, Saratoga,
and Monmouth. 2. Aaron Burr died on Staten Island.


INTEREST ON NOTES.

  WASHBURN, Wis.

  1. Will a promissory note draw interest if it is not so specified
  in the note? 2. Will a note made payable one year after date, with
  interest at 7 per cent, draw interest after the note becomes due?

  A. E. R.

_Answer._.—1. Such a note will not draw interest until after due and
payment has been demanded. It will draw legal interest from date of
such demand. 2. Such a note will continue to draw interest at the
same rate if payment is demanded at maturity and payment is withheld.


NEW YORK IMMIGRATION COMMISSION.

  BARNARD, Ill.

  Who was the first to propose Castle Garden for the benefit of
  foreign immigrants? Is the board of management a National or a
  State organization? How did it originate?

  ANNA SIERLE.

_Answer._—The pitiable condition in which immigrants were landed
in New York, the cruelties inflicted upon them in many cases in
overcrowded emigrant ships, the extortions and downright frauds
practiced upon them when they were put ashore like so many cattle,
and left to shift for themselves in a strange city, without language
to make their wants known, began to attract the attention of humane
public officers and merchants of that city at an early day. The
outrages multiplied, and the importance of providing some remedy
grew with the rapid increase of foreign immigration, which swelled
from 22,633 for the whole United States in 1831, to 104,565 in 1842.
The Legislature of New York State was appealed to, and on May 5,
1847—in which year the rate of foreign immigration more than doubled
upon that of 1842, the total number received rising to 234,968—it
created the present Board of Commissioners of Emigration of the
State of New York, which has been in successful operation ever
since, and has proved one of the most beneficent institutions of the
land. It consists of nine members, six of whom are appointed by the
Governor with consent of the Senate, while the other three are the
Mayor of the city and the Presidents of the German Society and the
Irish Emigration Society. All of these serve without compensation.
The law makes it their duty to provide suitable quarters for the
reception of alien passengers arriving at New York; to care for the
sick and helpless among them; to protect them from extortion, fraud,
and impositions of any kind; to aid those who wish transfer to the
railways and other transportation routes to the interior of the
country; to assist such as wish to remain in the city to obtain work,
and, in general, to give them trustworthy information and advice,
and guard their interests. For this purpose they were authorized to
collect of vessel owners $2.50 for each passenger, until 1871, when
it was reduced to $1.50.

In 1855 the city of New York leased Castle Garden to the
Commissioners for an immigrant landing depot, and it was opened for
this purpose in August of that year. It occupies the extreme southern
point of the city at the junction of the North River, or Hudson, with
the East River. A more convenient, healthy, an every way desirable
station could not have been selected. The immigrants are brought here
directly from immigrant vessels, in tugs or barges, and received into
rooms properly heated, lighted, and ventilated. Bath-rooms, lunch
counters, with provisions at reasonable prices, suitable sleeping
quarters, and other conveniences are all found within the building,
and are conducted under strict superintendence. The names of such as
have money, letters, or friends awaiting them are called out. Clerks
stand ready to write letters for them in any European language.
There are railway offices where tickets are sold them by thoroughly
responsible clerks, who can talk with them in their native tongues.
Responsible brokers exchange their foreign coin and currency at par
market value. There is an employment bureau to find work for those
who do not care to go any farther. A physician is in attendance, and
the sick are properly cared for in a temporary hospital until they
are transported to the immigrant hospitals on Ward’s Island.

In view of the fact that about two-thirds of all the foreign
immigration to the United States land at New York, it is, indeed,
a noble institution that meets these strangers with such generous
provisions for their wants. According to an article in “The American
Cyclopedia,” of the 5,033,392 immigrants arriving at New York between
May 5, 1847, and Jan. 1, 1873, for whom commutation money was paid
by the vessel-owners, “all of whom received protection, advice,
and information from the commissions, 1,465,579 were provided and
cared for out of the immigrant fund, for a greater or less period
during the five years subsequent to their arrival; 398,643 received
treatment and care in the institutions of the commissioners; 449,275
were temporarily supplied with board and lodging and money relief in
the city of New York; 349,936 were provided with employment through
the labor bureau at Castle Garden; 53,083 were forwarded from Castle
Garden to their destination in the United States, or returned to
Europe at their own request; and 214,642 were relieved and provided
for in various parts of the State of New York,” all out of this
immigrant fund. In 1872-3 bills were introduced into Congress to
supersede this New York Emigration Commission by a National bureau,
but the movement excited great opposition, not only in New York, but
in other quarters, and it ended in failure.


DERIVATION OF SIRLOIN.

  GALENA, Ill.

  Is it true that an English king knighted a roast of beef as Sir
  Loin, and that this was the origin of the name sirloin for a
  certain cut of meat?

  A SUBSCRIBER.

_Answer._—It is true that the great lexicographer, Dr. Johnson,
gave credence and currency to this etymological nonsense, and that
subsequent lexicographers, down to Webster and Worcester, parrot-like
repeated it. But both of our distinguished lexicographers rejected
this popular tradition of a silly freak or pun of James I. or
Charles II. as of no etymological value, and agree that sirloin,
which appears in Johnson’s dictionary for the first time with this
orthography, is derived from the French surlonge, that is, “upper
loin.” In the old English dictionaries, such as Ainsworth’s and
Cotgrave’s, the English word was spelled surloin, and both Webster
and Worcester, while giving sirloin as the usual orthography,
recommend surloin, and authorize it as the preferable spelling.
Skeats’ Etymological Dictionary, Oxford, 1882, vocabulates this word
thus: “Sirloin, an inferior spelling of surloin, q. v.;” and under
surloin says: “Frequently spelled sirloin, owing to a fable that
the loin of beef was knighted by one of our kings in a fit of good
humor.” The king was naturally imagined to be the merry monarch
Charles II., though Richardson says (on no authority) that it was so
entitled by King James I. Both stories are discredited by the use
of the original French surlonge in the fourteenth century. Indeed,
Wedgewood actually cites ‘a surloyn of beef’ from an account of
expenses of Henry VI. But Richardson had the authority of Dean Swift
for referring the pun on surloin to James I. In “Polite Conversation”
Swift says: “But, pray, why is it called a sirloin? Why, you must
know that our King James I., who loved good eating, being invited
to dinner by one of his nobles, and seeing a large loin of beef at
his table, he drew out his sword and in a frolic knighted it.” Which
Swift, in all probability, intended to be taken as a legend, and
nothing more.


NORTH CAROLINA GOLD MINES.

  Give us some information in regard to the extent of mining for the
  precious metals in North Carolina.

  MALCOLM MCMANUS.

_Answer._—There was a time when gold mining in North Carolina was an
important industry. The earliest record at the United States mint of
gold produced in this country was in 1804. In that year a deposit
was made at the mint of gold found in North Carolina. Small amounts,
not exceeding an annual average of $2,500, were received from 1804
to 1823, after which there was a steady increase, as follows: In
1824, total amount received at mint, $5,000; in 1825, $17,000; in
1826, $20,000; in 1827, $21,000; in 1828, $46,000; in 1829, $134,000.
During this last year $2,500 was received from Virginia and $3,500
from South Carolina. A Southern “gold fever” set in, and hundreds of
people went to prospecting all along the Appalachian Mountains, so
that in the next year, 1830, the mint received $212,000 from Georgia,
$204,000 from North Carolina, $26,000 from South Carolina, $24,000
from Virginia, and $2,000 from Tennessee and Alabama. The total
amounts of precious metals from the mines of the South, deposited at
the United States mint from 1804 to 1881, was as follows:

  From Virginia           $ 1,689,797.00
  From North Carolina      10,750,468.64
  From South Carolina       1,429,751.55
  From Georgia              7,869,282.60
  From Alabama                220,892.25
  From Tennessee               86,511.61
                          ——————————————
    Total                 $22,046,703.65

Various causes conduced to the decrease of mining in the South
before the discovery of gold in California, but this latter event
drew away the best miners and most experienced, most enterprising
capitalists engaged in the business, so that the gold product of this
region became insignificant. A revival of mining has set in in North
Carolina, yet the products of the Carolinas and Georgia in 1881 was
only about $275,000.


MEERSCHAUM—SEA FOAM.

  GILMAN, Ill.

  Is meerschaum a product of sea foam, as some persons declare?

  W. C. DUCKHAM.

_Answer._—Meerschaum is a German word, compounded from _meer_,
sea, and _schaum_, foam. It is the name of a fine clay composed of
magnesia, silica, and water in equal parts. When fresh from the pit
it is soft and makes a lather like soap, which gave rise to its
name. After being molded into pipes, these are boiled in oil or wax
and baked until hard.


STATE GOVERNORS.

  ZANESVILLE, Ohio.

  Please give the names and politics of all State and Territorial
  Governors. Also, their salaries and dates of expiration of their
  terms.

  A SUBSCRIBER.

_Answer._—The following is a full list of Governors of the several
States and Territories, with their salaries and the times when their
terms end. The politics of Governors is indicated by running the
names of Republicans in Roman, and of Democrats and Fusionists in
italics:

  ———————————————+———————————————————————————+————————————————+———————
     STATE.      |      Governor.            |  End of term.  |Salary.
  ———————————————+———————————————————————————+————————————————+———————
  Alabama        | _Edw. A. O’Neal_          | Dec. 1, 1884   | $3,000
  Arkansas       | _James H. Berry_          | Jan. 2, 1885   |  3,000
  California     | _George Stoneman_         | Jan. 4, 1887   |  6,000
  Colorado       | _James B. Grant_          | Jan. 9, 1885   |  5,000
  Connecticut    | _Thos. M. Waller_         | Jan. 3, 1885   |  2,000
  Delaware       | _Chas. C. Stockley_       | Jan. 31, 1887  |  2,000
  Florida        | _Wm. D. Bloxham_          | Jan. 6, 1885   |  3,500
  Georgia        | _H. D. McDaniel_          | Nov. 3, 1885   |  3,000
  Illinois       | John M. Hamilton          | Jan. 12, 1885  |  6,000
  Indiana        | Albert G. Porter          | Jan. 12, 1885  |  5,000
  Iowa           | B. R. Sherman             | Jan. 14, 1884  |  3,000
  Kansas         | _George W. Glick_[7]      | Jan. 9, 1885   |  3,000
  Kentucky       | _L. P. Blackburn_         | Sept. 5, 1883  |  5,000
  Louisiana      | _S. D. McEnery_           | May 19, 1884   |  4,000
  Maine          | Frederick Robie           | Jan. 7, 1885   |  2,000
  Maryland       | _W. T. Hamilton_          | Jan. 2, 1884   |  4,500
  Massachusetts  | _Benj. F. Butler_[8]      | Jan. 2, 1884   |  4,000
  Michigan       | _Josiah W. Begole_[9]     | Jan. 1, 1885   |  1,000
  Minnesota      | L. F. Hubbard             | Jan. 7, 1884   |  3,800
  Mississippi    | _Robert Lowry_            | Jan. 5, 1886   |  4,000
  Missouri       | _T. T. Crittenden_        | Jan. 12, 1885  |  5,000
  Nebraska       | James W. Dawes            | Jan. 8, 1885   |  2,500
  Nevada         | _Jewett D. Adams_         | Jan. 2, 1887   |  6,000
  N. Hampshire   | Samuel W. Hale            | June 3, 1885   |  1,000
  New Jersey     | _Geo. C. Ludlow_          | Jan. 15, 1884  |  5,000
  New York       | _Grover Cleveland_        | Jan. 1, 1886   | 10,000
  No. Carolina   | _Thomas J. Jarvis_        | Jan. 1, 1885   |  3,000
  Ohio           | Charles Foster            | Jan. 14, 1884  |  4,000
  Oregon         | Zenas F. Moody            | Jan. 1, 1887   |  1,500
  Pennsylvania   | _R. E. Pattison_          | Jan. 18, 1887  | 10,000
  Rhode Island   | A. H. Littlefield[10]     | May 29, 1883   |  1,000
  So. Carolina   | _H. S. Thompson_          | Dec. 30, 1884  |  3,500
  Tennessee      | _Wm. B. Bate_             | Jan. 15, 1885  |  4,000
  Texas          | _John Ireland_            | Jan. 15, 1885  |  4,000
  Vermont        | John L. Barstow           | Oct. 4, 1884   |  1,000
  Virginia       | _W. E. Cameron_[11]       | Jan. 1, 1886   |  5,000
  West Virginia  | _Jacob B. Jackson_        | March 4, 1885  |  3,700
  Wisconsin      | J. M. Rusk                | Jan. 5, 1885   |  5,000
                 |                           |                |
    Territories— |                           |                |
  Arizona        | Frederick Tritle          | Feb. 6, 1886   |  2,600
  Dakota         | Neh. G. Ordway            | May 22, 1884   |  2,600
  Idaho          | John B. Neil              | July 12, 1884  |  2,600
  Montana        | J. S. Crosby              | Aug. 4, 1886   |  2,600
  New Mexico     | Lionel A. Sheldon         | May 5, 1885    |  2,600
  Utah           | Eli H. Murray             | Jan. 27, 1884  |  2,600
  Washington     | Wm. A. Newell             | April 26, 1884 |  2,600
  Wyoming        | William Hale              | Aug. 3, 1886   |  2,600
  ———————————————+———————————————————————————+————————————————+———————



FIRST FUGITIVE SLAVE LAW.

  CEDAR FALLS.

  Tell us who brought forward the first fugitive slave law.

  P. G. KLOCK.

_Answer._—In the constitutional convention of 1787 Mr. Pierce Butler,
a delegate from South Carolina, moved the adoption of clause 3,
section 2, article 4 of the Constitution, which reads: “No person
held to service or labor in one State, under the laws thereof,
escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regulation
therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be
delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor
may be due.” The first law to give effect to this constitutional
provision was prepared by a committee of the Senate appointed in
November, 1792. This committee was composed of Mr. Johnston, of
North Carolina; Mr. Cabot, of Massachusetts, and Mr. Read, of
Delaware. In December Mr. Johnston reported a bill which was not
entirely satisfactory. Mr. Taylor, of Virginia, and Mr. Sherman,
of Connecticut, were added to the committee. On Jan. 3, 1793, Mr.
Johnston reported a bill, which, after several days’ consideration,
was passed without a single dissenting voice. On the 4th of February
following, this bill passed the House by a vote of 48 to 7. We cannot
give the text of it, but it gave slave-masters and their agents
summary power to seize, hold, and return fugitives from slavery
to their former bondage, whatever laws the States in which they
were found might pass to the contrary, the matter being one under
jurisdiction of the United States courts.


THE WORLD’S PRINCIPAL TIN MINES.

  ALTONA, Ill.

  Where are the principal tin mines, and of what is this metal
  composed?

  JONATHAN TREXLAR.

_Answer._—Pure tin is an elementary metal, as much so as lead, iron,
silver, or gold. The principal tin-producing country is England.
The Phœnicians traded with England for tin 1,100 years before the
Christian era. There is reason to believe that they got tin from
Spain also; but England was depended on for nearly all the tin used
in Europe until this ore was discovered in Germany in 1240. It was
discovered in Northern Africa, in the Barbary States, in 1640; in
India in 1740; in New Spain in 1782. Tin was mined in Mexico before
the Spanish conquest, and used in T shaped pieces for money, and
in a bronze composition for sharp tools; the principal mines being
at Tasco. Peru has valuable mines of this metal, so have New South
Wales, Australia, and Banca, and Malacca in the Malay peninsula. Tin
has been discovered in Pennsylvania, Missouri, California, and other
States of the Union, but not in quantities to tempt capital to engage
in mining it. The chief tin-producing countries are the following,
arranged in the order of importance: England, about 10,000 tons a
year; Malacca, about 8,500 tons; Australia, about 6,000 tons; Banca,
about 4,000 tons, and Billiton, about 3,000 tons. Both of these
last-named places are islands of the Dutch East Indies.


THE ZERO POINT OF THERMOMETERS.

  O’KANE, Neb.

  Why was not zero on thermometers placed at the freezing point
  instead of 32 degrees below?

  M.

_Answer._—Zero is placed at freezing point on some thermometers,
although this is not the case on the Fahrenheit scale, the one in
common use in England and the United States. When Fahrenheit graded
his thermometer he supposed that there was no greater degree of cold
than had been observed in Iceland, or discovered by experimenting
with freezing mixtures. This point he marked zero; i. e., empty
or nought, as denoting the absence of all heat. It is 32 degrees
below freezing, and corresponds to the cold produced by a freezing
mixture composed of snow and salt, or sal-ammoniac; from which
it has been inferred that this was the test used by Fahrenheit,
the instrument-maker of Amsterdam, who introduced this scale into
common use, and after whom it is named, but who never actually
divulged the secret of his process. It is now known that this is
an arbitrary point, far above the lowest temperature in the polar
regions and several hundred degrees above the greatest cold produced
by artificial methods. In the Reaumer thermometer, generally used
in Germany, and the Centigrade thermometer, commonly used in France
and by scientists of all nations, zero marks the freezing point of
distilled water at the sea level, or under an atmospheric pressure of
14.73 pounds to the square inch. To reduce Fahrenheit to Centigrade,
subtract 32 and multiply by 100/180, or 5/9. Conversely, to reduce
Centigrade to Fahrenheit, multiply by 9/5 and add 32.


THE REPUBLIC OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

  RIVERSIDE, Cal.

  I noticed in the _Century_ for December, 1882, page 172, that Chief
  Justice Rutledge was “President of South Carolina from 1776 to
  1778.” What form of government had South Carolina at that time?

  J. M. BAHER.

_Answer._—In 1776 South Carolina, in a Constitutional State
Convention, of which John Rutledge was a member, took on the form of
an independent republic, and soon after Rutledge was made President
and Commander-in-chief of the State forces. He held this office until
1778, when he was succeeded by Rawlins Lownds. The constitution was
modified March 19, 1778, and thereafter the chief State executives
were known as Governors.


OLD-TIME FALCONRY—HAWK’S BELLS.

  PANA, Ill.

  In Barnes’ History of the United States, in the narrative of
  the discovery of Cuba, it is stated the natives bartered their
  valuables for “hawk’s bells.” Please explain the term “hawk’s
  bells.”

  A SUBSCRIBER.

_Answer._—Falconry, or hawking, was a favorite sport with the
nobility and gentry of Europe down to the first half of the
seventeenth century, when the introduction of fowling pieces of a
light and elegant pattern and the art of shooting flying gradually
replaced it. Hawks were trained to mount and pursue game and bring
it to their masters and mistresses, coming and going at the call of
the latter with marvelous docility. The hawks were tricked out with
gay hoods and held until ordered to pursue “the quarry,” or game, by
leathern straps fastened with rings of leather around each leg, just
above the talons, and silken cords called “jesses.” To each of these
leathern straps, or “bewets,” was attached a small bell, shaped in
most cases like the nearly closed sleigh bells of the present time.
In a flight of hawks it was often so arranged that the different
bells made “a consort of sweet sounds.” Bells of this description,
but of the cheapest kind, were among the most popular trinkets used
by the early explorers and traders in bartering with the natives of
America.


SOURCES OF BRITISH REVENUE.

  SYCAMORE, Ill.

  As England receives little or nothing from a tariff, where does
  the money come from to pay the expenses of the government? Who are
  taxed and who are not?

  R. A. S.

_Answer._—It is a mistake to suppose that the United Kingdom of Great
Britain and Ireland derives “little or no revenue from tariff” or
custom dues. The following table shows the sources of the national
revenue for the year ending March 31, 1882:

  Customs                                    £19,287,000
  Excise                                      27,240,000
  Stamps                                      12,260,000
  Land and house tax                           2,725,000
  Income tax                                   9,945,000
  Postoffice                                   7,000,000
  Telegraphs                                   1,630,000
  Crown lands                                    380,000
  Interest on advances and Suez Canal shares   1,219,262
  Miscellaneous                                4,136,019
                                             ———————————
      Total                                  £85,822,281

Here is the sum of £19,287,000, or almost $100,000,000, received from
customs, as against $220,410,730.25 collected from the same source
in the United States. 2, The inland revenue, composed of “excise,
stamps, and taxes,” is so distributed as to touch pretty much
everybody.


KANSAS GOVERNORS AND SENATORS.

  SHERMAN CITY, Kan.

  Please give the names of all the Territorial and State Governors of
  Kansas, and the names of Senators from the first.

  INQUIRER.

_Answer._—The Territorial Governors of Kansas were A. H. Reeder,
1855; (John L. Dawson, appointed but declined), Wilson Shannon, 1857;
John W. Geary, 1856; R. J. Walker, 1857; J. W. Denver, 1858; Samuel
Medary, 1858. The following is a full list of the State Governors:

  Charles Robinson                        1861
  Thomas Carney                      1861-1864
  S. J. Crawford                     1864-1869
  James M. Harvey                    1869-1873
  Thomas A. Osborne                  1873-1877
  George T. Anthony                  1877-1879
  John P. St. John                   1879-1883
  George W. Glick                    1883-1885

The several Senators in Congress have been or are:

  James H. Lane                      1861-1866
  Samuel C. Pomeroy                  1861-1873
  E. G. Ross                         1866-1871
  Alexander Caldwell                 1871-1873
  Robert Crozier                     1873-1874
  John J. Ingalls                    1873-1885
  James M. Harvey                    1874-1877
  Preston B. Plumb                   1877-1883

Senator Caldwell resigned March 24, 1874, during investigation
for bribery, in securing his election, and was followed by Robert
Crozier, appointed by the Governor to fill the vacancy. Senator
Crozier was succeeded by James M. Harvey, elected by the Legislature
for the remainder of Mr. Caldwell’s full term.


REPUBLICS AND PRESIDENTS.

  BARNARD, Ill.

  Is President the title of the highest officer in every republican
  government?

  ANNA SIERLE.

_Answer._—Yes, unless we take into account the pigmy republics,
or semi-republics, of San Marino and Andorra, the former a rough,
craggy mountain among the Appenines, with a total area of 21 square
miles and a total population of 7,816 persons, and the latter an
isolated valley in the Eastern Pyrenees, shut in between the two
great, jealous powers, France and Spain, with an area of about
300 square miles, and a population variously estimated at from
4,000 to 12,000. Andorra is governed by “the Sovereign Council” of
twenty-four members, which elects one of its members to be Syndic for
life, the chief executive of the State. San Marino is governed by
“the Sovereign Grand Council,” composed of sixty members, of whom
one-third are nobles. There are two heads of this mammoth republic,
called, “Captains Regent,” one chosen from the nobles and the other
from the “bourgeoisie,” or common people, each holding office for
only six months.


THE TAY BRIDGE HORROR.

  MOUNT VERNON, Iowa.

  Were there ever any bodies found after the disaster of the great
  bridge over the Frith of Tay? How long had the bridge been built,
  what were its dimensions, cost, and particulars of the calamity?

  C. N. WARREN.

_Answer._—The enormous but ill-constructed bridge across the Tay at
Dundee, Scotland, was authorized by an act passed in 1870. Work was
begun in June, 1871. It was much injured by a gale Feb. 4, 1877, but
was pushed forward and declared to be completed Aug. 30, 1877. It was
tried on the 25th of the following month, and opened for business on
May 31, 1878. Twenty lives were lost in its construction, and it cost
£350,000, or about $1,750,000. It was 10,612 feet long, and rested
on 85 spans, some of which were 90 feet above low tide. At about
7:15 p. m. on Dec. 28, 1879, less than seventeen months after it was
first opened to traffic—while a North British mail train was crossing
in the midst of a fierce gale—the structure gave way, leaving a gap
of 3,000 feet. The train plunged into the surging sea, and not one
of the ill-fated passengers escaped. There were between 75 and 90
persons on board; exactly how many was never ascertained. Forty-six
bodies were recovered up to April 27, 1880. After the official
inquiry Mr. H. C. Rothery declared that “the bridge had been badly
planned, badly constructed, and badly maintained.” A new bridge, of a
much more substantial character, is now in process of construction.


CAN A SOLDIER ENTER A HOMESTEAD.

  FORT PEMBINA, D. T.

  Can a soldier in the regular army take up a homestead or
  pre-emption claim, and get some other person to make the
  improvements required by law on either of said claims? By answering
  this question you will settle a dispute and greatly oblige,

  HENRY BROWN, Serg’t Co. B, Fifteenth Inf.

_Answer._—Soldiers now in the regular army may perform certain
preliminary acts relating to homestead entries, but they cannot
perfect title to such land until their terms of service have expired.
See instructions in “Copp’s Land Owner,” vol. 2, p. 133, and case
of Charles Harris, “Land Owner,” vol. 6, p. 190. The soldier or
his family must reside on the land at least one year, under any
circumstances, before he can acquire title.


POPULATION OF PEKING.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  Please state what is the population of Peking, China, and settle a
  dispute.

  DAVID MCGOWAN.

_Answer._—According to the “American Almanac,” which in turn refers
to the famous “Bevolkerung der Erde,” of Gotha, edited by Messrs.
Behm & Wagner, the population of Peking in 1880 was 500,000. Until
within a comparatively recent date the estimates of the population
of that city never ranged below 1,000,000. Cyclopedias generally
estimated it at 1,500,000, and some of them as high as 2,000,000.
Messrs. Behm & Wagner have carefully revised their former statistics
of China, and have reduced their estimate of the total population
of the country fully 55,000,000. The Almanach de Gotha gives the
population of Pekin as uncertain, estimates varying between 500,000
and 1,650,000.


HEBREW NOT A LIVING LANGUAGE.

  RAPID CITY, D. T.

  A Jewish gentleman and myself have had an argument, he asserting
  that Hebrew is a spoken language at the present time. I am of the
  impression that Hebrew ceased to be a spoken language during the
  seventy years’ captivity in Babylon, while he declares that he has
  seen a Jew, directly from Jerusalem, who could talk nothing but
  Hebrew. Can you give us any light on this subject?

  H. H. J.

_Answer._—Hebrew, like Latin and classic Greek, is a literary, and
not a colloquial language. The precise time when Hebrew ceased to
be the living, vernacular language of the Jews is not known. Some
learned Hebraists maintain that they lost the living use of the
Hebrew during the Babylonish captivity, but the weight of argument is
in favor of the belief that they retained the partial use of it for
some time after their return to Palestine, and lost it by degrees. No
decisive evidence, however, shows exactly when it became a virtually
dead language; although there are satisfactory reasons for declaring
that it gave place to a corrupted form of the Aramaic language,
a mixture of Syrian and Chaldean or Babylonish speech called the
Syro-Chaldaic dialect, several hundred years before the Christian
era, and that more than a century before this era it ceased to be
used even as a written language and was thenceforth studied only as
the language of the sacred books, by the learned.


ABANDONMENT OF HOMESTEAD.

  OWATONNA, Minn.

  To settle a dispute, please state whether a person who has “filed”
  on a quarter section of public land, under the homestead laws, and
  has let it go back to the government, can make another homestead
  entry?

  OLD SUBSCRIBER.

_Answer._—According to “Copp’s Public Land Laws,” as the law allows
but one homestead privilege, “a settler relinquishing or abandoning
his claim cannot thereafter make a second entry; but where an entry
is canceled as invalid for some reason other than abandonment, and
not the wilful act of the party, he is not thereby debarred from
entering again, if in other respects entitled, and may be allowed
credit for fees and commissions already paid, on a new homestead
entry.” Such a claimant must be prepared to show that he did not
voluntarily abandon his first entry.


PHARMACY LAWS AND TRAINED DRUGGISTS.

  HODGES PARK, Ill.

  What States have pharmacy laws, and what is the proportion of
  trained druggists in this country?

  A SUBSCRIBER.

_Answer._—Probably all the States have pharmacy laws; that is, laws
regulating the compounding and sale of drugs, but these are loosely
administered in most States, the laws themselves being radically
defective. Most prescription clerks pick up their knowledge of
pharmacy between errands and “by practice,” as it is called, without
even an elementary knowledge of chemistry or any systematic course of
training. There are in all fourteen schools of pharmacy in the United
States; 1 in San Francisco, 1 in Chicago, 1 in Louisville, 1 in New
Orleans, 1 in Baltimore, 1 in Boston, 1 in Ann Arbor, Mich., 1 in
St. Louis, 2 in New York City, 1 in Cincinnati, 1 in Philadelphia, 1
in Pittsburg, 1 in Nashville, and 1 in Washington. All told, they
had only 1,347 students in 1880, of whom they graduated but 186.
There are 284 retail drug stores in Chicago, and it is estimated
that there are more than 1,600 in the State and about 25,600 such
stores in the United States with twice that number of persons
compounding medicines; so that it is a clear case that comparatively
few druggists and prescription clerks are properly educated for their
duties.


AGNOSTICISM.

  ARTHUR, Ill.

  Be so good as to define the word “agnosticism,” as used in
  theological or religio-scientific discourses. I have examined
  several dictionaries and one encyclopedia, and have failed to find
  the word.

  E. J. A.

_Answer._—Agnosticism is a sort of supernatural knownothingism. It is
true that this word is not defined in either Webster’s or Worcester’s
unabridged dictionaries, except in the supplements to the latest
editions, and does not appear in the regular order of subjects in
the popular encyclopedias. It is derived from a Greek word that
signifies “to know not.” Agnosticism then, as used by Herbert Spencer
and his disciples, is the doctrine that, professing ignorance of the
supernatural, neither asserts nor denies the existence of a personal
Deity, and claims that such doctrine can be neither proved nor
disapproved, because of the insufficiency of the evidence furnished
by rational and material nature to warrant a positive conclusion:
or, as others say, because of the necessary limits of the human
mind. Agnosticism is opposed both to the positive assertion of the
skeptic, who denies the existence of a personal God, and the opposite
declaration of the Christian church, or dogmatic theism, affirming
such existence.


PTOLEMY PHILADELPHUS.

  Give a brief sketch of Ptolemy Philadelphus, a celebrated King of
  Egypt, often referred to in books and lectures.

  F. F. SLOAT.

_Answer._—He was the son of that able general of Alexander the Great
who, after the death of that monarch, became King of Egypt under
the title of Ptolemy I. Ptolemy II., surnamed Philadelphus, was
distinguished for his love of learning, patronage of men of letters
and artists, and encouragement of trade and all the arts of peace.
He founded the famous library of Alexandria, the greatest treasury
of ancient learning, and through his efforts the Hebrew Scriptures
were translated into Greek by seventy eminent Hebrew scholars. This
is what is known as the Septuagint version of the Holy Scriptures. He
reigned from 285 to 247 B. C., a period in which the Egyptian Kingdom
reached the highest point of military glory, prosperity, and wealth.


AN INCUBATOR SUCCESS.

  VESPER, N. Y.

For the benefit of readers of THE INTER OCEAN I will give my
experience with an incubator that I built last June, the materials of
which cost $5.50. It holds 234 eggs at a hatching. It took me three
days to build it. As a test trial, about the 15th of June I placed
nine dozen of eggs in the incubator, and in due time I obtained
86 per cent of chicks as the result, which I considered extremely
satisfactory. About the 10th of July I made another trial, using this
time eleven dozen of eggs, and the result was 87 per cent of chicks.
About 6 per cent of the eggs from these two trials which did not
hatch were found on examination to be unfertile, leaving 7 per cent
with dead chicks in the various stages of maturity. These two trials
proved satisfactory, even beyond my most sanguine expectations. On
the 15th of January I procured 204 eggs from the farmers, and placed
them in the incubator for my third trial, but, owing to the extremely
cold weather during the time the eggs were laid, they had become
chilled before being gathered, and, as the result, I only succeeded
in getting forty chicks, or a little less than 20 per cent. To avoid
a second failure, I determined to wait until the cold weather was
over before securing eggs for my next hatching.

  D. A. ROWLAND.


NORTHERN PACIFIC RAILWAY.

  SANTA BARBARA, Cal.

  How far west of St. Paul are the cars now running on the Northern
  Pacific Railroad? What is the name of the present western terminus?
  How many miles are completed from the west end? When is it expected
  to be completed?

  E. S. SHEFFIELD.

_Answer._—The company is now running trains with Pullman sleepers
and dining-room cars to Livingston, 1,030 miles west of St. Paul. It
is also running trains from Portland to Second Crossing, 527 miles.
From Livingston to Second Crossing passengers are carried by stage as
follows:

From Livingston to Bozeman, 25 miles, 4 hours.

From Bozeman to Helena, 108 miles, 18 hours.

From Helena to Missoula, 130 miles, 22 hours.

From Missoula to Second Crossing, 80 miles, 16 hours.

The total distance from St. Paul to Portland is 1,900 miles, and the
time 180 hours. The fare from St. Paul to Missoula by rail and stage
is $47.10. The road is to be completed this year.


AMERICAN LITERATI.

  OCONTO, Mich.

  What literary characters has our country produced during this past
  century?

  CARRIE STROUD.

_Answer._—There is space here to mention only a few of the most
prominent American writers of this century. First in poetry stand
Bryant, Prentice, Sigourney, Willis, Holmes, Longfellow, Whittier,
Morris, and Miller. Among the most conspicuous historians are Irving,
Sparks, Lossing, Bancroft, Cooper, Motley, Prescott, Parkman, Parton,
Ramsay, and Greeley. Among novelists, Cooper, Irving, Hawthorne,
Holland, and Mrs. Stowe hold the front rank, although there is
a legion just behind them, some of whom press close upon them.
In the field of essayists, literary, political, theological, and
metaphysical, the catalogue of noted names is too long to admit of
personal designation.


THE ASHTABULA HORROR.

  COTTAGE, Iowa.

  Was there anything in the death of Mr. P. P. Bliss in voluntarily
  remaining with his wife at the time of the railway accident at
  Ashtabula that justifies the charge that he committed suicide? Give
  particulars.

  M. L. PERCIVAL.

_Answer._—Mr. P. P. Bliss, the popular composer of sacred lyrics, and
evangelistic vocalist, perished at Ashtabula, Ohio, in the terrible
railroad disaster consequent on the fall of the Ashtabula bridge on
the night of Dec. 29, 1876. Two engines and eleven cars, with about
160 passengers, were precipitated into the creek, seventy feet
below. The wreck immediately took fire, and before help could reach
the scene more than a hundred persons had perished through the fall
or the flames, or were so badly injured that they afterward died. A
terrible snowstorm and intense cold added to the sufferings of the
survivors. In the midst of this scene of horror and distraction Mr.
Bliss and his wife both lost their lives. It is by no means certain
that Mr. Bliss could have escaped if he had abandoned his wife. If he
could have done so, but perished in the effort to rescue her, such an
act was heroic, and none but an idiot would class him with suicides.


STATESMEN AND MARTIAL HEROES.

  OCONTO, Mich.

  Name five of the greatest American statesmen of early times, and as
  many or more of their greatest successors; also name the principal
  military and naval heroes of our country, and oblige several
  readers.

  CARRIE STROUD.

_Answer._—Five of the greatest American statesmen concerned in the
founding of this Republic were Washington, Franklin, Hamilton,
Jefferson, and John Adams. Seven of the most distinguished successors
of these grand men were DeWitt Clinton, Daniel Webster, Henry Clay,
William H. Seward, Abraham Lincoln, Thaddeus Stevens, and Charles
Sumner. Twelve of the ablest generals this country can boast are
Washington, Gates, and Green, of the revolutionary war; Jackson
and Harrison, of the war of 1812; Scott and Taylor, of the Mexican
war, and Grant, Sherman, Sheridan, Thomas, and Meade, of the war
for the Union. Ten of our greatest naval heroes are Paul Jones, of
the revolutionary war; Perry, MacDonough, Porter, Decatur, Hull,
Bainbridge, and Chauncey, of the war of 1812, and Farragut and
Porter, of the last war.


PUBLIC LANDS IN WASHINGTON TERRITORY.

  GLORIETA, N. M.

  Is there any government land open to pre-emption or homestead in
  Washington Territory. If so, is any of it suitable for agricultural
  purposes?

  MONTEZUMA.

_Answer._—Out of an estimated area of 44,796,160 acres of public
lands in Washington Territory in the beginning, only 17,757,033
acres, or about one-third, had been surveyed up to June 30, 1882, and
a considerable part of this third is still open to purchase or entry
under the general or special land laws. In Washington Territory,
California, Oregon, and Nevada there are great areas of timber and
stone lands for sale under the law of June 3, 1878, at $2.50 per
acre. The “Desert Lands Act” of March 3, 1877, provides for the
sale of certain lands which can be cultivated only by artificial
irrigation, at 25 cents an acre. After deducting these tracts,
mineral lands, coal lands, and saline lands, there are still millions
of acres of lands in Washington Territory subject to pre-emption and
entry under the homestead law, and much of this land is well adapted
to agriculture and grazing.


OLDEST SETTLEMENTS IN THE UNITED STATES.

  PARKERSBURG, Iowa.

  1. What was the first European settlement made in the United
  States, and what was the name of the first child of European
  parents born in this country? 2. What is the length of the Niagara
  River, and what large islands are there in it?

  HOMER L. FORBES.

_Answer._—1. The oldest permanent European settlement within the
present limits of the United States was made at Saint Augustine,
Fla., in 1565. Francisco Vasquez de Coronado, Captain Francisco
de Coronado, and Don Antonio de Espejo, explorers of New Mexico,
occupied, temporarily, various points in that region between the
years 1540 and 1583. The latter of these took possession of a native
pueblo, or town, called Tuoas, or Taos, in the latter year, or
thereabouts, and named it La Ciudad de Santa Fe, which was identical
in site with the present capital of New Mexico. Forts, colonies, and
missions were established in various places in New Mexico by Juan de
Ouate, who was sent there for that purpose between 1595 and 1590.
The next at Jamestown, Va., in 1607, and the next at Albany, N. Y.,
in 1614. It is not known who was the first child of European parents
born within the United States. 2. The Niagara River is thirty-three
miles long. There are no large islands in it except Grand Island and
Goat Island, but there are numerous smaller ones.


THE CONTINENTAL CONGRESS.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  What was the seat of government during the revolutionary war? Who
  took the place of President, as head of the government?

  JANE EVANS.

_Answer._.—There was no permanent seat of government. The articles of
confederation provided that “Congress shall have power to adjourn at
any time within the year and to any place within the United States,
so that no period of adjournment be for a longer duration than the
space of six months.” When suffered to have its own way Congress
sat, during the war, in Philadelphia, but the “red coats” were as
keen to go to Congress as the average modern politician, and the
patriots, to avoid a row over contested seats, adopted a sort of
methodistic itinerancy, minus the method. Congress was in session
at Philadelphia in December, 1776, when, seeing that the British
were likely to force themselves upon the hospitality of that city,
it adjourned to Baltimore. It returned to Philadelphia, but after
the American defeat at Brandywine, Sept. 11, 1777, it adjourned to
Lancaster, and then to York, Pa. From the first session to the last
the Continental Congress met as follows: At Philadelphia, Sept. 5,
1774, and May 10, 1775; at Baltimore, Dec. 20, 1776; at Philadelphia,
March 4, 1777; at Lancaster, Pa., Sept. 27, 1777; at York, Pa., Sept.
30, 1777; at Philadelphia, July 2, 1778; at Princeton, N. J., June
30, 1783; at Annapolis, Md., Nov. 26, 1783; at Trenton, N. J., Nov.
1, 1784; at New York, Jan. 11, 1785, which continued to be the seat
of Congress until the adoption of the Constitution of the United
States. There was no executive head of the United States under the
articles of confederation. These provided that Congress should have
authority to appoint a “Committee of the States,” to consist of one
delegate from each State, to sit in the recess of Congress. The
President of Congress came the nearest to being an executive chief,
but he and the above committee, the “Board of War,” and certain other
special committees or boards were each charged with the execution
of law according to specific provisions in the act itself. Of these
Presidents of the Continental Congress the following shows the names
and the time of their election:

Payton Randolph, of Virginia, elected Sept. 5, 1774.

Henry Middleton, of South Carolina, Oct. 22, 1774.

Peyton Randolph, of Virginia, May 10, 1775.

John Hancock, of Massachusetts, May 24, 1775.

Henry Laurens, of South Carolina, Nov. 1, 1777.

John Jay, of New York, Dec. 10, 1778.

Sam Huntington, of Connecticut, Sept. 28, 1779.

Thomas McKean, of Delaware, July 10, 1781.

John Hanson, of Maryland, Nov. 5, 1781.

Elias Boudinot, of New Jersey, Nov. 4, 1782.

Thomas Mifflin, of Pennsylvania, Nov. 3, 1783.

Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia, Nov. 30, 1784.

Nathaniel Gorham, of Massachusetts, June 6, 1786.

Arthur St. Clair, of Pennsylvania, Feb. 2, 1787.

Cyrus Griffin, of Virginia, Jan. 22, 1788.


FIVE SUNDAYS IN FEBRUARY.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  In 1880 February had five Sundays. When will this occur again? This
  question was asked in one of the Chicago dailies recently, and
  received several different answers, none of which were right, or I
  am in error.

  INQUIRER.

_Answer._—Usually this event occurs every twenty-eight years, or at
the close of each solar cycle of twenty-eight years; but owing to
the fact that the year 1900 will not be a leap year (for reasons
explained in Our Curiosity Shop not many weeks ago), it will be forty
years before February contains five Sundays, or not until the year
1920.


FORMING STATES OUT OF OTHER STATES.

  FAIRFIELD, Ill.

  Can a State be formed out of part of another State? If not, how was
  West Virginia organized within the original limits of Virginia?

  BYRON.

_Answer._.—Article 4, section 1, clause 1, of the Constitution
of the United States declares that “No new State shall be formed
or erected within the jurisdiction of any other State; nor any
State be formed by the junction of two or more States, without the
consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of
the Congress.” The erecting of West Virginia into a State was an
incident of the late war. While the convention in session at Richmond
resolved to take Virginia out of the Union, the Unionists of West
Virginia called a convention that assembled at Wheeling May 13,
1861, composed of delegates from twenty-five western counties of the
State. This convention passed resolutions denouncing secession and
providing for a convention of all the counties of Virginia adhering
to the National Government. Delegates representing forty counties
convened in Wheeling on June 11, repudiated the acts of the rebel
convention, and on June 20 elected Francis H. Pierpont Governor
of what they denominated the “reorganized State of Virginia.” A
Legislature was elected, which met in Wheeling on July 2. This body
elected two United States Senators to take the place of the Virginia
Senators which had gone over to the Confederacy. It also provided
for an election, to be held on the 24th of the following October,
to decide upon the formation of a new State, the eastern part of
the State being in possession of the rebels. The people, by a large
majority, declared in favor of a new State, and, at the same time,
chose delegates to a convention to meet at Wheeling Nov. 24, which
convention framed a State Constitution, which was ratified by the
people May 3, 1862. May 13 the Legislature—which claimed, it must be
remembered, to represent the whole State of Virginia, as it certainly
did represent all the loyal part—approved the formation of the new
State under the name of West Virginia, and Dec. 31, 1862, provided
for its admission to the Union. It was held by distinguished jurists
that the government at Richmond having placed itself outside of the
Constitution by the treasonable act of secession, the only legal
legislative body within the State was the one in session at Wheeling,
which consented to the organization of the new State, and that the
terms of the Constitution contained in the clause above quoted had
been met. When Virginia was reconstructed she was admitted on the
understanding that West Virginia was a separate State.


A BRIBE-PROOF PATRIOT.

  HAVANA, Mo.

  Who was it who, when the British tried to bribe him, said: “Poor as
  I am, the King of England is not rich enough to buy me?”

  FLORENCE WYATT.

_Answer._—It was General Joseph Reed, a delegate from Pennsylvania
to the Continental Congress. When approached by one of three British
commissioners, Governor Johnstone, with an offer of £10,000 and the
most lucrative office in America, if he would use his influence to
reunite the Colonies to Great Britain, he answered: “I am not worth
purchasing, but, such as I am, the King of Great Britain is not rich
enough to buy me!”


MASON AND DIXON’S LINE.

  GRANGER, Mo.

  What is Mason and Dixon’s line, and what were the provisions of the
  Missouri compromise? Who were responsible for its repeal?

  R. E. GLOVER.

_Answer._—Mason and Dixon’s line is the concurrent State line of
Maryland and Pennsylvania. It is named after two eminent astronomers
and mathematicians, Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, who were sent
out from England to run it. They completed the survey between 1763
and 1767, excepting thirty-six miles surveyed in 1782 by Colonel
Alex. McLean and Joseph Neville. It is in the latitude of 39 deg. 43
min. 26.3 sec. Missouri was admitted to the Union only after a long
protracted and violent discussion, growing out of a provision in the
State constitution sanctioning slavery. A compromise was finally
effected by which the new State was admitted with slavery, with a
solemn agreement that there should be no more slave States formed out
of territory north of the parallel of 36 deg. 30 min., the southern
boundary of Missouri. In political discussions Mason and Dixon’s line
was understood to mean both of the above lines and the Ohio River,
or, in other words, the boundary between free and slave territory
the country through. When Kansas was thrown open to settlement the
Southerners were determined, despite the Missouri compromise, to try
to make Kansas a slave State. Their Representatives in Congress,
with the exception of a few Whigs, united in favor of a repeal of the
compromise. With the help of the Douglas Democrats in the North and
several pro-slavery Whigs, they carried their point. The consequence
was the bloody struggles between the free-State and pro-slavery
men in the early history of Kansas, which was practically the
inauguration of the war of the rebellion, although the latter did not
burst into full flame until after the election of President Lincoln
and the secession of the Southern States.


RATES OF INTEREST COMPARED.

  FREEPORT, Ill.

  Please give your readers a comparison of the rates of interest in
  England and the United States for several years back.

  A. BORROWER.

_Answer._—Of course rates vary greatly in this country with locality.
Where opportunities for profitable investment are in excess of
capital, as in the Western States, rates are higher than at the
great money centers. The following statement of the average rates of
interest in New York City for each of the fiscal years from 1874 to
1882, inclusive, is taken from the report of the Comptroller of the
Currency:

            Call loans,    Com’l paper,
  Years.     per cent.      per cent.
  1874          3.8            6.4
  1875          3.0            5.8
  1876          3.3            5.3
  1877          3.0            5.2
  1878          4.4            5.1
  1879          4.4            4.4
  1880          4.9            5.3
  1881          3.8            5.0
  1882          4.4            5.4

The average rate of discount of the Bank of England for the same
years was as follows:

                                      Per cent.
  Year ending Dec. 31, 1874             3.69
  Year ending Dec. 31, 1875             3.23
  Year ending Dec. 31, 1876             2.61
  Year ending Dec. 31, 1877             2.91
  Year ending Dec. 31, 1878             3.78
  Year ending Dec, 31, 1879             2.50
  Year ending Dec. 31, 1880             2.76
  Year ending Dec. 31, 1881             3.49
  Fiscal year ending June 31, 1882      4.01


MEMBERS OF PARLIAMENT.

  COUNCIL BLUFFS, Iowa.

  Are there any lady members of either House of Parliament? How many
  members are there in each House, and what are their titles?

  J. A.

_Answer._—There are seven peeresses in their own right entitled
to seats in the English House of Peers. These are the Baroness
Emma Harriet Tyrwhitt; the Baroness Augusta Mary Elizabeth
Cavendish-Bentwick; the Baroness Angela Georgiana Burdett-Coutts; the
Countess Anne S. Leveson-Gower (Duchess of Sutherland); the Baroness
Mary Elizabeth Boscawan; the Baroness Susan North; the Baroness C. E.
H. D. Willoughby. Besides the ladies the House of Peers contains in
all 509 members, viz.: Six princes of the blood; 3 archbishops; 20
dukes; 18 marquises; 114 earls; 26 viscounts; 24 bishops; 225 barons;
16 Scottish representative peers, elected for each Parliament; 28
Irish representative peers, elected for life. There are also 10 minor
peers, who will be entitled to seats when they attain their majority.
The House of Commons is composed of 639 members, of which 489 are
representatives of counties, universities and towns in England and
Wales; 60 are Scottish and 103 Irish representatives. The title of
honorable is given to members of the House. Some of them have titles
in their own right, as Lord Elcho, Earl Bective, Viscount Galway,
Right Honorable Sir Michael Hicks-Beach, and so on.


BONE DUST AS A FERTILIZER.

  ALMOND, Wis.

  How are bones treated before being used for fertilizing purposes?
  For what crops is bone-dust most used, and on what soils?

  SUBSCRIBER.

_Answer._—First, they are generally boiled for the oil and glue
or gelatine in them, which do not materially affect their value
as fertilizers. They are then ground or crushed, without being
previously burned. In this state this fertilizer is known as bone
dust, and is sown broadcast at the rate of 50 to 100 pounds to the
acre, as a rich manure for pasture, turnips, and small grain lands.
In Cheshire, England, where the fine red sandstone loam had become
comparatively sterile before the first of this century, through
deficiency of phosphoric acid in the soil, caused by constant
pasturage in dairy farming, they resorted to the use of calcined bone
and bone dust, with the effect of doubling the product the first
year. There they often lay on a half ton to a ton to an acre, which
serves as a good dressing for sixteen to twenty years. The best way
to ascertain whether a soil needs bone dust is to experiment for a
year or two with a small plat of ground. The result will determine
better than a chemical analysis whether a bone dust dressing will pay.


THE AGE OF SANTA FE.

  ATCHISON, Kan.

  Is Santa Fe the oldest of American cities, as the Santa Fe papers
  claim?

  A SUBSCRIBER.

_Answer._—Cabez de Vaca, a Spanish adventurer, was in New Mexico
with his shipwrecked party as early as 1535. General Coronado, with
a large military expedition, conquered the Zuni and Moqui towns, or
pueblos, in 1540-41, and kept a journal, still in existence, which
identifies the regions he overran as undoubtedly a part of this
Territory. Don Antonio Espejo left Zacatecas in 1581 according to
some authorities, but late in 1582 according to others, and visited
what is now Santa Fe County, New Mexico, in July of 1583. He gave a
fuller report than had ever been given before of the pueblos of this
region, in which he estimated the population of the province of Taos
as 40,000. The principal pueblo in this province was Tanos, afterward
known as Tegra, and still later as Santa Fe. As an Indian town Santa
Fe may be older than any other town in the United States, but as a
European settlement St. Augustine, Fla., still carries the palm of
antiquity, having been founded in 1565.


JOAQUIN MILLER’S REAL NAME.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  What is “Joaquin” Miller’s real name, and what were the real and
  assumed names of his divorced wife? The Chicago _Herald_ says his
  name is Henry F. Miller, which I think is incorrect.

  A. STEELE.

_Answer._—The real name of “Joaquin” Miller, author of the “Songs
of the Sierras,” is Cincinnatus Heine Miller. His divorced wife’s
maiden name was Minnie Theresa Dyer, and her literary pseudonym was
“Minnie Myrtle.” It is said that the name “Joaquin” was given to Mr.
Miller by “the boys” in his early California experience, when he was
“roughing it,” from a real or fancied resemblance to a noted Spanish
highwayman, and he adopted it as a pseudonym.


THE BLACKHAWK WAR.

  BATTLE CREEK, Mich.

  Who was the commander in the Blackhawk war? State some of the chief
  facts as to that war.

  V. H. LUCAS.

_Answer._—By a treaty made with certain chiefs of the Sacs and Foxes
at St. Louis in 1804, the Indians ceded all their lands in Illinois
to the United States for the paltry annuity of $1,000 and goods to
the value of $2,234.50. In a treaty made in 1822, covering various
matters, a clause was introduced confirming the cession of 1804.
Still the government did not demand actual possession of these
lands. In 1830, Keokuk, Black Hawk’s rival, negotiated a treaty in
which the government recognized him as the head chief of the Sacs
and Foxes, and in which he clearly ceded all the lands in question.
Black Hawk, who had always opposed any cession of territory to the
whites, was not present at this convention, and he and his followers,
constituting a minority of the tribe, but really representing the
portion most concerned, the actual occupants of the great village at
Rock Island, protested against the validity of this and the previous
cessions. Black Hawk declared that the treaty of 1804 was made by
only four chiefs, that they signed it under the influence of liquor,
and had never been authorized by the tribe to cede lands. It was not
so easy to explain away the clause in the treaty of 1822, but he
characterized it also as a fraud, signed without full understanding
of its intent. As to the convention of 1830, he denied the authority
of Keokuk’s band to deed away the lands east of the Mississippi.

Returning in April, 1831, from the winter’s hunt in the North,
Black Hawk’s band found that their chief’s former friend, an Indian
fur-trader at Rock Island, had purchased of the government the
ground on which this ancient village stood, in the forks of the
Mississippi and Rock River, and with his associate speculators were
preparing to cultivate the Indian field of some 700 acres adjoining
the village. It seems marvelous that Black Hawk could so far restrain
his people as to persuade them to submit to a compromise by which
they yielded possession of half this field for the season to the
speculators. But the latter were not satisfied, and both parties
soon grew irritated. Governor Reynolds, of this State, was asked
to interfere. Soon after the militia were called out. On the 7th
of June General Gaines, of the regular army, commanding at Fort
Armstrong, on Rock Island, summoned the Indians to a council, when
he commanded them to leave the east side of the Mississippi. Black
Hawk refused; but as the State militia, to the number of about 1,600,
under command of General Joseph Duncan, drew near, he saw that his
few hundred warriors would be overwhelmed, and on June 24, during
the night, the Indians deserted their village, which the Americans
a few days later utterly destroyed. On June 30, Black Hawk and his
party signed a treaty by which for the first time he individually
joined in the relinquishment of the lands in dispute. The next
winter found him and his band in a destitute, starving condition,
owing to their being driven from their cornfields at a season when
it was too late to plant elsewhere. In the spring, in defiance of
the treaty, he and 368 warriors with their families, crossed the
Mississippi and passed up Rock River, to plant corn, as they said,
in the Winnebago country, in Southern Wisconsin. General Atkinson,
in command of the regular troops at Fort Armstrong, warned them to
return. Governor Reynolds again called out the militia, and placed
them under command of General Samuel Whiteside. Nothing serious
occurred until the 14th of May, when the rash conduct of a party of
275 volunteers under Major Stillman provoked a fight with some sixty
of Black Hawk’s warriors, near the mouth of the Kishwaukee a few
miles south of Rockford. The whites were panicstricken and fled with
the loss of eleven men. So slow had been the movement of the militia
that already their time of enlistment had nearly expired, and, not
liking this taste of Indian war, they became mutinous, and had to be
discharged. General Atkinson could do little with his mere handful of
regular troops, so he intrenched his company at Dixon and remained
there, while Black Hawk’s followers, re-enforced by a few Winnebago,
Ottawa and Pottawatomie braves, roamed over the country committing
outrages on defenceless settlers, a number of whom were killed.
Affairs grew serious. Governor Reynolds called for 2,000 militia. In
July the regulars and militia, all under the chief command of General
Atkinson, drove Black Hawk up Rock River and across to the Wisconsin
River, where General James D. Henry, the chief hero of this war, in
command of a brigade of Illinois militia, overtook him at Wisconsin
Heights, and inflicted the first serious punishment the Indians had
suffered. Over fifty warriors were killed, and the entire body of
them was badly demoralized. Escaping across the Wisconsin with great
loss, they fled, leaving their dead and dying, and abandoned articles
along their trail. The whole army followed in hot pursuit, and on
Aug. 2, General Henry again struck their main force and drove them
into the Mississippi at the mouth of the Bad Axe. Here the regulars
and the rest of the army joining in, soon cut them to pieces. General
Winfield Scott took command five days later, on Aug. 7, 1831, and
not long afterwards negotiated a treaty of peace. Black Hawk and two
of his sons, with several of his principal warriors, were held as
hostages for a time. After detention at Fortress Monroe until June 5
of the next year, he was released. During his captivity he was taken
to all the principal cities, where his fate elicited a good deal of
sympathy. After his return he lived peaceably with his tribe in Iowa
until his death, Oct. 3, 1838, in the 70th year of his age. He was
buried at Iowaville, Iowa.


THE BERMUDAS.

  GENESEO, Ill.

  Please give a concise history of the Bermuda Islands.

  MRS. M. H. PIERCE.

_Answer._—The Bermudas were discovered successively by Juan
Bermudez, a Spaniard, in 1522; Henry May, an Englishman, in 1593:
and Sir George Somers in 1609; the discovery in each case being due
to the shipwreck of the discoverer. Sir George established the first
settlement shortly before his death. In 1612 these islands were
granted to 120 persons, an offshoot of the Virginia Company, sixty of
whom, led by Henry More, and followed by fugitives from the civil war
in England, commenced the cultivation of the soil, which soon yielded
rich crops of tobacco. Later the salt lagoons furnished the chief
article of commerce. The government consists of a Governor, appointed
by the crown, and a privy council of nine members, appointed by the
Governor. The House of Assembly is composed of thirty-six members,
elected by the people. The acts are revised from time to time, being
passed for a limited period.


LIVE QUESTIONS FOR DEBATE.

  WEST PILOT, Iowa.

  Will you please give some live questions for debate in a lyceum?

  WILLIE G. SPRINGER.

_Answer._—Should an international copyright system be established?
Should the government establish postal savings banks? Should
literary ability be acknowledged and encouraged in this country, as
in England, by grants or pensions from the government? Should the
election of President and Vice President be by direct popular vote,
instead of through the electoral college?


GIVE FOWLS GOOD FOOD AND EXERCISE.

  NEBRASKA CITY, Neb.

  What is the matter with my fowls? They do not seem to be sick, but
  they are languid and do not lay or seem to have any ambition.

  AMANDA.

_Answer._—Perhaps it is because they are too closely cooped and have
not sufficient exercise. Give them plenty of sunlight; keep them dry;
bury a share of their grain in their dusting-place so that they will
have to scratch for it; scatter the rest of their food so that they
will have to exercise in order to get it and can not eat too fast;
give them a variety of dry and cooked food, including cooked meat and
vegetables in the morning and grain at night; and the probability is
that you will see a marked improvement.


THE SULLIVAN-HANFORD MURDER.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  When did Alexander Sullivan shoot Francis Hanford, the Chicago
  school principal? When did his trial take place and before what
  Judge? Was the Judge impeached for his course on that trial? Is it
  certainly so that this is the same Sullivan who is now at the head
  of the Irish National League of America? One friend says it is and
  another says that this latter Sullivan is a New Yorker.

  INQUIRER.

  ST. HELENA, Neb.

  Is the Alexander Sullivan, of Chicago, elected President of the
  Irish National League, recently organized in Philadelphia, the same
  man who some years since killed Francis Hanford, the Chicago school
  principal? Why was that Sullivan acquitted?

  JOHN MARTIN.

_Answer._—Alexander Sullivan shot Francis Hanford, Principal of
the North Side High School, Chicago, on Aug. 7, 1876, under the
following circumstances: In an anonymous paper read that afternoon
in the City Council it was charged that Mrs. Alexander Sullivan had
procured the appointment of her husband, as Secretary of the Board
of Public Works, through undue influence over Mayor Colvin. It was
also charged that she was the moving spirit in a corrupt ring that
dictated the management of the public schools. Mr. Sullivan was told
that the author of this paper was Mr. Hanford. At 7 o’clock that
same evening, himself, wife and a younger brother drove up in front
of the Hanford residence as that gentleman was sprinkling his grass
plat, while Mrs. Hanford sat on the door-step looking on. Sullivan
demanded an immediate retraction; after a few words he knocked Mr.
Hanford down. A scuffle ensued which ended in Sullivan’s drawing a
revolver and shooting Mr. Hanford dead in the presence of his family.
He afterward claimed that during the fracas, when Mrs. Sullivan came
up to separate them Mr. Hanford had struck her. On the trial the
prosecution claimed that if this were so, the blow was not directed
or intended for Mrs. Sullivan, but came about in Mr. Hanford’s
efforts to protect himself from Sullivan’s attack. The first trial
of Sullivan began Oct. 17, 1876, and ended Oct. 27 in a disagreement
of the jury. The public was greatly exasperated, and, believing that
the disagreement of the jury was due to the rulings and charge of
Judge McAllister, there was a loud call made by the most respectable
citizens of all classes for his resignation. When the news reached
the Board of Trade such a scene was witnessed as seldom occurs in
such a place. By unanimous consent all business was suspended. In
ten minutes a petition was prepared, asking Judge McAllister to
resign at once. In half an hour it had received 500 signatures, and
by night there were 1,200 names appended, all of members of the
board. The Judge treated this petition and the unanimous condemnation
of the press with silent contempt. Sullivan’s second trial opened
Feb. 26, 1877, before the same judge, and closed March 9 with a
verdict of acquittal. Judge McAllister was never impeached before
any legal tribunal; but at the bar of public opinion he suffered the
condemnation of the intelligent, order-loving element of the entire
country. This Alexander Sullivan is now the President of the newly
organized Irish National League of America.


SECURITY OF NATIONAL BANKS.

  DOWNSVILLE, Wis.

  Are the notes and deposits of the National Banks well secured? What
  is the rate of loss suffered through these banks?

  S. S. C.

_Answer._—The currency issued by National banks is amply secured
by the deposit of registered bonds of the United States with the
Treasurer of the United States. The Comptroller of the Currency
makes frequent inspections of these institutions, and whenever the
market value of the bonds thus deposited falls below the amount of
the circulation issued for the same, he is authorized to demand
additional security in United States bonds or money to the amount
of such depreciation. National bank notes are all printed by the
government, and furnished to the banks only in such quantities as
they are authorized to circulate. As a consequence there can be
no over issues. In case of the failure of a bank to redeem its
circulating notes, the holders may present them for payment at the
Treasury of the United States, where they will be redeemed. The
government is protected against loss by holding a first lien on
all the assets of such banks. Depositors in cases of failure do not
always realize the full amount of their claims, but the history
of banking shows no parallel to the excellence of this system in
respect of the small proportion of loss suffered by depositors. The
loss to all creditors of the United States National banks from the
passage of the act of Feb. 25, 1863, to Nov. 1, 1882, amounted to
only about $400,000 per annum on an average capital of $450,000,000,
and annual deposits averaging $800,000,000, so that the average
loss to depositors during a period of nearly twenty years was but
one-twentieth of 1 per cent per annum.


GOVERNORS OF IOWA.

  ANAMOSA, Iowa.

  Please give a full list of the Governors of this State from the
  organization of Iowa Territory, with the years that they were in
  office.

  SUBSCRIBER.

_Answer._—The Territorial Governors of Iowa were:

  Robert Lucas          1838-41
  John Chambers         1841-46
  James Clark           1846-46

Iowa was admitted into the Union as a State Dec. 28, 1846, since when
its Governors have been:

  Ansel Briggs          1846-50
  Stephen Hempstead     1850-54
  James W. Grimes       1854-58
  Ralph P. Lowe         1858-60
  Samuel J. Kirkwood    1860-64
  William M. Stone      1864-68
  Samuel M. Merrill     1868-72
  Cyrus C. Carpenter    1872-76
  Samuel J. Kirkwood    1876-78
  John H. Gear          1878-82
  Buren R. Sherman      1882-

The above does not give the names of the Governors of Missouri,
Michigan, and Wisconsin Territories at the dates when what is now
Iowa was attached to those Territories. After Missouri became a
State, in 1821, Iowa was left without any civil government. From
1834 to 1836 it was attached to Michigan Territory, then embracing
Wisconsin, Stevens T. Mason, Governor. In 1836 Wisconsin Territory
was organized, including Iowa, and the Wisconsin Territorial
Legislature was actually in session at Burlington, Iowa, when news
came from Washington that Iowa had been constituted a separate
Territory. Of course there was nothing left for the “Badgers” but to
pack their carpet bags and decamp for their own Territory, which they
did instanter. Henry Dodge was Governor of Wisconsin while Iowa was
joined to it.


STEEL AND STEEL RAILS.

  MARION, Ind.

  Please explain how steel rails are made.

  ALPHA.

_Answer._—Steel is a carburet of iron, rendered as free as possible
of all foreign matter, such as sulphur, phosphorus, etc. It may be
produced by working pig iron, which contains 4 or 5 per cent of
carbon, in a suitable furnace until the amount of carbon is reduced
to about 1 per cent, the average carbon in good steel. This is a
decarbonizing process. In the other process, which is directly
opposite to this, iron bars, freed of carbon, are heated in contact
with charcoal until they have absorbed the necessary per cent of
carbon. The steel, in the form of ingots, is brought to a proper
heat and welded together in proper quantity to make a rail of given
length and weight. This is then rolled into proper shape by immense
rollers, grooved so as to give the right shape to the rail. Bessemer
steel rails can be cast in molds.


SETTLEMENT OF THE CAROLINAS.

  BURLINGTON, Iowa.

  When and by whom were the States of North and South Carolina
  settled?

  AMERICUS.

_Answer._—A company of Huguenots, many of them soldiers and men of
rank, with Ribault as their leader, while on an exploring tour,
entered a harbor, which they named Port Royal, and being much pleased
with the country, thirty were chosen to begin a colony. Their object
was to search for gold, but failing to discover any they built a
rude ship and put to sea in it. In 1650 a settlement was started
upon the Chowan River by emigrants from Virginia and England, which
was afterward called Albemarle County Colony, and another settlement
near Wilmington, made by planters from Barbadoes, was named Clarendon
County Colony. In 1670 a colony settled upon the banks of the
Ashley River, but ten years later it removed to the present site
of Charleston, S. C. These three colonies were similar in origin
and under the same Governor until 1729, when the two Carolinas were
erected into distinct provinces.


THE GREATEST OF VALLEYS.

  BRIGHTON, Cal.

  Is there any valley in the world larger than the Mississippi Valley?

  C. C. HARRIS.

_Answer._—The Valley of the Amazon is larger than that of the
Mississippi, the former river draining 2,330,000 square miles, the
latter 1,244,600 square miles. The Amazon drains a greater area than
any other river on the globe.


UNITED STATES MINTS AND ASSAY OFFICES.

  FARRAGUT, Iowa.

  How many mints are there in the United States, and where are they?
  What are assay offices, and where are they?

  ADA A. HALL.

_Answer._—This government has coinage mints in Philadelphia, San
Francisco, New Orleans, and Carson City, and a mint at Denver used at
present merely as an assay office. This last and the assay offices at
Boise City, I. T., Helena, M. T., and Charlotte, N. C., are limited
by law to melting and assaying gold and silver bullion and paying for
the same from Treasury funds. There is an assay office at New York
for the testing of foreign coin or bullion bought by the government
to be coined or recoined. All the precious metal purchased for
mintage is computed at the value given it at these assay offices. The
single letters, O., S., C., etc., stamped under the eagle on American
coin indicate where the pieces were minted.


POLITICAL AND GOVERNMENT TOWNSHIPS.

  WINDSOR, Ill.

  Is there any difference between political and “government”
  townships? If so, what is it?

  A SUBSCRIBER.

_Answer._—1. A full township, according to the United States
Government land survey, is six miles square and contains thirty-six
sections. This is often called a “Congressional township,” sometimes
a “government township.” Along the borders of large lakes and
navigable rivers, and particularly next to State boundaries,
fractional Congressional townships are common. For purposes of
township government, fractional townships are in many cases united
with adjoining townships, or two full townships may be joined under
one town organization. In other cases three or more Congressional
townships organize under one or two political town governments,
according to the convenience and wishes of a majority of the
inhabitants. 2. For an explanation of the United States Government
Land Survey, including definition of base lines, ranges, and names
and location of all the principal meridians, see Our Curiosity Shop
of last year.


INTRODUCTION OF POSTAGE STAMPS.

  HORTONVILLE, Wis.

  When were postage stamps first used, and by what Nation?

  P. G. M.

_Answer._—The use of postage stamps, one of the great reforms
advocated by Rowland Hill, was introduced into England through his
efforts May 6, 1840. They began to be used in this country in 1847.


TIMES THAT TRY MEN’S SOULS.

  ROCKFORD, Ill.

  Who was the author of the expression, “These are times that try
  men’s souls?”

  E. D. H.

_Answer._—Thomas Paine, who professed to believe that men had no
souls. During the Revolutionary war, soon after the British captured
Philadelphia, and when the cause of independence was shrouded in
gloom, Paine, who was certainly one of the most spirited, brilliant,
and effective knights of the pen that championed independence, wrote
in “The American Crisis,” “These are times that try men’s souls.”


WHO BURNED MOSCOW?

  ALMA, Wis.

  Did Napoleon burn Moscow, or was it burned by the Russians on his
  approach?

  INQUIRER.

_Answer._—It is not certain that Moscow was set on fire by official
order. If so, it was by command of Count Rostoptchin, who claimed
that honor after he saw the result, the forced evacuation of the city
by Napoleon and the French army, which had taken possession of it
on Sept. 14 and 15. Some say that it was fired by Russian fanatics
when they knew that Napoleon had taken up his headquarters in the
Kremlin, which they regarded as sacred. The French endeavored to
extinguish the conflagration, which was ruinous to them, as it was
their reliance for winter quarters.


GRADES OF BARLEY.

  OOSTBURGH, Wis.

  1. What constitutes the difference in grades of barley? 2. Wherein
  does the color of barley affect the quality of the grain? 3. How,
  except to gouge the farmer, did the custom of making fifty pounds
  of barley for the bushel originate, the legal standard being
  forty-eight pounds? 4. Are farmers under obligation to conform to
  board of trade rules, contrary to law?

  QUIZ.

_Answer._—1. The following are the rules governing the State
inspection of barley in Chicago: “No. 1 barley shall be plump,
bright, clean, and free from other grain. No. 2 barley shall be
sound, of healthy color, bright or but slightly stained, not plump
enough for No. 1, reasonably clean, and reasonably free from other
grain. No. 3 barley shall include slightly shrunken and otherwise
slightly damaged barley, not good enough for No. 2. No. 4 barley
shall include all barley fit for malting purposes, not good enough
for No. 3. No. 5 barley shall include all barley which is badly
damaged, or for any cause unfit for malting purposes, except that
barley which has been chemically heated shall not be graded at all.”
2. The color of barley is an indication of its age and condition
in several respects. 3. The legal bushel by weight is different
in different States. In California and Nevada it is 50 pounds; in
Wisconsin and most other States it is 48; in Pennsylvania, 47; in
Oregon, 46; in Louisiana it is only 32. Boards of trade make rules
for themselves, one object being uniformity for the whole country.
4. As a rule, statutes fixing the weight per bushel of various
commodities specify that this is to apply only in cases where
contracts fail to specify the weight to be given. When grain is
sold on ’Change the rules of the board determine the weight to be
delivered. Since seller and purchaser are presumed to be acquainted
with these rules, it is hard to imagine how either can justly
complain of being “gouged.”


HERODOTUS.

  CROMWELL, Iowa.

  Please give a short sketch of Herodotus, the father of history.

  FRANK SMITH.

_Answer._—Herodotus, called the “Father of History,” was born at
Halicarnassus, a Dorian city of Asia Minor, B. C. 484. In his youth
he became disgusted with the tyrannical rule of Lygdamis, and
abandoned his home for the island of Samos, upon which he acquired
the Ionic dialect, which he used in writing his history. After
remaining there some time he began his famous travels, visiting
Greece, Asia Minor, Syria, Babylon, and Northern Africa. Returning
to his old home he assisted in the expulsion of Lygdamis and the
establishment of a new ruler. The latter, however, became nearly as
tyrannical as the former, so that Herodotus again looked abroad for a
home. Hearing that a colony was about to leave Athens for Italy, he
joined it and settled, B. C. 443, at Thurrii in that peninsula. At
that place he lived the remainder of his life, writing the history
which has been a lasting monument to his name. It is not known in
what year he died; but it is supposed that he lived to be a very old
man.


A PENSION QUERY.

  IOLA, Ill.

  Please answer the following: A soldier applies for a pension
  because of a disease contracted while in the service, but dies of
  said disease before action is taken by the department, leaving no
  wife but one child, a daughter, under 16 years of age, who dies
  before the claim is allowed; who, if anybody, is entitled to the
  pension?

  J. ROBINSON.

_Answer._—Section 4,718 of the Revised Statutes of the United States
reads as follows: “If any pensioner has died or shall hereafter
die; or if any person entitled to a pension, having an application
therefor pending, has died or shall hereafter die, his widow, or if
there is no widow, the child or children of such person under the
age of 16 years shall be entitled to receive the accrued pension to
the date of the death of such person. Such accrued pension shall not
be considered as a part of the assets of the estate of deceased nor
liable to be applied to the payment of the debts of the said estate
in any case whatever, but shall inure to the sole and exclusive
benefit of the widow or children; and if no widow or child survive
no payment whatsoever of accrued pension shall be allowed, except
so much as may be necessary to reimburse the person who bore the
expenses of the last sickness and burial of the decedent in cases
where he did not have sufficient assets to meet such expenses.”
According to Section 4,707 pensions may be granted to relatives who
were dependent upon the disabled soldier, but these are limited to
the mother, father, or orphan brothers and sisters under 16 years of
age, named in the order of precedence.


SPORTING FEATS.

  CHAMPAIGN, Ill.

  Please answer the following questions: 1. What is the fastest time
  in which dashes of 100, 150, and 200 yards and one mile have been
  made by athletes? 2. What is the greatest record for running long
  and running high jumps without weights or spring-boards? 3. What
  is the longest base-ball throw on record? 4. What is the longest
  foot-ball kick?

  S.

_Answer._—The fastest time for a dash of 100 yards was made by
George Seward, an American, at Hammersmith, England, Sept. 30, 1844,
say 9¼ seconds; the fastest 150 yards was run by George Forbes,
at Providence, R. I., Dec. 20, 1869, say 15 seconds; the fastest
220-yard dash was run by L. E. Myers, at New York City, Sept. 15,
1881, say 22½ seconds. The fastest mile run on record was made by
William Cummings, at Preston, England, May 14, 1881, say 4 minutes
16⅕ seconds. The fastest mile run in this country was made by W.
G. George, at New York City, Nov. 11, 1882. 2. The longest running
long jump, without artificial aid, was made by J. Lane, at Dublin,
Ireland, June 10, 1874, say 23 feet 1½ inches; the greatest running
high jump in Great Britain, 6 feet 3¾ inches, was made by P. Davin,
at Carrick-on-Suir, Ireland; the greatest in America, 5 feet 11
inches, was made by E. W. Johnston, Belleville, Ont. 3. The longest
base ball throw on record was made by John Hatfield, at Brooklyn, N.
Y., Oct. 18, 1872, say 133 yards 1 foot 7½ inches. 4. The longest
foot-ball “place kick,” with a run, is 187 feet 10 inches, made by R.
Young, at Glasgow, Scotland, July 2, 1881.


THE COLOSSEUM.

  LAMONI, Iowa.

  When was the Colosseum at Rome built, and for what purpose? What
  were its dimensions; what is its present use, and who owns it?

  E. B. T.

_Answer._—The Colosseum, or Coliseum, as it is sometimes spelled, was
a colossal amphitheater constructed by the Emperors Vespasian and
Titus. It was in the form of an oval, the longer diameter being 612
feet, the shorter diameter 515 feet, and the height of the walls from
160 to 180 feet. It contained seats for 87,000 persons, and standing
room for 15,000 more. The arena, or oval in the center, where the
gladiators fought and the deadly conflicts with wild beasts took
place, was 281 feet by 176. The walls were of marble, the external
face consisting of four stages, or offsets, adorned with engaged
columns of the three orders of Grecian architecture, Doric, Ionic,
and Corinthian. The lowest three were arcaded, having each eighty
columns and as many arches. Statues, sculptures, figures of chariots,
metal shields, and other embellishments adorned the niches and
salient points. What was the internal structure of this vast building
is not fully understood. The tiers of seats above referred to only
rose to one-half the height of the stupendous walls. Whether there
were hanging galleries above these marble seats is now only a matter
of conjecture. Over 2,000 wild beasts were killed in the dedicatory
service. There were means by which, when the combats were ended, the
immense arena could be filled with water for the exhibition of sea
fights. During the various persecutions of the early Christians, many
of these were thrown to the wild beasts in this amphitheater. One of
the first of these was St. Ignatius, who was torn to pieces by lions.
In the sixth century, when Christianity gained the ascendency, the
church put an end to the use of the Colosseum. It still stood entire
in the eighth century, but subsequently large quantities of the
marble was used in the construction of public and private buildings.
Pope Benedict XIV., in commemoration of the martyrs who had suffered
within its walls, consecrated the Colosseum as a monument to them,
erected crosses and oratorios within it, and so put an end to the
process of destruction. Ever since it has been regarded as sacred to
the martyrs and subject to the church.


WARMING ARCTIC DWELLINGS.

  JOHNSONVILLE, Ill.

  Do inhabitants of the Arctic regions use fire as a means of heating
  their ice or snow-block houses, and for cooking? If so, what kind
  of fuel do they use?

  H. E. T.

_Answer._—The ordinary means of lighting and warming Esquimaux
igloos, or winter huts, is a large basin of oil furnished with moss
wick. These basins are scolloped from soapstone or similar material.
The oil is the product of the whale, seal, or other fish, or of the
white bear, but usually the former. Igloos are huts usually a half
or more underground, and finished above ground with stones, bones,
turf, and moss, and finally with ice and snow. Sometimes they are
constructed of blocks of ice and compact snow, with transparent ice
windows. The igloo is reached by a long tunnel-like entrance, is
unventilated, and soon after the great lamp is lit the heat from this
and the warmth from the bodies of the inmates render the mephitic air
almost suffocating. These people, generally, eat their food raw or
but half cooked.


GOTHAM.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  Why is New York City called “Gotham?” What is the origin and
  meaning of Gotham?

  J. C. STARR.

_Answer._—In “Salmagundi,” a humorous work written by Washington
Irving, his brother William, and James K. Paulding, this name
is applied to New York, to suit the purpose of the authors in
representing the inhabitants as given to undue pretensions to wisdom.
Of course, the allusion is to the inhabitants of Gotham, a parish in
Nottinghamshire, England, who were as remarkable for their stupidity
as for their conceit. All the follies of English wiseacres were
attributed to them. Fuller says: “The proverb of ‘as wise as a man of
Gotham’ passeth publicly for the periphrasis of a fool; and a hundred
fopperies are forged and fathered on the townsfolk of Gotham.” It was
said that when King John was about to pass through Gotham toward
Nottingham he was prevented by the inhabitants, who thought that the
ground over which a king passed became forever a public road. When
the King sent to punish them they resorted to an expedient to avert
their sovereign’s wrath. According to this, when the avengers arrived
they found the people each engaged in some foolish occupation or
other, so that the King’s messengers returned to court and reported
that Gotham was a village of fools. In time a book appeared, entitled
“Certain Merry Tales of the Mad Men of Gotham,” compiled in the reign
of Henry VIII., by Andrew Borde, a sort of traveling quack, from whom
the occupation of the “Merry Andrew” is said to be derived. Among
these tales is the story of “The Three Wise Men of Gotham,” who went
to sea in a bowl. The book had a wonderful sale. Walpole attributed
it to Lucas de Heere, a Flemish painter, resident in England in the
time of Queen Elizabeth, but the weight of evidence is in favor of
Borde’s being the author, or compiler, it being mostly a compilation
of popular legends even then from four to five hundred years old.


ST. PETER’S AND COLOGNE CATHEDRAL.

  FOX LAKE, Wis.

  Which is larger, St. Peter’s Cathedral or the cathedral at Cologne?
  Please give the dimensions of both.

  ELLA LYLE.

_Answer._—The dimensions of St. Peter’s at Rome, the largest
cathedral in the world, are as follows: Length of the interior, 613½
English feet; of transept, 446½ feet; height of nave, 152½ feet; and
the diameter of cupola, 193 feet. The height of the dome from the
pavement to the top of the cross is 448 feet. Cologne cathedral is
511 feet long, and 231 feet broad. The towers are 511 feet high. This
famous building, founded by Archbishop Conrad, designed by Architect
Gerhard von Riehl, and commenced Aug. 15, 1248, was not completed
until Aug. 14, 1880. It was solemnly opened with august ceremonies,
Oct. 15, of the same year.


ORIGIN OF CHESS.

  FARMINGTON, Minn.

  Please state the origin of the game of chess.

  O. H. BAKER.

_Answer._—Chess is such an ancient game that its origin is unknown.
Many of the most learned Oriental scholars have written upon the
subject, appealing to history and philology to support their
theories. It has been ascribed to a Chinese mandarin by the name
of Han-Sing, who, it is said, invented it as an amusement for his
soldiers when in winter quarters, about 174 B. C. They call it “the
play of the science of war.” Sir William Jones, the great Sanscrit
scholar, claimed that Hindu traditions, the names of the pieces,
and other particulars indicate that chess was played in India in
the earliest times. He writes that a learned Brahmin assured him
that it was mentioned in several of the oldest books of India, where
it was declared that it was invented by the wife of one of the
most ancient kings of Ceylon to amuse that monarch while Rama was
besieging his metropolis. This, by their reckoning, was 2,000 to
3,000 years before the commencement of our era. On the other hand,
several later scholars of Sanscrit think it was invented in India
by Buddhists some time between the third and ninth centuries, A. D.,
a theory inconsistent with the unwarlike nature of Buddhism and the
fact that the Hindu name of the game, “chaturanga,” is a military
name, signifying the game of armies, corresponding with the Chinese
name for chess, given above. Others have ascribed this game to the
Babylonians, Persians, Scythians, Egyptians, Jews, Greeks, or Romans,
according to their several theories, but the weight of evidence is in
favor of its being of Indian or Chinese origin, and this is now the
generally accepted belief.


STATE SECRETARIES.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  Oblige us with a list of the names of Secretaries of State for the
  principal Western States.

  B.

_Answer._—Since the names of the Secretaries of State for Texas,
Oregon, and Washington Territory are called for by another
correspondent, and such information is not within convenient reach
of most persons, we give below a full list of Secretaries of all the
States and Territories. Persons wishing information in regard to
State inducements to immigration, State resources, taxation, etc.,
can usually obtain it by writing to the Secretary of State, who will
transmit the question to the proper officer for the reply called for.

  Alabama—Ellis Phelan.
  Arkansas—Jacob Frolich.
  California—T. L. Thompson.
  Colorado—Melvin Edwards.
  Connecticut—D. Ward Northrop.
  Delaware—William F. Cansey.
  Florida—John L. Crawford.
  Georgia—N. C. Barrett.
  Illinois—Henry D. Dement.
  Indiana—William R. Meyers.
  Iowa—John A. T. Hull.
  Kansas—James Smith.
  Kentucky—James Blackburn.
  Louisiana—William A. Strong.
  Maine—Joseph O. Smith.
  Maryland—James T. Briscoe.
  Massachusetts—Henry B. Pierce.
  Michigan—Henry A. Conant.
  Minnesota—F. Von Baumbach.
  Mississippi—Henry C. Meyers.
  Missouri—Michael K. McGrath.
  Nebraska—Edward P. Roggen.
  Nevada—J. M. Dormer.
  New Hampshire—A. B. Thompson.
  New Jersey—Henry C. Kelsey.
  New York—Joseph B. Carr.
  North Carolina—Wm. L. Saunders.
  Ohio—Sames W. Newman.
  Oregon—R. P. Earhart.
  Pennsylvania—Wm. S. Stenger.
  Rhode Island—J. M. Addeman.
  South Carolina—R. M. Sims.
  Tennessee— ——.
  Texas—Thomas H. Bowman.
  Vermont—George Nichols.
  Virginia—Wm. C. Elam.
  West Virginia—Randolph Stalkner, Jr.
  Wisconsin—Ernst G. Trimme.
  Arizona—George H. Hand.
  Idaho—Thomas F. Singiser.
  Montana—L. D. McCutcheon.
  New Mexico—Wm. G. Ritch.
  Utah—Arthur L. Thomas.
  Washington—N. H. Owings.
  Wyoming—Elliott S. N. Morgan.


CONGRESSMEN-AT-LARGE.

  NEWTON, Iowa.

  Explain what is to be understood by “Congressmen-at-large.”

  INQUIRER.

_Answer._—The act of Congress of February, 1882, provided for a
reapportionment of the membership of the House of Representatives,
based on the census of 1880, provided that in the cases of States
entitled under this apportionment to additional representation, the
additional members in the Forty-eighth Congress might be elected on
a general State ticket; also, that in all cases where the number of
representatives was reduced, as in Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont,
the whole number for such State should be elected at large, “unless
the Legislatures of said States have provided or shall provide before
the time fixed by law for the next election of Representatives
therein.” Kansas, for example, which is entitled by this act to
four additional representatives, did not redistrict before the last
Congressional election, and so she elected four Congressmen at large,
viz., Edmund W. Morrill, Lewis Hanback, Samuel R. Peters, and Bishop
W. Perkins. Maine did not redistrict, so all her representatives were
elected at large, instead of by districts.


CONTESTANTS OF SEATS IN CONGRESS.

  BLOOMINGTON, Iowa.

  To settle a dispute between me and a Greenbacker, who claims that
  when a seat is contested in Congress the contestant doesn’t draw
  any pay if he fails to get the seat, except his expenses, while
  I contend that both draw pay until the contest is decided, state
  which is right.

  JOHN TAYLOR.

_Answer._—Section 2 of chapter 182 of “Supplement to the Revised
Statutes of the United States,” par. 15, says: “That hereafter no
contestee or contestant for a seat in the House of Representatives
shall be paid exceeding $2,000 for expenses in election contests; and
before any sum whatever shall be paid to a contestant or contestee
for expenses of election contests he shall file with the clerk of the
Committee on Elections a full and detailed account of his expenses,
accompanied by the vouchers and receipts of each item, which shall
be sworn to by the party presenting the same.” Nevertheless it
is customary for Congress to vote compensation to contestants by
appropriations in the nature of “relief bills,” where each case is
presumed to stand on its own merits.


BALLOONS AND THEIR PERFORMANCES.

  AUBURN, D. T.

  Please give some facts as to the capacity of balloons; what is
  used to fill them, and what are some of the greatest balloon
  performances?

  L. J. SWARTZ.

_Answer._—The buoyancy of a balloon depends on the weight of the gas
with which it is inflated compared with the weight of common air,
bulk for bulk. Hydrogen is the lightest of all known substances.
A cubic foot of atmospheric air at a temperature of 34 degrees
weighs 527.04 troy grains, while a cubic foot of hydrogen is about
fourteen and a half times lighter than this. Coal gas is about two
and a half times lighter than air. If a balloon would contain 1,000
pounds of atmospheric air at temperature of 34 degrees Fahrenheit,
but filled with coal gas would weigh, all told—covering, gas, and
appendages—600 pounds, it would rise with a force equal to the
difference of these two numbers, or 400 pounds. Mr. Glaisher, not
long since, constructed a balloon containing 90,000 cubic feet of
coal gas, that carried 600 pounds, and rose to the unsurpassed height
of 7½ miles, where the barometer, which stands at about 30 at sea
level, sank to only 7 inches, showing an atmosphere of only about
22 per cent of the weight at sea level. The longest balloon trip on
record is that of the late Professor J. Wise and Mr. La Mountain.
Starting from St. Louis for New York City, they traveled 1,150 miles
in a little less than twenty hours, when, being caught in a contrary
current, they were compelled to desist. Mr. Lowe’s mammoth balloon
was said to contain 700,000 cubic feet of coal gas and have a lifting
power of 22½ tons; but it was badly constructed and accomplished
nothing remarkable. In some 10,000 recorded ascents made since the
Montgolfiers invented their famous balloons, just 100 years ago this
year, there have been but fifteen deaths among 1,500 aeronauts; which
indicates less danger in this business than is generally supposed.


JEFFERSON DAVIS.

  FERRY, Mich.

  1. Give a short biography of Jefferson Davis.

  G. F. PAGE.

_Answer._—Jefferson Davis was born in Kentucky in 1808; first became
prominent in politics as a member of the House of Representatives,
and later as Senator from Mississippi. He served in the Mexican
war, having been educated at West Point. During President Pierce’s
administration Davis was Secretary of War, and was said to rule both
President and Cabinet. In 1857 he was returned to the Senate, where
he remained until chosen President of the Confederacy in 1861. This
office he held for four years. In 1865, after the fall of Richmond,
Davis was captured and imprisoned in Fortress Monroe for two years;
was released on bail in 1867, and finally liberated by the general
amnesty, Dec. 25, 1868. He is still disqualified from holding any
office of honor or emolument under the General Government.


GOVERNMENT PUBLIC LAND SALES.

  SHELDON, Iowa.

  I have heard on good authority of the sale, by officers of
  public land offices, of timber claims at public auction to the
  highest bidder for cash. Is there any authority of law for such a
  proceeding?

  C. H. COTTLE.

_Answer._—Where large bodies of land are to be sold, a proclamation
is issued in the name of the President, describing the tracts, and
specifying the time and place of sale. When only a few isolated
tracts of land, not embraced in the regular proclamations, are to
be disposed of, notice is given in a local newspaper. The land is
then sold to the highest bidder for cash only. Purchasers are not
compelled to reside on or cultivate such lands. As the present
policy of the government is to encourage pre-emption and homestead
settlement and timber culture there are now few public land sales.
Lands that have been offered at public sale but not sold may be
bought at any time thereafter at the local land office if not
withdrawn from market. This is called a private sale or entry.


MAGGIE MITCHELL.

  VICKSBURG, Mich.

Please give a short biography of Maggie Mitchell. What is her present
age?

  S. C. VAN ANTWERP.

_Answer._—Maggie Mitchell, one of the best-known of American
actresses, was born in New York City in 1832 of Scotch parents, in
very humble circumstances. When very young she was employed in simple
child parts in the old Bowery Theater, for a pittance, which went
to help support the family. When not more than 19 years of age, she
had advanced to playing parts of some importance, and about this
time, 1851, she made her first appearance at Burton’s Theater as
Julia, in the “Soldier’s Daughter,” which was her first capital
success. Soon after this she went on a “starring tour” that proved
profitable and widely extended her reputation. She made her first
appearance in Philadelphia at the Chestnut Street Theater on March
20, 1854, as Constance in “The Love Chase.” Up to 1862 Miss Mitchell
was content to appear in amusing characters, earning the reputation
of a clever comedienne, but about this time she got hold of a clumsy,
heavy dramatization of George Sand’s popular novelette, “La Petite
Fadette.” She applied herself to the animating and popularizing of
this play, and the result is her now famous drama “Fanchon,” many
of the most charming and pathetic parts being entirely of her own
creation. Since June 9, 1862, when she first produced “Fanchon” on
the stage at Laura Keene’s Theater, New York, it has maintained a
living interest which never fails to draw a house. Other plays of her
composition or dramatization have followed, including “Jane Eyre,”
“The Pearl of Savoy,” and “Mignon,” a stage rendering of an episode
in Goethe’s “Wilhelm Meister,” but none have equaled, in popular
esteem, Fanchon. Miss Mitchell was married Oct. 15, 1868, to Henry
Paddock, of Cleveland, her present popular stage manager. Although
she is now 51 years of age, she impersonates the girlish characters
of her repertory with all the sprightliness and youthful vivacity
that won the hearts of her auditors twenty years ago.


ARCHBISHOP LAUD—WHY BEHEADED.

  Please give an account of the life, character, and death of
  Archbishop Laud.

  C. P. B.

_Answer._—William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury, the son of a
Berkshire clothier, was born in 1573. He was ordained priest in
1601, and became vicar of Stanford in 1607. From this position he
rose rapidly in power, by his executive ability and manifestation
of hatred of Puritanism, until in 1628 he was appointed Bishop of
London. Early in his career he had won the favor of the King, who
thought he saw in him a powerful advocate of the doctrine of the
divine right of kings, though Laud was really more interested in
maintaining the divine right of Episcopacy. In 1617 he attempted,
with the aid of King James, to establish the Episcopacy in Scotland,
but in vain. In 1630 he was made Chancellor of Oxford, the center of
high-church loyalty, and, according to the wish of his sovereign,
attempted to repress Puritanism by slitting noses, clipping ears,
fines, branding, and imprisonment. In the high-commission and
star-chamber courts his power was almost absolute. But gradually he
won the bitterest hatred of the English people, until in March, 1640,
seven years after his appointment to the Archbishopric of Canterbury,
he was imprisoned in the Tower by order of the House of Commons. He
was brought to trial in the House of Lords, Nov. 13, 1693, on charge
of treason and other crimes, of which they acquitted him; but they
soon afterward gave their assent to the ordinance for his execution,
passed by the Commons. He had lived until the Puritans, whom he had
despised and persecuted, had come into power, he had made the Scots
his implacable foes, and nothing less than his blood would satisfy
them. Despite of a royal pardon, by an act of arbitrary power on the
part of Parliament, overriding all constitutional precedents, he was
beheaded Jan. 10, 1644.


VICTORIA’S CHILDREN AND CHILDREN-IN-LAW.

  BATTLE CREEK, Mich.

  Please name Queen Victoria’s children and their husbands and wives,
  and stations in life.

  BELLE SHIPMAN.

_Answer._—The eldest child of Queen Victoria is Victoria Adelaide
Maria Louise, Princess Royal, married to the Crown Prince, Frederick
William, of Germany, Jan. 25, 1858. Her eldest son, the second
child, is the Prince of Wales, Albert Edward, heir-apparent to the
throne; married to the Princess Alexandra, eldest daughter of the
King of Denmark, March 10, 1863. Her third child was Alice Maud Mary,
married to Louis IV., Grand Duke of Hesse-Darmstadt, July 1, 1862;
died Nov. 15, 1878. Her fourth child is Alfred Ernest Albert, Duke
of Edinburgh, married Jan. 23, 1874, to the Grand Duchess Maria of
Russia. Her fifth is Helena Augusta Victoria, married July 5, 1866,
to Prince Frederick Christian, of Schleswig-Holstein. Her sixth is
Louise Caroline Alberta, married March 21, 1871, to John, Marquis
of Lorne, present Governor General of Canada. Her seventh is Arthur
William Patrick Albert, Duke of Connaught, married March 13, 1879,
to Princess Louise Margaret, daughter of Prince Frederick Charles of
Prussia. Her eighth is Leopold George Duncan Albert, Duke of Albany,
married April 27, 1882, to the Princess Helen, daughter of the Prince
of Waldeck. Her ninth is Beatrice Mary Victoria Feodora, still
unmarried. We are not prepared to publish their pictures.


ROUTE TO SINALOA, MEXICO.

  BALDWIN, La.

  What is the route from here to Sinaloa, Mexico? Is the Northern
  part of that State good for the culture of sugar cane? To what
  market would one ship from there?

  M. D. G.

_Answer._—The most direct route from New Orleans would be via the
Southern Pacific and Sonora Railways to Guaymas, 353 miles southwest
of Benson, on the Southern Pacific, where one can take steamer about
the 15th or 16th of each month for Mazatlan, the principal port
of Sinaloa, on the Gulf of California. Sugar cane, oranges, figs,
and other semi-tropical and tropical fruits flourish in Sinaloa;
particularly in the Valley of the Rio del Fuerte. Mazatlan furnishes
a market for the products of the country, or one can ship to San
Francisco or New York direct, via the California and Panama steamers.


FUSIBILITY OF ALLOYS.

  HUDSON, M. T.

  Why does it takes a hotter fire to melt pewter than lead?

  J. B. L.

_Answer._—Pewter is an alloy, composed of tin and lead, sometimes
with a little copper or antimony or bismuth, combined in different
proportions, according to the purposes it is to serve. Plateware,
which has a bright, silvery luster when polished, is composed of
100 parts of tin, 8 parts of antimony, 2 parts of bismuth, and 2 of
copper. Brittannia ware is said to be an alloy of equal parts of
brass, tin, antimony, and bismuth. Now it is characteristic of alloys
that they are always more easily fusible than the least fusible
metal entering into their composition, and some of them, strange to
say, are more fusible than the least fusible of their constituents.
For instance, although bismuth alone requires a heat of 476 degrees
Fahrenheit to fuse it, lead 600 degrees, and tin 442 degrees, an
alloy of these metals composed of five or eight parts of bismuth, two
or five parts of lead, and three of tin, melts at 198 to 200 degrees;
and an alloy of sodium composed of sodium and potassium in certain
proportions melts at 80 degrees, although sodium alone requires 194
degrees and potassium 124 degrees to fuse them. The explanation is
not fully determined, but it is to be found in the laws of chemical
affinity. Different metals expand at different rates in the same
degree of heat, which tends to separate the atoms; and electrical
currents are produced which magnify the heat applied externally.


AUTHOR OF SCHONBERG-COTTA FAMILY.

  LAKE CITY, Iowa.

  Who is the author of “Schonberg-Cotta Family?” Give a short sketch
  of the same, and tell the correct pronunciation of Schonberg-Cotta.

  AGGIE.

_Answer._—The authoress of “Schonberg-Cotta Family” is Mrs. Elizabeth
Rundle Charles, only child of the late Hon. John Rundle, member
of Parliament for Tavistock. She was born about 1826; received a
liberal English education; was encouraged in literary work by her
father; and has written a number of works of fiction of high moral
tone, including the two historical fictions “Schonberg-Cotta Family”
and the “Diary of Kitty Trevylyan,” intended to recall the early
struggles of the two great reformers, Luther and Wesley. Among her
other works are “The Martyrs of Spain and Liberators of Holland.”
It is almost impossible to denote the German pronunciation of “o”
in Schonberg without oral illustrations. Webster says that to utter
this sound one must place the organs in the position for o long and
then try to utter the sound of e in met. All the other syllables in
the compound word, Schonberg-Cotta, are to be pronounced nearly as in
English, except that the e in berg is almost like a long.


GOLD AND SILVER IN THE SEA.

  PEORIA, Ill.

  Is the expression, “There is gold in the sea,” only a poetic
  fiction or is it true? As a friend says that there is gold and
  silver in some kinds of sea water?

  A CONSTANT READER.

_Answer._—Sea water is impregnated with certain chemical salts,
including chlorides, sulphates, bromides, iodides, and carbonates,
some of which have the power of dissolving gold and silver or holding
them in solution. The chemist Sonstadt has recently shown that sea
water contains nearly one grain of gold to the ton of water, held in
solution by iodide of calcium; and it has been known for some years
that the old copper stripped from the bottoms of ships is often so
rich in silver taken from the sea that it pays a profit on the cost
of smelting it. It is estimated that the ocean holds in solution
at least 2,000,000 tons of silver. Assuming this to be the metric
ton of 2,204.6 pounds, the above total is equivalent in weight to
77,448,000,000 American standard dollars—nearly seven times the total
silver product of the world from the earliest times to the close of
1879, or $11,315,000, as estimated by that eminent statistician,
the Russian councillor, Otreschkoff. A large discount might be made
from these estimates, and yet there would be enough left, aside from
all the treasures of sunken Spanish galleons and oriental argosies,
to demonstrate that the saying, “There is gold in the sea,” is not
merely a poetic fancy.


FRENCH POOLS—PARIS MUTUALS.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  Kindly explain “French pools,” or “Paris mutuals,” as used in
  horse-racing circles.

  R. L. K.

_Answer._—“French pools” are sometimes called “Paris mutuals.” This
system of betting consists of selling tickets on each horse at a
certain price. On the race-courses of this country the “mutuals” are
$5 each. When the race is started the tickets are all added up in one
large pool, and those who hold tickets on the winning horse divide
the total pool, less 5 per cent to the pool-seller. For example, in a
Paris mutual, tickets in the pool were sold as follows:

  Horse.             Tickets.  Price.   Total.
  No. 1                 10       $5    $50.00
  No. 2                  9        5     45.00
  No. 3                  4        5     20.00
  No. 4                  7        5     35.00
  No. 5                  8        5     40.00
                                      ———————
    Total                             $190.00
      Less 5 per cent                    9.50
                                      ———————
    Net amount for winners            $180.50

Here there is a net amount of $180.50 to be divided equally between
holders of tickets on the winning horse. In this case, if horse No. 3
wins, each of the four ticket-holders receives $45.12.


THE WIVES OF COLUMBUS.

  CORTLAND, N. Y.

  When was Columbus married and whom did he marry?

  B. S.

_Answer._—Christopher Columbus was twice married. His first wife was
Felipa Munnis Perestrelle, daughter of an able Captain of Prince
Henry of Portugal, called the “Navigator.” He married her in 1471.
His father-in-law’s charts, globes, etc., helped to mature his plans
of discovery. Diego, who accompanied his father on the occasion
when they were reduced to such straits that Columbus begged at the
monastery of La Rabida for bread and water for the child, was the
only issue of this marriage. This wife died in 1483 or thereabout.
He next married Beatriz Enriquez, at Cordova, in 1487. She was the
mother of his second son, Fernando Columbus, who in time became his
father’s biographer.


POSTAGE ON MANUSCRIPT.

  COOKSVILLE, Wis.

  What is the postage rate on manuscript for books or newspapers?

  INQUIRER.

_Answer._—Ruling 264, page 683 of the Postal Guide for 1883 says:
“All manuscript matter designed for publication in books, magazines,
periodicals, or newspapers is subject to letter postage, unless
accompanied by proof-sheets or corrected proof-sheets of such
manuscript, or of which such manuscript is a correction or addition.”
Ruling 508, page 711, says: “‘Book manuscript’ is a term no longer
used in the postal law. Manuscript accompanied by proof-sheets, and
corrected proof-sheets relating to it, may pass in the mails as
third-class matter in unsealed packages.” The rate for third-class
matter is “1 cent for each two ounces or fractional part thereof.”


PERPETUAL ALMANACS.

  BLOOMINGTON, Ill.

  Please give a rule for finding the day of the week on which any
  historical event occurred when only the day of the month is given.

  CHRONOLOGIST.

_Answer._—This is too much like a question in arithmetic for these
columns, from which all arithmetical problems are ruled out. Several
distinct classes of questions might come up under “Chronologist’s”
query. One of the first considerations is to determine whether the
historical date is given in “old style” reckoning or “new style,” as
a separate rule must be applied in each of these cases. Another rule
applies to dates before the Christian era. Leap years are taken into
account in all these rules. Every example involves an arithmetical
computation. There are “perpetual almanacs” that contain tables and
rules for all such computations. There is a chart published in this
city entitled “Almanac for All Time, Past and Future,” which answers
all queries of this nature.


CHICAGO FLOWER MISSION.

  CANTON, Ill.

  What is the Flower Mission of Chicago? State the nature of its
  work, and how to reach it by letter or express.

  MRS. J. D.

_Answer._—The object of the Chicago Flower Mission is to collect
and distribute flowers among the charitable institutions of the
city; chiefly through the wards of hospitals. The influence of these
cheery tokens of loving sympathy is believed to be most wholesome.
The condition of the mind has, in most cases of disease, a great
effect on the body. Nothing does more to recuperate the sick than a
hopeful, cheerful spirit, and a lively love of life and earnest wish
to recover. Flowers and their associations are delightful reminders
of the world in its fairest phases, and woo the sick back to life
with a tender eloquence akin to love. Letters or offerings of flowers
addressed to the “President of the Chicago Flower Mission, Atheneum
Building, Chicago,” will reach the mission.


LAND ENTRIES BY MARRIED WOMEN.

  ROCHELLE, Ill.

  Please tell whether a married woman can take up government land in
  place of her husband, and oblige at least one of your readers,

  C. A. REYNOLDS.

_Answer._—Under the pre-emption laws, which restrict the pre-emption
privilege to heads of families, widows, or single persons over the
age of 21, who are citizens of the United States or who have declared
their intention to become such, it has been judicially decided: 1.
That if a single woman marry after filing her declaratory statement,
she thereby abandons her right as a pre-emptor, although it is not
so in the case of timber-culture claim or homestead entry; 2. The
“head of a family” means the actual, living head of a family; hence,
that “a deserted wife or one whose husband is a confirmed drunkard
may be the head of a family;” also, that “a married woman who has
minor children and has been abandoned by her husband without cause
and left to support and maintain herself and children, is the head
of a family and entitled to pre-empt in her own name.” Under like
circumstances married women may make homestead and timber-culture
entries. Otherwise a married woman cannot pre-empt government land or
make a homestead or timber-culture entry.


CASUALTIES OF THE CIVIL WAR.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  Will you please settle a dispute by telling how many lives were
  lost in our civil war; and how many were so wounded as to seriously
  cripple them for life?

  A READER.

_Answer._—According to the Provost-Marshal General’s report, the
casualties in the Union army from the commencement of the late civil
war to its close, or say until Aug. 1, 1865, were as follows:

    Killed—
  Volunteer officers, white          3,357
  Volunteer enlisted men, white     54,350
  Officers of colored troops           124
  Enlisted men of colored troops     1,790
  Regulars                           1,355
                                    ——————
      Total                         60,976

    Died of Wounds—
  Volunteer officers                 1,595
  Volunteer enlisted men            32,095
  Officers of colored troops            46
  Enlisted men of colored troops     1,037
  Regulars                           1,174
                                    ——————
      Total                         35,959

    Died of Disease—
  Volunteer officers                 2,141
  Volunteer enlisted men           152,013
  Officers of colored troops            90
  Enlisted men of colored troops    26,211
  Regulars                           3,009
                                   ———————
      Total                        183,467

    Discharged for Disability—
  Volunteer officers                 3,058
  Volunteer enlisted men           209,102
  Officers of colored troops           166
  Enlisted men                       6,889
  Regulars                           5,091
                                   ———————
      Total                        224,306

The report of the Adjutant General of the army about five years
later, Oct. 25, 1870, puts the total number of deaths in the Union
army during the rebellion at 303,504, while the Surgeon General of
the army reports the number at 282,955. The Adjutant General reports
the total number killed in battle as 44,238; the Surgeon General
reports 35,408; the former reports the total number who died of
wounds as 33,993; and the latter as 49,205; the former reports the
number who died of disease as 149,043; the latter as 186,216. The
Quartermaster General reports the total number of graves under his
supervision as 315,555; only 172,309 of which have been identified.
Taking all things into consideration, the differences, according to
these several reports from officers of different departments, are, in
most instances, readily accounted for.

According to the only data at hand, the total Confederate losses in
action are estimated as follows: Killed, 51,525; wounded, 227,871.
The number who died of wounds and disease is not stated; according
to a “partial statement” in the American Almanac for 1883, was
133,821. It is not clearly stated whether this includes those killed
on the field.

To the above should be added the losses in the Union and Confederate
navies, amounting in the case of the former to 4,030 killed and
wounded in action; 2,532 died of disease; and 2,070 other casualties.


THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND.

  INDEPENDENCE, Iowa.

  Will the Curiosity Shop please to give the origin of the Church of
  England, and an outline of its history?

  H. N. BAKER.

_Answer._—The history of the Church of England previous to the
Reformation is closely connected with that of the Roman Catholic
Church. Tradition states that some of the Apostles first carried
Christianity to Britain, and the later work was carried on by Sts.
Augustine, Aidan and Chad. From the eighth till the sixteenth century
the English Church was subject to Rome, and the final separation was
due to the extreme measures adopted at the Council of Trent. But
for 200 years the seed sown by Wycliffe had been bearing fruit and
preparing the people for the great work of Luther. From 1066 to 1356
there was a constant struggle between the civil and ecclesiastical
powers. Then came Wycliffe’s translation into English of the Bible,
and his continued war against some of the leading doctrines of the
Romish Church, which led to the formation of a new sect called the
Lollards, holding views similar to those of the present church.
Despite persecution the new doctrines spread, encouraged by Cranmer,
and later by Queen Elizabeth, until in 1562 the thirty-nine articles
of faith were finally reviewed and adopted, and Protestantism was
recognized as the religion of England. In 1801, by the “Act of
Union,” the Episcopal churches in England and Ireland were united but
the latter church was disestablished and disendowed in 1869.


WILLIAM WALLACE—ROBERT BRUCE.

  VALLEY, Wis.

  1. Will you please give a few of the principal facts in the life of
  Sir William Wallace? 2. Where and when did Robert Bruce die?

  E. F. MARSHALL.

_Answer._—1. Wallace was the younger son of a Scottish knight of
good family in the southwest of Scotland. Neither the date nor the
place of his birth is definitely known, but the former must have been
about 1270. There is nothing certain known of his early life. He
first comes into notice as the leader of an insurrectionary movement
against Edward I. who had usurped the regal rights of John Baliol,
King of Scotland, and held him a prisoner in the Tower of London. In
1297 the rebellion against Edward had become general, and Wallace,
resolved to force the liberation of Baliol and the independence
of Scotland, made preparations to invade England. On the 11th of
September he defeated the English forces under the Earl of Surrey
at Sterling Castle with great slaughter, and, pursuing them into
Cumberland and Northumberland, ravaged that portion of England. On
his return he was made Governor of Scotland, or Regent, in the name
of the imprisoned monarch. This elevation of a man of comparatively
humble birth over the nobility of Scotland excited fierce jealousy
among the latter, which undoubtedly had much to do with the defeat of
the Scots the subsequent year by the English King and an overwhelming
army at Falkirk, July 22. The war was continued with varying fortunes
for seven years, but in 1304 Edward compelled the Scots to submit,
granting amnesty to all the insurgent nobles. Wallace, however, was
excepted from amnesty, and, having been betrayed into the hands
of Edward by his own countrymen, he was carried to London, where,
after a mock trial on the charge of treason, and the endurance of
barbarities of the most savage nature, he was executed Aug. 23, 1305.
His name is held in reverence by all true Scots, who now concede to
him the glory of having roused the Scotch love of country, and led
the way to that sturdy resistance of English oppression which finally
resulted in averting the fate that overtook Ireland. A monument to
Wallace was erected at Abbey Craig, near Stirling, at a cost of
£13,000, and inaugurated Aug. 27, 1869. 2. Robert Bruce, King of
Scots, died at Cardross Castle, on the firth of Clyde, June 7, 1329.


ANNUAL EXPENDITURES OF THE UNITED STATES.

  DIXON, Ill.

  What has been the least expenditure of the United States Government
  in any single year since it was established; also what has been the
  greatest, and what has been the annual expenditure of each year
  since the war?

  A SUBSCRIBER.

_Answer._—The gross expenditures of the United States Government
in 1791 amounted to $3,797,436.78. This is the lowest sum, and the
next lowest was in 1793, $6,479,977.97. The greatest amount any
year before the great rebellion was in 1859, during Buchanan’s
administration, when his Secretary of War was so busy arming the
South, $83,678,642.92. The largest amount expended by the government
in any single year was in 1865. Beginning with that year the table
below shows the gross expenditures of the government year by year
down to June 30, 1882:

  1865    $1,906,443,331.37
  1866     1,139,344,081.95
  1867     1,093,079,655.27
  1868     1,069,889,970.74
  1869       584,777,996.11
  1870       702,907,842.88
  1871       691,680,858.90
  1872       682,525,270.21
  1873       524,044,597.91
  1874       724,698,933.99
  1875       682,000,885.32
  1876       714,446,357.39
  1877       565,299,898.91
  1878       590,641,271.70
  1879       966,393.692.69
  1880       700,233,238.19
  1881       425,865,222.64
  1882       529,627,739.12


TRUMAN HENRY SAFFORD.

  AURORA, Ill.

  What has become of that wonderful mathematician, T. H. Safford?
  Does he still retain those remarkable powers which distinguished
  him as a boy? Oblige several readers with a few facts as to his
  life.

  F. STRINGER.

_Answer._—Truman Henry Safford, once widely noticed as “the
remarkable boy mathematician,” was born at Royalton, Vt., Jan. 6,
1836, and graduated at Harvard in 1854. He compiled an almanac
when he was 9 years old, making all the astronomical and other
calculations. When he was but about 14 he calculated the elliptic
elements of the first comet of 1849. He was appointed in 1863 Adjunct
Observer in the Cambridge University, and two years later made
Acting Director. While at this observatory he determined the right
ascension of 1,700 stars and the declination of 450, and made 6,000
transit observations, besides completing Professor Bond’s report of
discoveries in the constellation Orion. On Dec. 28, 1865, he accepted
the post of director of the Chicago Observatory, where he remained
until 1878, making many observations of similar nature to the last
above named. He is now connected with Williams College.


HERO AND LEANDER.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  Please tell the story of Hero and Leander, illustrated in the
  picture displayed in a window on State street, corner of Adams.

  IGNORAMUS.

_Answer._—Hero was a priestess of Venus. Leander was a youth of
Abydos, a famous city on the Asiatic side of the strait of the
Hellespont, nearly opposite the city of Sestos on the European coast,
where he first saw Hero. It appears to have been a case of love at
first sight, and an intensely ardent case at that. Hero’s office
as priestess, and the resolute opposition of her parents stood in
the way of their union, cold and strong as the swift current of the
Hellespont, which at this its narrowest point, is swift and deep, and
about one and a quarter miles wide. Undaunted by all these obstacles,
Leander swam across the strait every night to visit his beloved, who
directed his course by holding a torch from the upper window of a
tower on the shore. After many delightful meetings, the dauntless
lover was drowned one stormy night, and his body was washed ashore at
the foot of the tower where Hero stood, expecting him. Heartbroken at
the sight, she flung herself from the tower into the sea, and passed
with her lover into the immortality of art and song.


XENOPHON AND GROTE.

  PETERSBURG, Ill.

  1. Please give a sketch of the lives of the historians, Xenophon
  and Grote. 2. Describe the scythed chariots of the Greeks and
  Persians.

  CONSTANT READER.

_Answer._—Xenophon, son of the Athenian, Gryllus, was born B. C.
445-4. He was a pupil of Socrates. He joined the expedition of
Cyrus against Artaxerxes, King of Persia, and in the retreat of the
ten thousand, following the battle of Cunaxa, became the leader
of the Greeks, after the treacherous execution of their former
generals. A full account of the expedition and retreat is given in
his “Anabasis.” Being banished from Athens soon after his return,
he joined the Spartan army, in which he fought against his own
countrymen at Coronea. He lived at Scillus, in Elis, for more than
twenty years (until driven thence by the Eleans), hunting, farming,
and writing. It was there that he wrote the “Anabasis” and the
“Hellenica.” The last years of his life were passed at Corinth, where
he died about 356 B. C. George Grote, politician, historian, and
philosopher, was born at Clay Hill, Beckenham, Kent, Eng., in 1794.
As a statesman he was in sympathy with the leading reforms of his
time, and made several effective speeches in their behalf. His first
work as an author was upon parliamentary reform. The preparation
of his history of Greece occupied thirteen years, and the last two
volumes were published in 1856. In 1865 appeared his work on Plato.
Thereafter he devoted himself to the study of Aristotle. 2. The
scythed chariot was used by the Britons and Persians. It had two
wheels connected by an axle, upon which rested, without springs, the
body of the chariot, consisting of a floor with a semi-circular guard
in front about three feet high. It had no seat, and was open at the
back. In it stood the warrior and his charioteer. Attached to the
rims of the wheels projecting on each side and bristling from the
axle were scythes or blades of swords for cutting down those who came
in the way.


FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE.

  ROBERTS, Ill.

  Tell us something of the birth, education, and work of Florence
  Nightingale, the famous hospital nurse.

  JAMES BOND.

_Answer._—She was born at Florence, Italy, in 1823, being the
daughter of William Shore Nightingale, Embly Park, Hampshire;
she was educated with great care, and was rather notable for her
brilliant accomplishments. Very early she showed great interest in
all institutions for the alleviation of suffering, and later visited
and inspected hospitals throughout Europe. She studied with Sisters
of Charity in Paris their system of nursing in the hospitals of
that city, and was trained also in the institution of Protestant
Deaconesses at Kaiserwerthen, on the Rhine. Later she organized the
Sanitarium for Governesses in London. Soon after the breaking out
of the Crimean war she offered to organize a nursing department at
Scutari, and with the consent of Lord Herbert left England Oct. 21,
1854, reaching Constantinople in time to take charge of the wounded
from the battle of Inkerman. In 1855 she was prostrated by a fever,
the result of overwork, but refused to rest, and remained in Scutari
until the English evacuated Turkey, July 28, 1856. The British army
almost idolized her. For some years Miss Nightingale has been an
invalid, but she has never ceased to plan and work for the welfare
of soldiers. At the close of the Crimean war a fund of $250,000 was
subscribed to enable her to establish a school for the training of
nurses, which is doing a noble work. She has published several books
bearing upon the work to which her life has been devoted.


ARTIFICIAL POULTRY BROODERS.

  WICHITA, Kan.

  What is an “artificial mother” or chicken brooder? Please tell us
  what it looks like and how to use it?

  AN OLD SUBSCRIBER.

_Answer._—There are two or three illustrations and descriptions
of chicken brooders, but they are all essentially the same thing.
Of course the nearer it comes to being a good substitute for the
hen mother the better it will be. Make a box about three or four
feet square and five or six inches deep, with a board top and a
sheet-iron, or, still better, a zinc bottom. Some tack a lamb skin,
drooping nearly to the bottom, to the top of this box and do not use
artificial heat; but the generally approved plan is to use one lamp
and tin flue like those used in the artificial incubator, hitherto
described, for warming a brooder of this size. Bore several small
auger holes through the top as escape flues for the heat; or, still
better, arrange three or four tin escape pipes of an inch diameter,
as was done in the “heater” of the incubator, dropping them down to
within a couple of inches of the bottom of the box. Next cut a strip
from some old blanket, or other coarse, soft woolen stuff, and tack
it around the lower edge of the box so that it will hang down about
four inches all round. Slash this at intervals of three or four
inches, so that the chicks can push through it. Now set blocks two
inches thick under two corners and three inches thick under the other
two corners, and your brooder is ready for use. Keep the temperature
up to 80 or 90 deg. Keep the box thoroughly clean, and move it
from one dry place to another every day or so. Dust the chicks
occasionally with sulphur or pyrethrum, to keep off vermin, and smear
their feathers here and there with paraffine. On one side of the
brooder there should be a “run” for the chicks to exercise in, which
may be a box covered with laths on top and sides, but with space next
the ground to allow them to run out. For protection against rats at
night cover the whole brooder with a close box perforated with small
auger-holes for ventilation.


RELIGIOUS STATISTICS OF CHICAGO.

  ROCKFORD, Ill.

  What is the present number of churches in Chicago? Does the
  increase of churches and church membership keep pace with the
  increase of population?

  MRS. W.

_Answer._.—Mr. E. F. Cragin, one of the officers of the
Congregational Club of this city, has given some attention to this
subject, and at the last meeting of the club presented the following
figures, based on the census and the number of churches and church
members, computed from the best data at hand:

         Churches                        Ratio of
           and                           Members
  Year.  Missions.  Year.  Population.   to Pop.

  1840       6      1840       4,479     1 to 747
  1851      28      1850      28,269     1 to 1,009
  1862      84      1860     109,260     1 to 1,301
  1870     187      1870     298,977     1 to 1,599
  1880     242      1880     503,185     1 to 2,079

These figures include Protestant and Roman Catholic churches, Jewish
synagogues, two Mormon churches, several Spiritualists societies,
and indeed, every society listed in our city directory as religious
organizations. There are 188 of the 242 churches given for 1880,
which are classed by Mr. Cragin as Evangelical Protestants, of which
38 have services conducted in foreign languages. The population
between 6 and 21 years is given as 155,000, while the total
membership of Sunday schools is but 81,289. By way of postscript Mr.
Cragin remarks that the number of arrests in 1882 was over 33,000, or
1 to 18 of the population.


BRUNO, THE PANTHEIST.

  NORTHWOOD, Iowa.

  Who was “the Philosopher Bruno?”

  L. O. HARMON.

_Answer._—Giordano Bruno, the leader of the modern school of
pantheistic philosophy, was born at Nola, Naples, about the middle of
the sixteenth century. He joined the order of the Dominican Monks,
but becoming dissatisfied with some of their doctrines, was expelled.
He fled first to Geneva, thence to Paris, and finally to England,
meeting with opposition and persecution. In 1585 he returned to
Paris, and in the next year went to Germany, where he studied and
taught. Becoming dissatisfied there, he settled in Padua, Italy, but
was soon after arrested in Venice by officers of the Inquisition,
and burned at Rome in 1600. 2. A sketch of Socrates has rarely been
given. 3. The Credit Mobilier is also fully explained in the bound
volume of “The Curiosity Shop” for 1880.


CITIZENS’ LEAGUE—TEMPERANCE ARGUMENTS.

  MOUNT MORRIS, Ill.

  Favor us with a statement of the precise objects and scope of the
  Citizens’ League of Illinois, and the chief provisions of its
  constitution and by-laws: as we may conclude to form a branch
  organization here.

  W. P. J.

_Answer._—The organization is called “The Citizens’ League of the
State of Illinois.” Its objects are the suppression of the sale
of liquors to minors and drunkards, and the enforcement of the
liquor laws. These objects it aims to effect (1) by enforcing all
existing laws and ordinances, prohibiting the selling or giving of
intoxicating liquors to minors or drunkards, and prohibiting minors
from playing games in places where liquors are sold, (2) by adopting
from time to time such other means as may be deemed necessary, or
as may in experience be found advisable for the accomplishment of
the general purposes of the organization, which is the saving of our
youth from habits of dissipation and vice, and, (3) by organizing
and fostering, especially in every county seat in Illinois, local
leagues, having the same object in view.

Any local league in Illinois, the name of which contains the words
“The Citizens’ League” in addition to words of distinction, and
the constitution of which is in harmony with the object of the
above association, as expressed in section 2 of article 1 of its
constitution, may become a constitutional branch of this league on
the payment of $10 per annum, with power to send three delegates to
each league meeting.

This organization was founded Nov. 25, 1877, immediately after the
riots that were so prevalent throughout the country, commencing
with the terrible outbreak at Pittsburg, Pa., in July of that year.
Prominent citizens of Chicago observed that nearly all the actors
in the gangs of rowdies and loafers that entered manufactories and
other business places, commanding employes to stop work, were youths
under 20 years of age. An investigation of the causes of juvenile
depravity was instituted. They learned that of the 28,035 persons
arrested for crime in Chicago in the year 1877 no less than 6,818
were under 20 years of age, and that 1,782 of these were committed
to the Bridewell. They also learned that in that year the arrests
of minors had increased 720, and the commitments of minors to the
Bridewell had increased 200 over the number in the preceding year.
With a view of verifying these figures and learning the causes of
this wholesale demoralization of the young, they made extensive
tours of observation through the city by day and by night, and they
soon satisfied themselves that it was the liquor and beer saloons
that were transforming the youth of Chicago into vagrants and
desperadoes. They found scarcely a saloon in which there were no
juvenile customers, while in one of them they found 78, in another
93, and in another 147 children, patronizing the bar like adults.
Subsequently detectives were posted at the doors of six prominent
concert saloons on the same evening, with instructions to count all
the people who entered them between 7 p. m. and midnight. At one
door there were counted 1,680 males, 290 females, total, 1,979; at
another, 1,423 males, 58 females, total, 1,741; at another, 2,609
males, 254 females, total, 2,863; at another, 2,658 males, 148
females, total, 2,806; at another, 1,657 males, 163 females, total,
1,820, and at another, 1,591 males, 94 females, total, 1,685. It
was found impracticable to make a separate count of the minors who
entered these places on that evening, but it was plainly seen that of
these 11,618 male and 1,007 female customers an astonishingly large
proportion were boys and girls. And as there were at that time about
3,000 saloons in the city, it was estimated that not less than 30,000
of the children of Chicago were their regular patrons. The police
confirmed this estimate and asserted that, in face of State laws and
city ordinances positively prohibiting the sale of beer and liquor to
minors, which were regarded as dead-letter laws, there were saloon
keepers who made a practice of tempting children into saloons and
making them drunk. The first overt act of the league was the arrest
of one of these monsters named Baker Born, who had been guilty of
enticing into his saloon nine little boys, who were on their way home
from Sunday school, and making them drunk. He was arraigned before
Justice Daniel Scully and promptly fined $25 and costs. The league
drew great inspiration from the public indignation which Born’s crime
excited, and from the promptness with which he was punished; and from
that time to the present it has gone steadily forward, increasing
every year in activity, influence and popularity. The following table
contains a succinct statement of its operations (prosecutions and
outlay) for the first four years of its existence;

  —————————————————+——————+——————+——————+——————+——————
                   | 1878.| 1879.| 1880.| 1881.|Total.
  —————————————————+——————+——————+——————+——————+——————
  Saloon-keepers   |   241|   166|    96|   233|   736
  To Grand Jury    |    81|    90|    50|    60|   281
  Fined by Justice |    83|    85|    13|    83|   264
  Annual Outlay    |$1,400|$1,600|$1,240|$1,542|$5,781
  —————————————————+——————+——————+——————+——————+——————

During the first five months of 1882, 500 saloon-keepers were
prosecuted. Of this number, 40 were sent to the Grand Jury, 294 were
fined by justices, and 35 held for trial.

The effect of the operations of the league on the morals of the youth
of Chicago was instantaneous and permanent. In 1876 the arrests of
minors increased 960, and in 1877 they increased 720; but in 1878,
the first year of the league’s existence, they decreased 1,418, and
in 1879 they decreased 139. And although they have increased slightly
in the last two years, the increase is amply accounted for by the
policy of the city government and the increase of the population,
which increased 204,208 in the last decade, against 188,004 in
the previous decade. But notwithstanding both of these adverse
influences, there have never been as many minors arrested in Chicago
in any year since 1877 as there were in that year. The reduction in
the commitments of minors to the Bridewell was even more marked.
In 1876 these commitments increased 192, and in 1877 they increased
255. But ever since the league was organized they have constantly
decreased. They decreased 211 in 1878; 324 in 1879; 23 in 1880; and
17 in 1881.

For a pamphlet containing an address detailing the origin,
operations, and successes of this league, and a copy of its
constitution and by-law, address the Citizens’ League of Illinois,
127 LaSalle street, Chicago.


HOW TO SECURE A COPYRIGHT.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  I desire to copyright a play. How shall I proceed? What length
  of time will it require, and what will it cost? State any other
  particulars that are important.

  U. R. AKERSTROM.

_Answer._—Every applicant for a copyright must state distinctly the
name and residence of the claimant, and whether right is claimed
as author, designer, or proprietor. A printed copy of the title of
the book, map, chart, dramatic or musical composition, engraving,
cut, print, or photograph, or a description of the painting,
drawing, chromo, statue, statuary, or model or design for work of
the fine arts, for which copyright is desired, must be sent by
mail or otherwise, prepaid, addressed, “Librarian of Congress,
Washington, D. C.” This must be done before publication of the book
or other article. Publication in this connection means the giving
to the public or vending of the article. A fee of 50 cents for
recording the title of the book, dramatic composition, or other
article must be inclosed with the title and application, and 50
cents in addition for each certificate of copyright under seal of
the Librarian of Congress, which will be transmitted by early mail.
One certificate being all that is usually needed, $1 is the total
necessary inclosure. Within ten days after publication of the book
or other article, two complete copies must be sent prepaid to the
Librarian of Congress, to perfect the copyright. Without the deposit
of these copies, not only is the copyright void, but a penalty of
$25 is incurred. No copyright is valid unless notice is given by
inserting in every copy published the following words: “Entered
according to act of Congress in the year 18—, by ——, in the office
of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington;” or else the words:
“Copyright, 18—, by ——.” The law imposes a penalty of $100 upon any
person who inserts the above words or others of the same import, in
or upon any book or other article before he has obtained copyright.
Each copyright secures the exclusive right of publishing the book or
article for twenty-eight years. Six months before the end of that
time, the author or designer, or his widow or children, may secure a
renewal for the further term of fourteen years.


NIHILISM.

  ATHENS, Tenn.

  What is the true meaning of Nihilism?

  S. C. BRUNER.

_Answer._—There is no authoritative definition of Nihilism. Certain
of their leaders define it very differently from others. All of
them seem to be pretty well agreed that society as now constituted
is utterly wrong from foundation to turret, and most of them are in
favor of overturning existing governments, casting to the winds the
prevailing conceptions of individual, family, and social rights, and
returning to a state of anarchy, if need be, to begin the work of
reconstruction anew. _Nihil_ is a Latin word signifying _nothing_,
and the name Nihilists is applied to these radical revolutionists by
the world at large as indicative of the tendency of their doctrines
and political operations, including as they do the assassination of
rulers, the springing of mines, and the firing of palaces, government
offices, and even towns and cities, in the effort to annihilate all
existing doctrines and systems of government. Communism and Socialism
were defined in these columns but a week or two ago.


CLYDESDALES AND NORMANS.

  OSKALOOSA, Iowa.

  State the origin of the Clydesdale and Norman breeds of horses, and
  whether it is proper to call them thoroughbreds?

  T. J. CASTO.

_Answer._—The Norman horses are named from Normandy, France, and,
although distinguished by different names, are probably all of one
blood, the names only being of local origin. James M. Hiatt, in the
“National Register of Norman Horses,” maintains that the Percherons
are derived from the Boulonnais and the Breton horses, the former
of Bourbourg, France, and the latter of Bretagne. The Clydesdale
horse takes its name from a district on the Clyde, in Scotland,
where it was introduced by one of the dukes of Hamilton, who crossed
the native Lanark mares with fine heavy Flemish stallions. It is
proper to speak of “thoroughbred Norman horses,” or “thoroughbred
Clydesdales,” but when the term thoroughbred is used without any
qualifying word it is understood to refer to horses bred for speed,
with undisputed pedigree in the Stud-book.


DESERT LAND ACT.

  RAPID CITY, D. T.

  Is there a “Desert Land Act” under which our government disposes of
  public lands? If so, please explain it.

  A. F. COFFEY.

_Answer._—Desert lands are such as will not produce crops without
artificial irrigation. The act of March 3, 1877, provides that
persons may make entry of such lands in the States of California,
Oregon, and Nevada, and the Territories. The applicant for such land
must file a declaration that he is a citizen, that he intends within
three years to reclaim the said tract of desert land by conducting
water thereon. It must be shown by two witnesses, in writing, that
the tract comes within the statutory description of desert lands. At
the end of three years, on proof that the land has been reclaimed by
irrigation, a patent will issue for it on payment of 25 cents an acre.


REDUCTION OF THE NATIONAL DEBT.

  VALLEY CENTER, Kan.

  At the present rate of reduction how long will it take to
  extinguish the public debt?

  W. W. TURNER.

_Answer._—There never has been any uniform rate of reduction of the
National debt. It varies with the changes in the revenue laws, the
business of the country, and appropriations from the Treasury for
other purposes. The pension arrears act has already retarded the
payment of the debt by over $100,000,000, and will continue to be a
heavy drain for years to come. The recent reduction of the tariff and
internal revenue taxes will reduce the National income greatly. The
total debt at the highest point, Aug. 31, 1865, was $2,844,649,626;
on Aug. 31, 1880, fifteen years later, it was $2,105,386,267. This
shows an average reduction of nearly $50,000,000 a year. For the two
years ending June 30, 1882, the reduction was $202,103,376, or over
$101,000,000 per annum. With the recent reductions of the tariff and
internal revenue and the heavy drafts for pensions it is not likely
that this rate of debt reduction will be maintained, a rate which
would extinguish the whole debt by the year 1900. It is proper to add
that, deducting cash in the Treasury August 31, 1865, amounting to
$88,218,055, the net debt at the highest point was $2,756,431,571.


ELECTRIC TELEGRAPHING.

  KANKAKEE, Ill.

  When, where, and by whom was the first electric telegraphing done?

  A. B. DALE.

_Answer._—Professor Morse sent the first message by the electric
telegraph, from Washington to Baltimore, May 27, 1844. The printing
telegraph was suggested in 1837 by Alfred Vail, and a model was made
by Wheatstone four years later, but this process of telegraphy has
never gone into general use.


NORDENSKJOLD, THE DISCOVERER.

  HOLLAND CITY, Mich.

  Please give a short sketch of Professor Nordenskjold, giving date
  of his discoveries in the Arctic regions.

  SUBSCRIBER.

_Answer._—Adolph Eric Nordenskjold (born 1832), was educated at
the University of Borgo, and afterward studied at Helsingfors, an
important naval station on the Baltic. After teaching mathematics
for two years, he was cashiered for his political opinions in 1855,
but returned in the following year only to be again driven from
the country. In 1858, however, he was appointed State Mineralogist
at Stockholm, and in 1867 he married Countess Anna Mannerheim, a
Finnish lady—an event that led him to seek an appointment to the
chair of Mineralogy and Geology at Helsingfors, but the government
again refused for political reasons. Nordenskjold now obtained
naturalization papers as a Swedish citizen, and entered Swedish
politics. He sailed in the Vega, to find a northeast passage, July 4,
1878, and reached Yokohama, via the discovered passage, in September,
1879.


COMMUNISM AND SOCIALISM.

  ATHENS, Tenn.

  What is the meaning of communism and socialism as used in the
  newspapers?

  A READER.

_Answer._.—Communism is the doctrine that society should be
reorganized on the basis of abolishing individual ownership of
property and control of wages, and most of the now generally admitted
rights of individuals in their private and domestic relations, and
substituting therefor community ownership and control of every person
and everything. Socialism is a sort of limited communism. It would
not entirely abolish individual rights of property and personal
self-control, but seeks to force a more equitable distribution of
property, and level the present extreme distinctions between men
of various classes. To effect their purpose radical socialists
have rendered themselves obnoxious to many who would accept most
of the principles laid down by their great leader, Saint Simon, by
advocating resort to revolutionary methods of the most reprehensible
kinds, including in some places the use of dynamite and the
assassin’s dagger.


BISHOP FALLOWS.

  EARLVILLE, Ill.

  Please give a brief outline of the life of Bishop Fallows.

  S. C. HILTON.

_Answer._—Samuel Fallows, D. D., born in England in 1835, was in 1859
ordained to the ministry of the M. E. Church. During the civil war he
was promoted to the rank of Brigadier General. He was for seven years
Regent of Wisconsin University; later President of Illinois Wesleyan
University, and, while editor of the _Appeal_, was chosen Bishop
of the Reformed Episcopal Church, July 1, 1876, of which he is now
recognized as one of the ablest prelates and most eloquent orators.


MUSHROOM AND TOADSTOOL.

  RAVANNA, Mo.

  What is a mushroom, and what is the difference between it and a
  frogstool? Give a description of each.

  A READER.

_Answer._—A mushroom is a genus of fungi, including many species,
edible and poisonous. It grows in marshy places during the warm
months. Often the name is restricted to the species used as food,
which is regularly convex, fleshy, dry, and white, with a tinge of
brown or yellow. It is smooth or scaly on the upper surface, never
warty; on the under side the gills are pink when young, and later
turn brown. Toward the top of the fleshy stem is a white, membraneous
ring. The plant is best for food when young, being then in the form
of a ball, covered with a thin membrane. The toadstool (“frogstool”)
resembles the mushroom, but the top is shiny, white, or dark red, and
the gills are perpendicular. This species is poisonous.


STATE SECURITY FOR UNITED STATES LOANS.

  MOULTRIE, Ohio.

  Was there a time in the history of our General Government when its
  credit was so low that it was necessary for one or more States to
  go security for a loan made by it?

  S. R. ROOSE.

_Answer._—There has been no such time since the adoption of the
present Constitution. The nearest the Federal Government ever
came to such a humiliation was in 1860, when, through the cutting
down of the tariff in 1857 and the outrageous expenditures during
President Buchanan’s administration, the National debt had swelled
to over $64,000,000, and money could not be raised on United States
Treasury notes at less than 10, 11, and finally 12 per cent interest.
Then John A. Dix, who succeeded Cobb as Secretary of the Treasury,
about the close of 1860, found the public credit so low that, in
desperation, he recommended to the Committee of Ways and Means that
the States be asked to secure the repayment of money which the
government should borrow, by pledging the repayment for this purpose
of the public deposits received by them in the distribution of the
surplus in the United States Treasury in 1836. However, Congress did
not adopt this recommendation.

During the revolutionary times, before and under the old Articles
of Confederation, Congress had no authority to levy and collect
taxes and customs dues, as it has now. Various plans for raising
money were discussed, all dependent on the sanction of the several
colonial or State Legislatures. The first plan resorted to for using
the credit of the General Government was to issue paper money. Three
modes of doing this were considered: First, “That every colony should
strike for itself the sum apportioned by the Continental Congress;
secondly, that the Continental Congress should strike the whole sum
necessary, and each colony become bound to sink its proportionable
part; thirdly, that the Continental Congress should strike the whole
sum, and apportion the several shares to the different Colonies,”
every Colony becoming bound to discharge its own particular part,
and all the Colonies to discharge the portion which any particular
Colony should be unable to pay. The views of the delegates were
widely divergent, but Congress decided, June 22, 1775—more than
a year before the Declaration of Independence—to issue bills of
credit, not exceeding 2,000,000 Spanish milled dollars, pledging
the faith of the twelve Confederate Colonies for their redemption.
The sum was subsequently increased to $3,000,000, and apportioned,
on the basis of population, among the Colonies that had joined the
confederation—not then including Georgia—as follows:

  Colonies.              Amount.

  New Hampshire        $124,069.50
  Massachusetts Bay     434,244.00
  Rhode Island           71,959.50
  Connecticut            48,139.00
  New York              245,139.00
  New Jersey            161,290.50
  Pennsylvania          372,208.50
  Delaware               37,219.50
  Maryland              310,174.50
  Virginia              496,278.00
  North Carolina        248,139.00
  South Carolina        248,139.00

Each Colony was to pay its respective quota in four equal annual
installments, commencing on the last day of November, 1779; and for
this purpose each was to levy and collect taxes. But, though from
first to last the States insisted upon retaining the power to tax,
and Congress was obliged to trust wholly to them for funds raised
in this manner, they did not tax themselves, as they were in duty
bound to do, and neither contributed as they should have done to
sustain the National Government, nor raised much to sustain their own
organizations, civil and military. “Throughout the entire period from
1774 to 1789,” says Bolles, “only very small sums flowed into the
general treasury from the State treasuries.”

In the spring of 1780 Congress resolved, after a great many
whereases, “to receive silver and gold in payment of the quotas
assigned to the States, at the rate of one Spanish milled dollar in
lieu of $40 of the bills then in circulation.” Subsequent loans were
made, and the debt apportioned among the several States; but the
latter paid but a trifling part of their assessments, as shown by
the following table, giving the assessment on each State on account
of the requisition of Congress for $8,000,000 in November, 1781, and
the amount actually paid to the end of 1783, as given in “Bolles’
Financial History of the United States,” vol. I.:

  State.            Assessment.        Am’t paid.

  New Hampshire        $373,598         $3,000.00
  Massachusetts       1,307,596        247,676.66
  Rhode Island          216,684         67,847.95
  Connecticut           747,196        131,577.83
  New York              373,598         39,064.01
  New Jersey            485,679        102,004.95
  Pennsylvania        1,120,794        346,632.98
  Delaware              112,085         .........
  Maryland              993,996         89,302.11
  Virginia            1,307,594        116,103.53
  North Carolina        622,677         .........
  South Carolina        373,598        344,301.57
  Georgia                24,905         .........
                     ——————————     —————————————
                     $8,000,000     $1,486,154.71

On the other hand, in justice to the “Fathers,” it should be stated
that the several States expended large sums on their individual
accounts, for sustaining the common cause against Great Britain,
aggregating, it was estimated, about $25,000,000; $18,271,786,47 of
which Congress assumed in 1790, after the States had surrendered to
the Federal Government the right to levy and collect all tariffs on
foreign imports. The indebtedness incurred by the States for the
Revolutionary cause and thus assumed by the United States is shown in
the following table:

  New Hampshire                    $282,595.51
  Rhode Island                      200,000.00
  Massachusetts                   3,981,733.05
  Connecticut                     1,600,000.00
  New York                        1,183,716.69
  New Jersey                        695,202.70
  Pennsylvania                      777,983.48
  Delaware                           59,161.65
  Maryland                          517,491.08
  Virginia, including Kentucky    2,934,416.00
  North Carolina                  1,793,803.85
  South Carolina                  3,999,651.73
  Georgia                           246,030.73
                                ——————————————
                                $18,271,786.47

The foreign loans made by the United States during the revolutionary
war pledged the faith of all the States. These amounted in toto
to $150,000 from the Spanish Government; about 8,000,000 guilders
by subscription in Holland, and 18,000,000 livres from the French
Government, besides the free gifts of the French King, “forming an
object,” wrote Franklin, “of at least 12,000,000 livres, from which
no returns but that of gratitude and friendship are expected. These,
I hope, may be everlasting.”


ORIGIN OF JOURNALISM.

  PARIS, Texas.

  1. Were any newspapers or periodicals published before the
  invention of printing? 2. Give a short sketch of the advancement of
  journalism.

  FRANK LEE.

_Answer._—1. At a very early period daily news letters were
circulated, concerning public and official acts, in Rome, Venice, and
China. 2. The first printed newspaper was the _Gazette_, published
in Nuremberg in 1457, and the oldest paper extant is the _Neue
Zeitung aus Hispanien und Italien_, printed in the same city in 1534.
Other countries followed Germany in issuing printed newspapers in
the following order: England in 1622; France, 1631; Sweden, 1644;
Holland, 1656; Russia, 1703; Turkey, 1827. The progress of journalism
has been most rapid in America. The first American newspaper
consisting of three pages of two columns each and a blank page, was
published in Boston, Sept. 25, 1690, under the name of “Publick
Occurences, both Foreign and Domestic,” but it was immediately
suppressed. In 1704 the Boston _News Letter_ appeared, printed on one
sheet of foolscap paper. It flourished for seventy-two years. The
following data will show the advancement in the United States:

  First printing office in 1639.
  First newspaper in 1690.
  First political newspaper in 1733.
  First daily paper in 1784.
  First penny paper in 1833.
  First illustrated paper in 1853.

In 1880 there were published in America (United States and Canada)
10,131 newspapers and periodicals—899 dailies, 8,428 weeklies,
tri-weeklies and semi-weeklies, and 804 monthlies and semi-monthlies.
More than 6,000 of this number belong to the United States, and the
annual circulation is about 1,500,000,000.


WHO VOTE IN GREAT BRITAIN.

  GLENVILLE, Minn.

  What class of persons are allowed to vote for members of Parliament
  in Great Britain?

  T. W.

_Answer._—The “Commons of England” consists of the representatives of
shires or counties, representatives of cities, and representatives
of boroughs. For representatives of boroughs every man is entitled
to vote who is of full age and not subject to any legal incapacity,
provided he is on the last day of July in any year, and has during
the whole of the preceding twelve months been an “inhabitant
occupier,” as owner or tenant, of any dwelling-house within the
borough; has during the time of such occupation been rated (or taxed)
“as an ordinary occupier in respect of the premises so occupied by
him within the borough to all rates made for the relief of the poor
in respect of such premises,” and has paid the said rate; or has
occupied as a lodger in the same borough separately, and as sole
tenant for the time above designated, “a part of one and the same
dwelling house, of a clear yearly value, if let unfurnished, of £10
or upward.” For representatives of counties any man may be registered
as a voter who is of full age, and not subject to any legal
incapacity, who shall be in possession at law or in equity of any
lands or tenements, of copyhold, or any other tenure whatever, except
freehold, for his own lifetime or for the life of another or for any
larger estate of the clear yearly value of not less than £5 over and
above all rents and charges, who is on the last day of July of any
year (and has been during the preceding twelve months) the occupier
as owner or tenant of lands or tenements within the county of the
ratable value of £12 or upward, and has paid all poor rates rated to
him. The qualifications of city electors are not materially different
from those above given. Of the 487 members for England and Wales,
187 represent counties, 295 cities and boroughs, and 5 represent the
three universities.

The qualifications of electors in Scotland and Ireland are somewhat
different. In Scotland, the burgher franchise is given to every man
of full age who has been for twelve months an occupier, as owner
or tenant, of any dwelling, and has paid his poor rates, and not
been in receipt of parochial relief during that time. The lodger
franchise consists in the permission of any lodger to vote who has
occupied in the same burgh separately, and as sole tenant for twelve
months, a lodging worth £10. In the counties the ownership franchise
requires the property to be worth an annual net rental of £5, and
a residential qualification of six months. In Ireland the borough
franchise requires a lodging of the value of £4, where in England it
must be at least £10, the other qualifications being similar to those
required in England.


TYPE-WRITERS.

  CHAPIN, Iowa.

  What are the advantages gained by the use of type-writers? By whom
  were they invented, and where?

  G. W. ADAMS.

_Answer._—Perhaps the earliest form of a type-writer is a rude
machine invented in England in 1714, without any practical fruits.
M. Foucault, sent to the Paris Exposition of 1855 a writing machine
for the blind; but the first of what are now popularly known as
type-writers was patented in 1868, by C. L. Sholes, of Wisconsin.
This has been improved until now it is possible to attain a speed
of seventy-five to eighty words a minute in writing with this
machine, which is fast enough for reporting speeches. The principal
advantages gained are rapidity of execution and legibility. A
type-writer can write with both hands and several fingers in instant
succession, every letter being made with a single light touch instead
of requiring from three to seven distinct strokes and dots, as in
ordinary script.


NOT ONE CENT FOR TRIBUTE.

  EAU CLAIRE, Wis.

  By whom and when was the remark used: “Millions for defense, but
  not one cent for tribute”?

  JOHN J. MAGINNIS.

_Answer._.—An ill-feeling grew up between the United States and
France soon after the breaking out of the great French revolution,
near the close of the last century. France seemed determined that our
government should take active part with it in hostilities against
Great Britain. Washington and the Federal party insisted on strict
neutrality. The French Minister, Citizen Genet, encouraged by the
strong French sympathies of the Republicans of those days and the
almost universal ill-feeling toward Great Britain, undertook to set
President Washington’s proclamation of neutrality at defiance by an
appeal to the people, encouraged the organization of secret political
societies opposed to the administration, and even instituted
recruiting for the French army on American soil. His course became so
obnoxious that Washington demanded his recall. M. Fauchet was sent to
succeed him, but the ill-feeling rather increased than diminished. In
1796 Charles C. Pinckney, of South Carolina, one of our revolutionary
heroes, was sent to France as United States Minister, charged, among
other matters, to negotiate a settlement of all differences, on the
basis of American neutrality. The French Directory treated him with
an incivility almost unbearable, and finally ordered him to quit the
country. He withdrew to Amsterdam for a time, but, on some change
of affairs in France, returned in the early part of 1797, when
Talleyrand, the French Minister of Foreign Affairs, declined to treat
further until his government had received a payment from the United
States in the nature of a present or tribute, and threatened war as
the consequence of a refusal. Thereupon Pinckney gave utterance to
the patriotic exclamation, “War be it then; millions for defense,
sir, but not a cent for tribute.” These words were caught up by the
administration party at home and echoed and re-echoed throughout the
land until, in 1798, Congress was nerved to provide a strong naval
armament. Later Washington, who had been succeeded in the Presidency
by John Adams, was called to the chief command of the army, several
French vessels were captured in reprisal for damages inflicted
on American citizens, and an open declaration of war was daily
looked for, when Napoleon I. came into power, and France, satisfied
that the United States was in stern earnest, made overtures for
reconciliation, which resulted in the treaty of 1800, honorable to
all concerned.


RAINFALL OF THE UNITED STATES.

  MASON, Ill.

  Please give the rainfall in different portions of the United States.

  T. M. TRIPLETT.

_Answer._—There is a small circle in Central Florida where the
annual rainfall ranges from sixty to seventy inches. There is a
belt covering Western Alabama, Eastern Mississippi, also Southern
Louisiana for fifty to sixty miles on either side of the Mississippi
River, where it measures from sixty to sixty-four inches. But the
heaviest rainfall in the United States is in Alaska, where it is over
eighty inches, and along the western coast of Oregon and Washington
Territory, between the Cascade Range and the Pacific, increasing
from sixty-eight inches south of the Columbia River to eighty
inches on Puget Sound. In Central Georgia and South Carolina it is
fifty-two to forty-eight; in Central North Carolina and Virginia,
diminishing northward, it is forty-eight to thirty-six. Along the
Atlantic coast, for about seventy-five miles inward, it ranges from
forty-four inches at Savannah to forty in Connecticut, and thence
increases to forty-four in Northern Maine. Along both flanks of the
Alleghanies and Blue Ridge it is nearly uniform at 40. In most of
the region south of the Ohio and Missouri, from Eastern Tennessee to
Eastern Texas, it ranges from 48 inches in the south to 44 in the
north, and the latter is about the average for Southern Indiana and
Southwestern Ohio. The average for Illinois and Northern Indiana
and Pennsylvania is about 40. For Western New York, Northern Ohio,
lower Michigan, Wisconsin, Southeastern Minnesota, and most of Iowa
it ranges from 40 to 32, diminishing toward the great lakes. West
of the Missouri it ranges from 30 inches in Eastern Kansas to 26
in Dakota, and diminishes toward the Rocky Mountains. In Southern
Texas it ranges from 48 near the southeastern corner to 28 on the
Rio Grande, and diminishes to 34 in the northeastern, and 29 in the
northwestern corners. In California the rainfall ranges from 60
inches on the northern coast to 9 or 10 in the south, and diminishes
inland to 8 or 10 in the mountain districts, and still less in the
desert regions. As for the greater part of the region embracing all
the Territories except Alaska, Washington, and Southeastern Dakota,
all of Colorado and Nevada, the western parts of Kansas, Nebraska
and Dakota, and the eastern portion of Oregon, the rainfall varies
between 10 inches and 22. Here and there within this region there are
districts almost rainless. This is most common in Northern Arizona
and Utah.


PESTALOZZI AND FROEBEL.

  DUNLAP, Iowa.

  Please give a short sketch of the lives of the three noted
  educational reformers, Pestalozzi, F. Froebel, and Horace Mann.

  JOHN KEITGES.

_Answer._—Pestalozzi, the famous Swiss educator, was born at Zurich
Jan. 12, 1746. In his youth he was evidently undecided as to what
profession to follow. He was first a theological student and then
a law student. Having purchased some waste land, he turned from
the law to farming, where he became interested in the welfare of
the masses and devoted himself, during the intervals of his work,
to promoting their elevation. Convinced that a rational system of
education would remedy many of the evils of society, he converted his
own house into an orphan asylum, and strove, by judicious blending
of industrial, intellectual, and moral training, to illustrate his
theory of a sound system of national education. The great idea at the
basis of his system of instruction was the necessity of teaching by
object lessons. Objects themselves, and not lessons about objects,
were the means that he used to develop the observing and reasoning
powers. He gave special attention to the moral and religious
training of children, as something distinct from mere instruction
in morals and religion. For two years Froebel, the father of the
kindergarten system, was his pupil and assistant teacher. He died at
Brugg, Switzerland, in 1827. Friedrich Wilhelm A. Froebel, to whom
reference has just been made, was born at Ober-Weissbach, Germany,
April 21, 1782. When sent to school he was so dull that his father,
growing discouraged, took him from study and sent him to work among
the wood-cutters in the forest. Here he became a student of nature
and advanced, as Pestalozzi, upon his farm, to the idea of teaching
from nature. In 1799 he went to school again, but falling into debt,
was imprisoned by his creditors. Soon after his release he became a
pupil and assistant of Pestalozzi, remaining with this great master
from 1807 to 1809. He then began the study of the natural sciences,
but was interrupted by the German and French war of 1813, in which
he enlisted for fatherland. On the restoration of peace he became
curator of the Museum of Mineralogy, under Professor Weiss, at
Berlin. A few years later he began his life as a teacher, which,
in 1826, the year previous to the death of Pestalozzi, he varied
by publishing a work entitled “The Education of Man.” In this book
he declared that man’s life was a succession of stages, each of
which should be progressive. He was especially impressed with the
importance of the first years of childhood as the period in which
to give shape to all their after development. In 1837 he established
the first kindergarten school, at Blankenburg. Having noticed the
restlessness of children, and tendency to finger everything, he took
advantage of these traits to arouse in them a spirit of intelligent
inquiry and investigation. Much of his time was given, in schools of
Germany and Switzerland, to training primary teachers. In the latter
part of his life he gave special attention to the training of young
female teachers, believing them to be best calculated by nature for
the care and management of young children. During the revolutionary
period of 1848, at a time when, through the influence of the great
Middendorff, who had become interested in his kindergarten work, he
hoped to enlist the support of the German Parliament in his system
of teaching, he and his brother Karl were charged with socialistic
tendencies, and an edict was issued forbidding the establishment of
schools “after Friedrich and Karl Froebel’s principles” in Prussia.
This blow utterly disheartened the veteran educator, and he died in
June, 1852, at Marienthal.

A sketch of the life of Horace Mann will be found in Our Curiosity
Shop for 1882.


GENERALS A. S. AND JOSEPH E. JOHNSTON.

  BLAINE, Iowa.

  Please give a brief outline of the lives of General A. S. Johnston
  and Joseph E. Johnston.

  READER.

_Answer._—Albert Sydney Johnston served honorably in the United
States army in Mexico and Utah, and at the outbreak of the civil war
was appointed General in the Confederate army. He was killed in the
battle of Shiloh, April 6, 1862, at the age of 59. His native State
was Kentucky. General Joe Johnston was born in Virginia in 1807, and,
after completing the course of study at West Point, fought in the
Seminole and Mexican wars. Receiving the position of Major General
in the Confederate army, he proved himself a dangerous foe in the
Peninsular campaign, in Tennessee, and Carolina. He surrendered to
General Sherman April 26, 1865.


COLD IN DAKOTA.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  In the interview with Mr. Geo. B. Armstrong, Register of the
  Government land office at Huron, D. T., recently published in
  THE INTER OCEAN, he asserts, substantially, that it is colder in
  Chicago with the mercury 5 deg. below zero than it is in Huron with
  the mercury 35 to 38 deg. below. A number of us, who swear by the
  Curiosity Shop, have got into a dispute over this statement and all
  agree to leave it to the editor of “the shop” to decide the matter.
  The question is: Is it as cold in Huron, D. T., as in this city, on
  the average?

  G. H.

_Answer._—In one sense of the word, it is unquestionably colder in
Huron than in Chicago. But Mr. Armstrong has not left our readers in
doubt as to his meaning. He distinctly says: “With the mercury in
the thermometer as low as 35 and 38 degrees below zero, we do not
suffer so much as the people in Chicago with the thermometer at 5
degrees below zero. The air is dry and comfortable.” Here he clearly
discriminates between the cold of the atmosphere and the sense of
cold experienced by human beings. There is no ground for dispute as
to the comparative average winter cold of the climate of Southern
Dakota in and about Huron, and the same at Chicago. The thermometer
shows that the former is several degrees greater than the latter. But
taking cold in the second sense of the word, “the sensation produced
by the escape of heat” from the body; “chilliness or chillness”—see
Webster’s second definition—every one knows by actual experience that
this depends to a considerable degree upon the dryness and stillness
of the atmosphere and the state of the body. Exposed to a high wind
in humid atmosphere not more than 5 or 6 degrees below zero, a person
may freeze to death, when he would endure 35 or 40 degrees below
zero in a dry, still air without serious suffering. Such air is
classed among the poorest of all heat conductors; it belongs rather
to non-conductors. The sensation of cold is due to the conduction of
heat from the body more rapidly than the vital forces can replace
it. Moist air in rapid motion carries off heat with great rapidity.
When the skin pores are open a considerable part of the fluids of
the body exudes through them, dampens the garments, and so renders
them better conductors. The cold and wind evaporate this moisture
in the garments. Evaporation is a cooling process; so when the
pores are not kept almost sealed up by steady cold the body suffers
loss of temperature both by increased conduction and evaporation.
Observations of the United States Signal Service denote that the
atmosphere of the region of Dakota under consideration is dryer,
stiller, and less subject to extreme changes than that of Chicago; so
that it is possible that, while in one sense of the word cold, it is
certainly colder in Huron than it is in Chicago, in the other sense
it may be no colder or not so cold there as here. This is plainly
a question of personal experience, and the best that Our Curiosity
Shop can do to settle this dispute is to give the above facts, and
add that the testimony of many credible witnesses who have tried both
climates is to the effect that, taking the winter through, one feels
the cold there no more, or not so much as here. If a wager turns on
our decision, taking the word cold in its first sense, the answer
given above is definite and positive; taking it in the second sense,
it is indecisive; a case for “a draw.”


ANCHOR ICE.

LAPORTE CITY, Iowa.—In the Curiosity Shop for June 14 I see a
correspondent asks an explanation of ice forming at the bottom of
rivers and remaining there. I saw this ice for the first time three
years ago the past winter, at Waterloo, in this State, where business
kept me most of the time. It excited my curiosity, and I studied
it until satisfied of its origin. The Cedar River runs through the
city, and a dam is built across it giving a power of about eight feet
fall. A short distance below this is a bridge over 600 feet long. The
space between the dam and the bridge is a rock-bottom rapids. Having
occasion to cross the bridge frequently I noticed this ice attached
to the rocks under water after the weather became cold, but not cold
enough to form a solid sheet of ice on the pond. It disappeared and
came again as the weather changed to warm or cold, but ceased to be
formed after the pond was covered with a solid cake of ice, always
forming at the beginning of cold weather. I concluded it was caused
by the formation of fine crystals of ice on the pond not yet frozen
together, which, as they were carried over the dam, were mixed in
the surf below and driven against and stuck fast in the fine moss
covering the rocks, always attached to the side of the rock facing
the fall, the first crystals presenting points to catch the next, and
so the mass, which appeared like water-soaked snow, grew under the
water by accretion, the water being as cold as the ice itself could
not thaw it. I think if the correspondent will examine he will find
anchor ice is formed in rapids or at the foot of falls draining a
smooth expanse of water before the water becomes covered with a solid
sheet of ice, and always on the up-stream side of the rocks in the
bottom.

  T. A. KELLETT.


CHIEF RULERS OF THE WORLD.

  WINDSOR, Ill.

  Please give in “Our Curiosity Shop” the names of the principal
  rulers of the world, with the countries over which they rule.

  M. J. S.

_Answer._—The following table embraces the chief rulers of the world:

                                           Crowned or
  Countries.          Rulers.              inaugurated

  Great Britain       Queen Victoria       1837
  Germany             Emperor William I    1871
  France              President Grevy      1879
  Denmark             Christian IX         1863
  Sweden              Oscar II             1872
  Spain               Alphonso XI          1875
  Portugal            Luis II              1861
  Russia              Alexander III        1881
  Turkey              Abdul Hamid          1876
  Austria-Hungary     Francis Joseph       1848
  United States       Chester A. Arthur    1881


PASSION FLOWER.

  BURLINGTON, Iowa.

  Why is the passion flower so called?

  FLORA.

_Answer._—It was called by this name by the Spanish settlers of
the West Indies and South America, its native region, because they
fancied it to be a representative of Christ’s passion or sacrificial
death. According to this fancy, the leaf symbolizes the spear that
pierced the Savior’s side; the anthers, the marks of the five wounds
made by the spear; the tendrils, the cords or whips with which He
was secured; the column of the ovary, the upright of the cross; the
stamens, the hammers; the three styles, the nails; the filamentous
processes, the crown of thorns; the calyx, the glory or halo; the
white tinge, purity; the blue tint, heaven; and the fact that it
remains open three days typifies his three years’ ministry.


ASBESTOS.

  ABERDEEN, D. T.

  What is asbestos, where is it found, and what valuable properties
  has it?

  H. T. MCLANE.

_Answer._—Asbestos is a fibrous, white, gray, or green mineral,
not easily fusible. The most beautiful specimens come from Corsica
and Savoy, though some are found in the Alps, Pyrenees, and Ural
Mountains, and in North America and New South Wales, while commoner
varieties, such as mountain cork and mountain wood, are found in
Lanarkshire, Tyrol, Dauphiny and parts of Scotland. Its chief value
is its infusibility, and though it possesses little consistency, it
was by the ancients woven into garments, towels, and handkerchiefs,
and has in later times become useful as fireproof roofing, flooring,
and packing in safes, journal boxes, and around steam pipes. Paper
has been made of it, but though at red heat the paper remains
uninjured, the writing disappears. As cloth it is desirable, needing
only to be thrown into the fire to be cleansed. It is said that
Charlemagne had a table cloth of asbestos, which he was wont to throw
into the fire at the close of the meal for the amusement of his
guests.


HOW TO USE AN INCUBATOR.

  ELK GROVE, Wis.

  Our Curiosity Shop has explained how to make an artificial
  incubator; how do you use one after it is made?

  “I.”

_Answer._—Mrs. P. G. Gilman, Paola, Kan.; Mrs. L. R. Stanley,
Cameron, Neb.; C. D., Kalamazoo, Mich., make substantially the same
inquiry.

In the first place be sure to get fresh eggs, which have not been
chilled to death in the nest, and sort out all unfertile ones. After
the eggs have been in the incubator two, or at most three days, you
can tell every egg that is not fertile. By placing the small end to
the eye, looking toward the sun, and moving the head up and down,
you will see a dark spot floating on the top of every fertile egg.
Any egg that remains perfectly clear after being in the incubator
until the fourth day may as well be taken out for use or for market,
since it will never hatch. Some persons recommend the use of a cheap
egg-tester, which can be got by writing to the Secretary of the
National American Poultry Association, New Concord, Ohio, but others
think this is not needed. The eggs must be kept at a regular heat of
between 102 and 105 degs. After the third day take out the egg-drawer
once a day and let the eggs cool down to about 70 or 80 degs., but
not below 65 degs. Turn the eggs every four or five hours during
the day, by moving the muslin frame on which the eggs rest backward
or forward a couple of inches, as indicated in the instructions for
making the incubator. It is all done in a trice; it will be well to
do this once during the night, and see that the temperature is up to
proper grade. Be careful that it does not rise above 105 degs., as
there is even more danger of killing the eggs by over-heating than by
letting the temperature run a little low. After the third day set two
or more soup-plates or tin pie-pans on the sawdust in the ventilator,
under the eggs to moisten them; and from the ninth to the twelfth
day sprinkle a little tepid water on the eggs by hand, in addition
to the evaporation from the water in the pans. From the twelfth to
the fifteenth day hand-sprinkle them twice a day, and thereafter
three times a day until they hatch. The water acts on the lime of the
shells to make it brittle. Perhaps it is best not to have any fire in
the incubator-room, which may be a cellar, wood shed, or unoccupied
room in the house. A writer in the _American Agriculturist_ says:
“If any one doubts that pine sawdust in an incubator will kill his
eggs let him try it.” There may be something in this warning, but it
is doubtful. Study your lamps to learn about how high to turn the
wicks, in order to keep the temperature just right, and observe the
thermometers in the front and back of your egg drawer frequently.
See that the escape pipes in the heater do not slip down so close
to the zinc as to check the draft. Better keep them from one to two
inches above the zinc. Keep the ventilators open.

When the eggs are hatched keep the chicks in the incubator till
dried, anywhere from twelve to eighteen hours, but not longer. Put
them in the brooder, or “artificial mother,” which will be described
hereafter. Give them their first food when they are about 18 or 20
hours old. Use bread crumbs wet with milk, or corn meal thoroughly
soaked, or hard-boiled eggs, and feed regularly at intervals of
three or four hours from 5 o’clock a. m. to 9 o’clock p. m. Do not
over-feed; give them only what they will eat clean. When old enough
give them dry grain.


CERTAIN LUMBER GRADES.

  DOWS, Iowa.

  Please give the inspection rules for grading flooring,
  fence-boards, siding, and six-inch, half-round, live cedar posts.

  H. H. OBERTON.

_Answer._—There are different inspection rules at nearly all the
great centers of the lumber trade. There are the “Albany Inspection,”
governing the lumber product of Northern New York, the “Maine
survey,” the “Boston inspection,” the “Saginaw inspection,” the
“Chicago cargo inspection,” “Chicago yard grading,” “St. Louis
inspection,” “Minneapolis inspection,” and several others. The
differences at the several Western centers do not differ very
greatly. The following grading is according to the rules of Chicago
yard grading:

Flooring—A, or firsts, should have one face nearly clear, with but
one or two small, sound knots; the other side may have more knots or
sap. B, or seconds, may have two to four sound, medium knots, and
bright sap equal to 1 or 1¼ inches width. C, or thirds, will allow of
three to six small, sound knots, or 1½ to 2 inches of bright sap.

Fencing flooring is good common flooring from selected fence boards,
and may have a large number of small, sound knots, but the general
character of the piece must be such as to make a good, tight floor,
practically free from “shake” and loose knots.

Fencing—No. 1, or common, contains sound knots only, not to weaken
the piece, and may have considerable sap, bright, dull, or stained.
No. 2 contains black sap, coarse knots, and boards shaky or otherwise
defective, provided they are not unfit for coarse fencing.

Strips and Siding—First and second clear, No. 1, must be perfect in
thickness, width, and quality, as clear lumber, free from knots and
sap. No. 2 will admit of a narrow, bright sap on one side, or one or
two knots. A, or first common, if free from knots, may have two or
three small sound knots, or bright sap, one-half or three-quarters
of an inch wide. B, or second common, may have three or four
medium-sized sound knots, or bright sap of 1 to 1½ inches wide. C, or
third common, may have two to six medium knots, 2 to 3 inches of sap,
or both sap and knots to equal these. Six-inch half-round live cedar
posts must be of trees alive when felled, free from rot or decay of
any kind, and not less than six inches at small end.

The St. Louis inspection rules for white pine lumber are almost
identical with those of Chicago. Minneapolis rules allow 1 inch sap
and three small knots, but no other imperfections in first flooring;
six small knots and 1½-inch sap in second flooring; 1-inch sap on
thin edge, but no other imperfections in first siding, dressed; three
small knots and 1-inch sap on either side in second siding. Grading
in the Upper Mississippi River towns is influenced strongly by the
Minneapolis rules.


HOMESTEAD RIGHTS OF WOMEN.

  FORT COLLINS, Col.

  1. Does the homestead law allow single men and women to leave their
  claims to earn their living? 2. If a woman holding land under the
  homestead and timber-culture laws marries a man holding land in the
  same way, does she forfeit her right to either claim?

  M. SOPER.

_Answer._—A single woman who makes a homestead or timber-culture
entry, or both, does not forfeit her rights by marriage, provided the
requirements as to residence and cultivation are complied with; but
if a single woman marry after filing her declaratory statement under
the pre-emption laws, she abandons her rights as a pre-emptor. A
party, while having an actual residence on his or her claim, may work
elsewhere for other people a few weeks at a time.


BLACK LETTER BOOKS.

  PRECEPT, Neb.

  1. I saw an account of a black letter Bible recently and should
  like to know the reason for its value. 2. Please explain the
  expression “court in banc.”

  CONSTANT READER.

_Answer._—The type commonly known in this country as black letter, or
Gothic, was the first used in printing, being a copy of the letters
used in Germany and the Netherlands during the fifteenth century.
In the next century the Gothic style was superseded by the Roman.
Books in black letter are highly prized because of their antiquity
and rarity. 2. The meaning is that all of the judges of the court in
question hear and decide the case: that is, occupy the “banc,” or
bench, together.


BIBLE QUESTIONS.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

1. How many days were the Israelites in gathering manna? 2. How many
furlongs is Bethany from Jerusalem?

  A. LEWIS.

_Answer._—In Exodus, xvi., we read that for forty years the children
of Israel gathered manna daily, excepting the seventh or Sabbath, a
double allowance being granted on the sixth day. 2. The distance is
three miles or twenty-four furlongs.


MRS. MARY ASHTON LIVERMORE.

  OXFORD, Ind.

  Please give a short biography of Mrs. Mary Livermore.

  JOHN MORGAN.

_Answer._—Mrs. Mary Ashton Livermore, the popular platform orator
and reformer, is the daughter of Timothy Rice. Esq. She was born
in Boston in 1821, educated in the Baptist Seminary for Girls at
Charlestown, Mass., where she gave brilliant promise of a useful
future. She married the Rev. D. P. Livermore, of the Universalist
Church, and assisted him in editing a paper of this denomination in
Chicago. She was in this city during the late civil war and took a
prominent part in the various movements to ameliorate the sufferings
of soldiers on the field, in hospitals and prisons. She was an ever
active, devoted and most efficient worker in the cause of the U. S.
Sanitary Commission, and was one of the ablest associates of that
eminent philanthropist, Mrs. A. C. Hoge, in the organization and
marvelous success of the Chicago Sanitary Fair near the close of
the war. She is now undoubtedly one of the ablest leaders in the
cause of woman, in the various movements of the times. An eloquent
speaker, a brilliant and powerful writer, a remarkable organizer
and parliamentarian, she never fails to command respect and carry a
strong influence. She is one of the associate editors of the Boston
_Woman’s Journal_, and is recognized as one of the most eloquent
lecturers in the cause of temperance, woman suffrage, and other
social reforms.


POINTS IN THE ROAD LAW.

  SOMONAUK, Ill.

  1. The law of Illinois says that any one who forbids or hinders a
  person while he is working on the public road shall be fined $2. I
  quote from memory. Who should make the complaint and before what
  court? 2. What rights, exclusively his own, has a man to one-half
  of the road adjoining his farm, and what rights have the public?

  AMASA C. LORD.

_Answer._—Section 33 of chapter on roads and bridges, Revised
Statutes, says: “If any person, after appearing (to work on the
roads), remain idle, or do not work faithfully, or hinder others from
working, such offender shall, for every offense, forfeit to the town
the sum of $2.” It is the duty of the overseer of highways to make
the complaint, in case of a violation of this law, before a justice
of the peace. 2. In case of the vacation of a road, the title to the
land reverts to the original owner, his heirs, assigns, or grantees.
If the roadway was condemned for highway purposes, and damages for
public appropriation of the same paid to the owner, several nice
legal questions would be likely to arise in case of vacation of the
road. When land has been given or legally taken for a highway, the
abutting owner has the right to insist that it shall be used for no
other purpose. The tree-culture laws of most States give him the
right to plant trees along it, subject, however, to State, county,
and town regulations. These can hardly be called “exclusive rights;”
it can scarcely be said that he has any such, so long as the land is
used as a highway; but the public have no right to use it for any
other purpose, or do anything therewith inconsistent with such use.


FIELD MARSHAL SCHWERIN.

  FAIRMONT, Neb.

  Who was “Field Marshal Schwerin”?

  W. P. JACKS.

_Answer._—He was a distinguished military commander, born in Swedish
Pomerania, in 1684. His full designation is Count Kurt Christian von
Schwerin. He entered the Dutch army as ensign when only 16 years of
age, fought under the famous Prince Eugene and the great Marlborough
against the French in the “War of the Spanish Succession,” and
subsequently entered the service of Frederick the Great of Prussia.
He won the decisive victory over the Austrians at Mollwitz in 1741
which resulted in the cession of Silesia to Prussia; and Frederick
signalized his admiration of the great captain by conferring on him
the title of Count and making him a Field Marshal. He fell in battle
before Prague in 1757, during the Seven Years War, better known to
Americans as the French and Indian war, which was a part of the same
general war.


CANADIAN TARIFF ON BRITISH GOODS.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  Does Canada collect import duties on goods that are received from
  England?

  A CONSTANT READER.

_Answer._—The Canadians did not wait long after securing their
virtual commercial independence, through the establishment of
the present Dominion Government, before resolving to foster home
manufactures by means of a tariff which should serve the double
purpose of public revenue and protection to home industry. This
tariff by no means exempts goods of British manufacture; indeed, such
goods pay much the larger share of the total duty, as is shown in the
following table, stating the value of goods entered for consumption
in the Dominion of Canada, that paid duty, the countries whence
imported, and the amount of duty collected thereon during the fiscal
year ending June 30, 1882:

  ————————————————————+—————————————+—————————————+———————————————
                      |   Dutiable  |    Free     |     Duty
  COUNTRIES.          |    goods.   |    goods.   |   collected.
  ————————————————————+—————————————+—————————————+———————————————
  Great Britain       | $41,459,730 |  $9,137,611 | $10,011,811.00
  Brit. W. Indies     |   1,765,024 |      83,700 |     662,514.52
  Brit. Guiana        |     198,979 |       4,379 |     117,655.12
  Brit. E. Indies     |      61,403 |      12,279 |      24,774.20
  Australia           |       1,895 |         262 |         519.36
  British Africa      |             |     204,745 |
                      +—————————————+—————————————+———————————————
    Total British     | $43,487,031 |  $9,442,916 | $10,817,274.20
  United States       |  32,941,061 |  15,347,991 |   7,073,912.49
  France              |   1,988,698 |     108,660 |     742,774.93
  Germany             |   1,331,271 |     148,733 |     338,691.39
  Span. W. Indies     |   2,122,373 |      13,795 |     943,791.41
  Brazil              |   1,068,876 |     259,440 |     491,556.26
  All other countries |   2,818,123 |   1,569,959 |   1,292,016.95
                      +—————————————+—————————————+———————————————
    Grand total       | $85,757,133 | $26,891,494 | $21,700,027.63
  ————————————————————+—————————————+—————————————+———————————————

From which it appears that Canada collects over a half more duties
from British goods than she does from American goods, while the total
value of her imports from the United States is over six millions
greater than that of her British imports.


TELEPHONING.

  ALEDO, Ill.

  How is the telephone operated in the city of Chicago? Give an
  illustration of how messages are conveyed by telephone. Is
  electricity used on all telephone instruments? Does each person
  having an instrument have a separate wire at the central office?

  S. GRADY.

_Answer._—In telegraphy the wire between stations is a magnet only so
long as the electrical current is passing over it, which is the case
so long as the wire is connected with the battery. This connection
is made or broken by means of a small lever under the finger of the
operator at the transmitting station, known as the transmitting
key. While the current is on and the wire is a magnet it attracts
to itself a piece of soft iron at the receiving station, known in
the Morse writing telegraph as the recording style. The instant the
connection between the battery and the wire is broken the latter
ceases to be a magnet, and the soft iron at the receiving station
springs back to its old place. By this means every movement of the
transmitting key is instantly repeated at the receiving station. In
the telephone two thin metallic plates or diaphragms are substituted
for the key and the soft iron recording style. The undulations of
the air produced by the voice of the speaker cause the thin plate in
the transmitting instrument to vibrate more or less violently, in
harmony with the voice. This plate is so connected with the wires
running between the battery and the receiving station that the
electrical current over the circuit is entirely closed or broken, or
varied in intensity, according to the degree of vibration, while the
receiving plate, at the other end of the wire, vibrates in unison
with the transmitting plate, reproducing undulations in the air at
that end of the wire directly corresponding with the undulations
made by the voice of the speaker—that is, reproducing the sounds of
his voice. Electricity is used in all telephones of any practical
value. In Chicago the main wires and the branches from the down-town
offices center at a common office, known as the central station,
where, by means of couplings made by the movement of certain keys,
separate wires are instantly joined or disconnected. Any one wishing
to communicate by telephone turns a small crank, which rings a bell
at the central office. The operator at the latter place responds by
signal. The person who wishes to communicate generally inquires,
“Is this the central office?” Having received an affirmative
reply, he requests to be put into communication with the number in
the telephone register corresponding to the office or residence
of the person with whom he wishes to speak. He may now sit down
until signaled that some one at the place called for is ready to
communicate with him, or the operator at the central office notifies
him that he can get no response from the number called for. Besides
the main central office there is a district center in each of the
principal divisions of the city, North, West, and South, all under
the control of the former. It is not necessary for a separate wire
to run from each instrument in the city directly to one of these
centers. Several individual wires may unite with one common wire
before reaching either the central office or a district center.


THE ALHAMBRA—MUNICH.

  MARENGO, Ill.

  1. Will you please give me some information respecting the
  Alhambra? 2. For what is the city of Munich celebrated?

  RAY.

_Answer._—1. The Alhambra is the fortress of Grenada, within which
is the ancient palace of the Moorish kings. The most of it was built
between 1248 and 1354, and though defaced and ruined, the wonderful
beauty and skill of its workmanship is still apparent. It is one of
the finest examples of Moorish architecture, remarkable for peculiar
grace and delicate elaboration. It stands on a terraced hill north
of Grenada and overlooking the city, surrounded by a strong wall,
nearly a mile in circumference, studded with towers. Passing through
the Gate of Pomegranates and the neglected gardens, the visitor
finds himself surrounded by beautiful arches and open courts, all
leading to the chief object of attraction, the Moorish palace. Though
severely plain upon the exterior, within it is exquisitely beautiful,
with floors of the choicest marbles, “fretted ceilings, partitions
colored and gilt, and filigree stuccos of veil-like transparency.”
Slender columns support the galleries, and gracefully bending palm
leaves of marble form the arches, while beautiful fountains are
scattered here and there. Besides the halls, courts, reception rooms,
and sleeping apartments, the building contains a whispering gallery,
a labyrinth, and vaulted sepulchers. After the expulsion of the Moors
from Spain their conquerors took pleasure in defacing and destroying
their works of art, and the Alhambra was remodeled and partly blocked
up. In 1812 the French blew up a portion of it, and in 1821 it was
shaken by an earthquake. Attempts have been made to restore it, but
the sums of money contributed have been too small to accomplish much.
2. Munich is noted for the variety and elegance of its architecture,
for its schools of art and music, and for possessing a larger and
more valuable collection of art treasures than any other city in
Germany. Nearly all its magnificence in architectural splendor and
elegance, sculpture, painting, and music, date from the reign of
Ludwig I., who ascended the throne in 1825 and during his reign spent
nearly 7,000,000 thalers in the embellishment of his capital.


NAVY STATISTICS OF 1865.

  WAUKEGAN, Ill.

  1. What was the increase of the United States navy during the civil
  war? 2. How many naval officers deserted to the Confederate cause?

  CONSTANT READER.

_Answer._—1. According to the annual report of the Secretary of
the Navy, for 1865, there were at the outbreak of the war 7,600
men in the United States navy, and at its close there were 51,500.
The force in the navy yards increased from 3,844 to 16,880. This
latter was exclusive of about an equal number employed in private
ship yards under contracts with the government. During the war 208
vessels were commenced for the navy and most of them completed; and
418 vessels were purchased (of which 313 were steamers), at a cost
of $18,366,681.83; and of these 340 vessels were sold during and
immediately subsequent to the war, for $5,621,800.27. 2. There were
322 commissioned officers of the navy who “traitorously abandoned the
service” at the beginning of the conflict.


ARKANSAS.

  MINNEAPOLIS, Minn.

  Please give a description of Arkansas and Washington Territory,
  climate, price of cattle, horses, sheep, and farm products. 2.
  Which is best adapted to Northerners?

  A. H. CHASE.

_Answer._—A description of Washington Territory was given in answer
to another subscriber a week ago. In Arkansas the land gradually
rises from the Mississippi westward, reaching its greatest elevation
in the Ozark Mountains. Unlike the Eastern portion of the State,
which is alluvial in character, the country near these mountains is
high and the climate is healthful. Throughout the State the soil
along the river “bottoms” is rich and deep, producing large crops of
corn, wheat, cotton, and tobacco. The river surface is 540 square
miles, and the area covered by lakes and ponds 265 square miles.
The temperature varies in the southern part from 20 degrees to 94
degrees; in the north from 10 degrees to 92 degrees. The rainfall in
the south is 48-56 inches; in the north 42 inches. Below we give the
average prices in Oregon, being unable to obtain them in Washington
Territory. In Oregon the average price per bushel of Indian corn
is 82 cents; of wheat, 78 cents; rye, 82 cents; oats, 40 cents;
potatoes, 59 cents; hay, $12.14; horses, $56.22; milch cows, $21.17;
oxen and other cattle, $13.72; sheep, $1.46. In Arkansas corn is 49
cents; wheat, $1.02; rye, 86 cents; oats, 53 cents; potatoes, 74
cents; hay, $11.50; cotton, 10 cents per pound; horses, $49.36; milch
cows, $14.56; oxen and other cattle, $10.11, and sheep $1.48. 2. The
effects of climate depend largely upon individual peculiarities,
but, generally speaking, the heavy rains of Western Washington and
the malaria of Eastern Arkansas are about equally injurious. Western
Arkansas and the Eastern part of Washington Territory are favorable
to consumptives.


DR. KANE, THE EXPLORER.

  NORMAL, Ill.

  1. Please give a sketch of the life of Dr. E. K. Kane. 2. Are any
  members of his expedition still living?

  F. A. WALKER.

_Answer._—1. This celebrated explorer was born in Philadelphia in
1820. When about 25 years of age he visited China, India, and the
East Indies as surgeon in the navy, and later traveled through
Arabia, Egypt, Greece, and Western Europe. He acted as surgeon,
naturalist, and historian to the first Grinnell expedition, in 1850,
which led to the discovery of Grinnell Land, and in 1853 himself
commanded the second expedition in search of Franklin. Returning home
in 1855 he published the account of his travels, and in the following
year went to England for his health. Thence he sailed to Cuba, where
he died, at Havana, Feb. 16, 1857. 2. Dr. Hayes, who subsequently
commanded another American Arctic expedition, died in New York Dec.
17, 1881. Several of the men are still alive.


RESTORING THE FLAG ON FORT SUMTER.

  GALVESTON, Texas.

  On what occasion was the flag of Fort Sumter restored to its place,
  and how?

  SUBSCRIBER.

_Answer._—General Sherman, on his march to join General Grant
near Richmond, captured several rebel strongholds, and among them
Charleston, which was evacuated by the rebels on Feb. 17, 1865. On
April 14, 1865, the identical Union flag which had been hauled down
at the time of the surrender, exactly four years before, was formally
restored with befitting ceremonies.


THE OLDEST AMERICAN MINE.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  What is the oldest mine of any kind in the United States?

  C. D. ADAMS.

_Answer._—It is generally conceded by those who are read up in the
history of mining and metallurgy in this country that the oldest
mining enterprise of the United States, still active, is the Mine La
Motte, in the lead district of Eastern Missouri, opened about 1720
under Renault, of Law’s notorious Mississippi Company. It was named
after La Motte, the mineralogist of the expedition. It has been
worked at intervals ever since it was opened, and is in successful
operation now. There are silver mines in New Mexico and Arizona,
some of which may have been opened by the Spanish adventurers of
the latter part of the sixteenth century and the beginning of the
seventeenth. Some of these ancient mines were operated by the Toltecs
and Aztecs years before the Spanish invasion, but it is not easy to
identify them. So there are copper mines in the Lake Superior region
in which the tools and mining marks of ancient miners of pre-historic
times were found by the pioneers of the present American mining
companies. Where the first colonists of Virginia got the ship-load of
“fool’s gold” which they sent back to England, to the great disgust
of the London company, is not certainly known; but it is known that
at the same time, in 1608, they shipped a quantity of iron from
Jamestown, which yielded seventeen tons of metal, the first pig iron
ever made from American ore. There are diggings in North and South
Carolina and Georgia, now overgrown with forests, which are supposed
to have been excavated by the followers of De Soto and his immediate
successors between 1539 and 1600. The first recorded account of the
discovery of coal in the United States is contained in Hennepin’s
narrative of his explorations in the West, between 1673 and 1680,
when he saw the coal outcrop in the bluffs of the Illinois River, not
far from Ottawa and LaSalle; but coal was first mined in the Eastern
States in the beginning of this century.


LAWYER PRESIDENTS AND CONGRESSMEN.

  WILMINGTON, Ill.

  What per cent of our Presidents and representatives in Congress
  have been professional lawyers? Is it growing more or less common
  to elect lawyers to these places?

  L. F. HAZELTON.

_Answer._—Of the Presidents, John Adams, Jefferson, John Quincy
Adams, Jackson, Van Buren, Tyler, Polk, Fillmore, Pierce, Buchanan,
Lincoln, Hayes, and Garfield were lawyers; and Arthur was a
successful legal practitioner until appointed Collector of the Port
of New York by President Grant. Washington was a surveyor until
he entered the army. Madison was studying law when elected to the
Virginia Convention of 1776, after which he became absorbed in
political life. Monroe studied law under Jefferson, but did not
really enter the profession, being called off into military and
political affairs. Harrison entered military and political life
early, and was kept in it most of his days. Taylor and Grant rose
to the Chief Magistracy by distinguished military services. Johnson
was a tailor until he got into political life. As to Congress, its
membership has been too numerous for a full investigation. The
proportions indicated below will hold good, in all probability, for
the whole of the last or Forty-seventh Congress. The two Senators
and six of the eight Representatives from Alabama, both Senators and
three of the five Representatives from South Carolina, one Senator
and seven of the nine Congressmen from Virginia, both Senators and
all the four Representatives of Arkansas, in that Congress were
lawyers, or, at least, had been admitted to the bar; so were both
Senators and twelve of the nineteen Representatives from Illinois,
the two Senators and six of the nine Representatives from Iowa, both
Senators and eight of the eleven Representatives of Massachusetts,
one Senator and sixteen of the thirty-three Representatives of
Pennsylvania. The South is more given to the practice of choosing
lawyers, or persons with a smattering of the law, to represent them
in Congress and the Legislature than the North. Planters, who never
seriously expected their sons to practice, educated them in the law
formerly, as one of the qualifications for political life. The olden
prestige of the law as one of the learned professions, and the one
that led most directly to political promotions, had its influence
on the sons of the wealthy and their sires, not in the South only,
but in the North; nor on them only, but on the people. There is some
rational force also in the popular conception that lawyers are or
should be peculiarly fitted to be law-makers. The tendency in the
North for some years past, as indicated by the above statistics, is
to choose fewer lawyers and have commerce and the great industries of
the country represented by their conspicuous leaders.


SCHOOLS FOR THE COLORED RACE.

  GONZALES, Texas.

  How many institutions of learning for the colored race are there in
  the United States, and how many persons attending them?

  JOHN CRAWFORD.

_Answer._—According to the report of the Commissioner of Education,
for 1880, the educational institutions for the colored race in the
United States were then in number and attendance as follows:

  Class of Institutions.             Schools.   Enrolled.

  Public schools                      17,081     806,106
  Normal schools                          44       7,408
  High schools and academies              36       5,237
  Universities and colleges               15       1,717
  Schools of theology                     22         800
  Schools of law                           3          33
  Schools of medicine                      2          87
  Schools for deaf, dumb, and blind        2         122
                                      ——————     ———————
      Total                           17,205     821,570

Besides this there are a number of colored public schools in States
that fail to report them separately from the white schools; and there
are many colored children attending the same schools with the whites.


THE WYOMING MASSACRE.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  To settle a dispute, please give the particulars of the massacre of
  the Wyoming colonists during the revolutionary war, together with
  the names of the military commanders and Indians, and oblige

  A CONSTANT READER.

_Answer._—In the summer of 1778 the beautiful valley of Wyoming,
Penn., was invaded by a band of tories and Indians, and in the battle
that followed, on July 3, the American patriots, commanded by Colonel
Zebulon Butler, were defeated with horrible slaughter. Then followed
a general massacre, which some escaped by fleeing to the mountains,
while a few took refuge in Fort Forty (now Wilkesbarre). This fort
was besieged the morning of the 4th by the tories and Indians under
Colonel John Butler, and ordered to surrender; and being without any
means of defense, Colonel Dennison yielded to the entreaties of the
women and children to enter into articles of capitulation. It was
agreed upon the surrender of their arms, and the destruction of the
fort, the inhabitants of the valley should return peaceably to their
homes, but no sooner was the fort surrendered than the Indians fell
upon the houses, which they plundered and burned, killing all the
women and children who had not escaped to the mountains. The entire
village of Wilkesbarre was burned to the ground.


THE ILLINOIS BLACK LAWS.

  WESTERN SPRINGS, Ill.

  What were the “black laws” of Illinois?

  J.L. WELLS.

_Answer._—Under the Territorial laws of Illinois persons were
allowed to bring slaves into the Territory under the name of
indentured servants. As such they might be held in bondage for a
term of ninety-nine years or less. This was in direct violation of
the spirit of the ordinance of 1787, which interdicted slavery or
involuntary servitude in all the territory north of the Ohio River.
The first State constitution, adopted in 1818, prohibited the further
introduction of slaves, but did not abolish this species of slavery
by liberating the victims of the barbarous Territorial enactments.
Thus slavery existed in Illinois in defiance of the ordinance of 1787
until the adoption of the constitution of 1848, which contained the
following provision: “There shall be neither slavery nor involuntary
servitude in this State, except as a punishment for crime.” After
the adoption of the constitution of 1818, the first Legislature
re-enacted the wicked law “respecting free negroes, mulattoes,
servants, and slaves” of Territorial times. No severer law was to
be found in any slave State. It forbade negroes or mulattoes to
settle in the State without certificates of freedom. No person was to
employ any negro or mulatto without such certificate, under a penalty
of $1.50 for each day. To harbor any slave or servant, or hinder
the owner in retaking a slave, was made a felony, punishable by
restitution or a fine of two-fold value, and whipping not to exceed
thirty stripes. Every black or mulatto without a proper certificate
was subject to arrest as a runaway slave, to be advertised for
six weeks by the sheriff, when, if not reclaimed or his freedom
established, he was sold for one year, after which he was entitled
to a freedom certificate. Any slave or servant found ten miles from
home without permit was liable to arrest and thirty-five stripes, on
the order of a justice. For misbehaving to his master or family he
was punishable with the lash. Indeed, punishment with the lash to the
number of thirty-nine and forty stripes was prescribed for each of
a long list of offenses, real or of legal construction. Even after
the adoption of the constitution of 1848, which required the General
Assembly at its first session to pass such laws as would effectually
prohibit free persons of color from immigrating to, or settling in
this State, and prohibit the owners of slaves from bringing them here
for the purpose of setting them free, the Legislature passed an act,
Feb. 12, 1853, which imposed on every such colored person a fine of
$50. If the fine was not paid forthwith, he was to be advertised and
sold to any one who would pay the fine and costs for the shortest
period of such person’s service. A case under this law was carried up
to the Supreme Court, and decided so late as 1864, to be valid. Other
provisions of these enactments were almost equally detestable. Such
were the infamous “black laws” of Illinois, which were continued,
with slight modifications, from Territorial times down to 1865, when
by act of Feb. 7, of that year, they were repealed. Had it not been
for these black laws the census of Illinois would not be blotted
with an enrollment of “168 slaves” in 1810; 917 in 1820; 747 in
1830; and 331 in 1840—the last census that carries such a stain.
Fortunately, the masters and people at large were better than their
laws. The horrors of Southern slavery would not have been tolerated
here. During the last twenty-five years of their existence the black
laws were practically a dead letter, being retained upon the statute
book more out of opposition to abolitionism, and deference to the
pro-slavery sentiment of the dominant parties than for any other
reason.


FIRST EXPLORERS OF THE FAR WEST.

  KILL CREEK, Kan.

  Is it a fact that early French explorers were the first to cross
  the continent through the northern part of what is now the United
  States?

  SAMUEL RITTER.

_Answer._—No French explorers, known as explorers, traveled farther
West than Minnesota, but doubtless the French trappers reached the
head waters of the Missouri, if they did not go even farther. These,
however, have left no record of their wanderings, and we know nothing
of what they discovered. To Lewis and Clarke who in 1804-5 ascended
to the head waters of the Missouri and descended the Columbia to the
Pacific Ocean, belongs the honor of having given the first written
account of the far West.


PENNSYLVANIA WHISKY WAR.

  PRAIRIE CITY, Ill.

  Did the distillers of Pennsylvania at one time create an
  insurrection on account of certain excise laws? If so, please state
  the facts, and what means was used by the government to quell the
  disturbance?

  S. T. YOUNG.

_Answer._—In 1791 a tax was imposed upon domestic liquors. This
created especial dissatisfaction in Western Pennsylvania, where, in
1794, the distillers rose en masse and refused to pay the duty. But
upon the approach of militia sent by Washington, they yielded.


GAY-LUSSAC—BALLOONS.

  PAWNEE ROCK, Kan.

  1. Who was Gay-Lussac? 2. Who invented balloons? 3. Why was Sir
  Walter Raleigh executed?

  STEPHEN J. WILLARD.

_Answer._—Louis Joseph Gay-Lussac was one of the most eminent
chemists of this century. He was born at St. Leonard, France, Dec.
6, 1778. He distinguished himself as a student in the Polytechnic
College, Paris, and was selected to become the assistant of the great
French physicist and chemist, Berthollet, who was so impressed with
his originality and skill in research that on a certain occasion
he exclaimed: “Young man, it is your destiny to make discoveries.
You shall be henceforth my companion. I wish—it is a title of which
I am sure I shall have cause to be proud—I wish to be your father
in science.” While investigating terrestrial magnetism he was led
to make a balloon ascent, on Aug. 24, 1804, when he reached an
altitude of about 13,000 feet. Not satisfied, he procured a greater
balloon, and on Sept. 16 of the same year rose to an altitude of
23,000 feet, a height never before reached in a balloon, and seldom
exceeded since then. He made many valuable observations before
descending. Together with the famous Alexander von Humboldt, he made
the discovery that hydrogen and oxygen unite in the proportions of
two of the latter to one of the former, by bulk, to form water; also
that when gases combine with one another, either by weight or by
volume, they do so in very simple proportions, as 1 to 1, 1 to 2,
2 to 3, and so on. He analyzed many chemical compounds, proved the
elementary nature of several substances, such as iodine, to which he
gave the name it now bears, and he formed by chemical combinations
many valuable compounds. The French Academy elected him a member of
that distinguished body of savants; the French Government honored him
with important and highly honorable appointments; he became a member
of the Chamber of Deputies in 1831, and in 1839 was made a peer of
the realm. He devoted himself to scientific research to the last,
and was associated with the distinguished scientist Arago, in the
editorship of the Annals of Chemistry and Physics. He died in 1850.
2. Stephen and Joseph Montgolfier, of Annonay, France, a town about
forty miles from Lyons, were the inventors of hot air balloons, just
one hundred years ago, and the same year two brothers of the name of
Robert made and charged the first hydrogen gas balloon, under the
superintendence of Mr. Charles, a professor of natural philosophy, in
Paris. 3. Sir Walter Raleigh was executed under a trumped up charge
of conspiracy against the life of James I., of England; but really at
the instigation of certain rivals and to gratify the king of Spain,
toward whom he had always manifested the greatest hostility.


QUARTER SECTIONS, SHORT OR LONG.

  ORLEANS, Neb.

  There is a case in dispute here in regard to the government survey.
  They say that the government surveyor who ran the section lines
  here started at the Kansas line from the wrong corner, and, running
  north, made one tier of sections fifteen or twenty rods too narrow
  and the next tier as much too broad. Now, after twenty years, when
  the land is all occupied and more or less improved, can the line be
  moved? All the old corners are plainly defined and recognized as
  government corners.

  B. F. POLHUMUS.

_Answer._—In the case of Peder O. Aanrud (see Copp’s Land Owner) the
Commissioner of the General Land Office made the following ruling:
“The term ‘quarter-section’ is used to designate a certain legal
subdivision of the public land ascertained by official survey.
It generally contains just 160 acres; but, through unavoidable
inaccuracy of surveys in adjusting meridians etc., it often exceeds
or falls below that amount. It is still, however, the technical legal
quarter section defined by law and ascertained by official survey.
A homestead settler may enter 160 acres in legal subdivisions lying
contiguous to each other without reference to the quarter-section
lines, or he may enter a technical quarter-section as such, in which
case he can take the amount of land contained therein, as shown by
the official survey. In entering a quarter section he cannot depart
from the ascertained lines, but must take 160 acres, more or less, as
the case may be.” The case stated in this question is extraordinary,
and may not be fully covered by the above ruling, but it is almost
certain that in all cases where patents have issued and owners have
been in undisturbed possession for sixteen years or more the titles
cannot be disturbed.


ATCHISON, THE BORDER RUFFIAN SENATOR.

  TISKILWA, Ill.

  Kindly inform us who Dave Atchison, of Kansas and Missouri
  notoriety, was.

  G. S. BATTERY.

_Answer._—He was a politician of the desperado order, who figured
in an unenviable light in the early days of Kansas. Born in Fayette
County, Ky., in 1807, he removed to Missouri in 1830. In 1841 he was
appointed by the Governor to fill an unexpired term in the United
States Senate, of which, through re-election, he continued a member
until 1855. For some time he acted with the Benton wing of the
Democratic party, which accepted the Jacksonian doctrine as opposed
to pro-slavery radicalism. In time, however, he adopted Calhounism,
including the doctrine of secession, and during the early Kansas
troubles devoted himself to making Kansas a slave State. In 1854-56
he encouraged and abetted the outrages committed by the bands of
Missouri border ruffians, who repeatedly invaded that Territory,
taking an active part in driving free-soil voters from the polls and
instigating the bloody attacks on Lawrence and Ossawatamie, and in
other villainies of those terrible times preceding the triumph of the
Free State party in Kansas.


MURDERS AND SUICIDES.

  MELROSE, Wis.

  Give, if you can, the number of murders and suicides in the United
  States in the course of a year.

  IRA JONES.

_Answer._—According to the census for 1880 there were 1,336 cases of
homicide, or murder, and manslaughter, and 2,517 cases of suicide,
of which 472 were by self-shooting, 155 by drowning, 340 by poison,
1,550 by other means.


RAINFALL IN NEBRASKA.

  VAN CLEVE, Iowa.

  What part of Nebraska has the greatest rainfall? What parts have
  the second and the third largest average rainfall? In what month is
  this fall the greatest?

  J. W. JOHNSON.

_Answer._—During the ten years from 1869 to 1879 the average annual
rainfall in that part of Nebraska lying between the Missouri River
and a line drawn to where Blue River crosses the Kansas-Nebraska
Line, was thirty-eight inches. In the extreme southeastern corner
of the State, near the Missouri River, it was nearly forty inches.
West of the line above described to a line starting from the
Missouri River a little south of the mouth of Bow River, running
with a slight eastern curve to Kearney and then southwesterly to
the State line, the average rainfall was thirty-two inches. From
this last line to another starting near the mouth of the Niobrara,
curving southwesterly to a point a little east of North Platte, and
thence curving slightly to the southwest to a point a little west of
Culbertson, the rainfall averaged twenty-six inches. Between this
last line and another starting on the State line at the mouth of the
Keya Paha and running southwesterly to a point on the Kansas-Nebraska
line, midway between Culbertson and the southwest corner of the
State, the average was nineteen inches. West of this section the
rainfall is not well determined, but it diminishes from nineteen to
less than seventeen inches. The heaviest rainfall is in June.


THE SIRENS.

  I have an engraving representing a lady about to go into a boat, or
  a sailor about to land. It is entitled, “The Siren.” What is the
  story?

  BACHELOR.

_Answer._—Among the old Greek legends is one that near the island
of Caprera, in the Mediterranean Sea, there dwelt two—some versions
say three—damsels whose music was so sweet that no one who heard it
could resist its seductive charms. The passing sailor, listening to
it, forgot his country, home, and all former friends, and, unable to
escape the entrancement of their songs, remained on the barren rocks
until he died of starvation. It is further related that Ulysses, one
of the most crafty of the Greek heroes of the olden time, by the
advice of Circe, filled his sailors’ ears with wax before passing the
rock and had them lash him to the mast until the danger was passed.
When he heard the music he struggled hard to free himself and escape
to the rock, but his companions only bound him the more firmly until
their ship had passed out of hearing, whereupon the fated sisters
hurled themselves into the deep and were changed into two great
rocks. The whole legend may be regarded as an allegory, the sirens
personifying seductive pleasures.


THE FIVE POINTS IN CALVINISM.

  MICHIGAN CITY, Ind.

  What are the “Five Points” considered essential to pure Calvinism?
  Did not the Pan-Presbyterian Council held at Philadelphia a few
  years ago indorse them all?

  FREEMASON.

Answer.—The “Five Points” in the confession of the Synod of Dort,
generally regarded as the essentials of Calvinism, are the following
doctrines: 1. Predestination; 2. The atonement; 3. The total
depravity of the natural man; 4. That salvation is purely of the
grace and free will of God; 5. The final perseverance of all who
have once experienced justification by faith. For a more extended
presentation of these five points see Our Curiosity Shop for 1881,
page 91. These doctrines are differently construed by Presbyterian
divines; so that in fact they are held in quite different senses
by organizations usually classed together as Calvinists. The
Pan-Presbyterian Council recognized the rights of the several bodies
represented in it to construe the Scriptures as regards these
doctrines according to their own judgments so long as they subscribed
to the general declarations of the Westminster Confession of Faith,
or the confession of the Synod of Dort.


CLAUDE DE BONNEVAL.

  KILL CREEK, Kan.

  Please sketch briefly the career of Claude de Bonneval.

  SAMUEL RITTER.

_Answer._—Count Claude Alexandre de Bonneval, born at Limousin,
France, began his eventful career as a soldier in the French army,
but being condemned to death for insolence toward the Minister
of War, provoked by being refused promotion, on account of bad
conduct, he fled to Germany. He entered the Austrian army, and in
1723 was appointed Master of Ordnance to the Netherlands. But he
became involved in a disgraceful quarrel with the Governor, and was
sentenced to death. The sentence was, however, commuted to a year’s
imprisonment. Upon his release he went to Constantinople, and under
the name of Achmed he entered the service of the Porte, who made
him Pasha, and gave into his hands the organizing of the artillery
after the European manner. In the Turco-Russian war he achieved
great success, and won the appointment of Governor of Chios, but
soon lost the position through his imprudence. His death occurred at
Constantinople in 1747.


TO FIND THE DAY OF THE WEEK.

  BATH, Ohio.

  I am puzzled. Please give me a rule for ascertaining the day of the
  week on which any day of the year comes.

  SELIVA Q. YOLVARE.

_Answer._—To find the day of the week on which any particular date
of the current year will fall, divide the whole number of days from
the time when computation is made by 7. If there is no remainder
the day sought will be the same day of the week as the day when the
computation is made. If there is a remainder of one it is the next
day of the week, and so on. Illustration: Suppose it is Monday, July
9, and the question is, what day of the week will Aug. 10 be, proceed
as follows: In July after July 9 there are 22 days. Add 10 days in
August, making 32 days. Divide 32 by 7, and the quotient is 4 and 4
remainder. Now July 9 was Monday, so Aug. 10 will be the fourth day
of the week after Monday, or Friday. To find the day of the week for
dates in other years than the current one is a much more serious
matter. It involves many elements, and is, withal, an arithmetical
problem, and therefore excluded from Our Curiosity Shop by one of
its standing rules. There are tables for this class of questions, as
explained in an answer given not long ago.


SUPPORT OF PAUPER RELATIVES.

  LONGMONT, Col.

  What States, if any, require persons to support their pauper
  parents and other near relatives?

  C. WATSON BROWN.

_Answer._—The statutes of Illinois require “that every poor person
who shall be unable to earn a livelihood in consequence of any bodily
infirmity, idiocy, lunacy, or other unavoidable cause, shall be
supported by the father, grandfather, mother, grandmother, children,
grandchildren, brothers or sisters of such person, if they, or either
of them, be of sufficient ability; provided that when persons become
paupers from intemperance or other bad conduct they shall not be
entitled to support from any relative except parent or child.” These
relatives are to be called on in the following order: Children are
to be first called on for parents, if the children are of sufficient
ability, and, if not, then the parents of the poor person; next
brothers and sisters; next grandchildren; next grandparents. Married
females cannot be required to support their poor relatives unless
they have property in their own right. Similar laws exist in most
if not all the other States of the Union. Not having the statutes of
Colorado at hand, we must refer you to them, at the nearest justice’s
office or at the county court house, for definite information as to
your own State.


THE FIRST RAILROAD IN ILLINOIS.

  ALTONA, Ill.

In a recent answer in Our Curiosity Shop it was asserted that “a
section of the Northern Cross Railroad, from Naples to Springfield,
was the first railroad in this State; also, that it was operated by
mule power until 1849.” Now let me say: 1. That the road was built
from Meredosia toward Jacksonville and Springfield in 1838. [It was
begun in 1837, and was opened through to Springfield in 1838—Editor.]
2. A locomotive was shipped by way of the rivers to Meredosia, where
it arrived and was placed on the track in November, 1838. I went from
Peoria, June 15, 1839, by steamboat to Meredosia, where I saw the
locomotive on the new railroad, coupled to a train of cars ready to
pull out. A few years later there was a branch constructed from the
bluff, four or five miles from Meredosia, to Naples. The road from
Naples to Jacksonville and Springfield became the main line, and the
spur to Meredosia was regarded as the branch. [The use of steam was
very soon abandoned, as the road was operated at a loss, and mule
power was resorted to until 1849—Editor.]

  A. G. LITTLE.


DU CHAILLU, THE TRAVELER.

  POSTVILLE, Iowa.

  Please give a short sketch of the life of Paul B. Du Chaillu. How
  is his name pronounced?

  MAUD MAYO.

_Answer._.—Du Chaillu, a great African explorer, began his travels
when but a boy, with his father. For many years they lived upon the
Gaboon River, and in 1855, after spending some years in New York, he
returned to Western Africa, where he devoted four years to travel
and discovery. During this time he traveled about 8,000 miles on
foot, and collected many valuable specimens in natural history.
His works contain the result of his study during this and a later
expedition, their chief interest and value being due to the account
they contain of many hitherto strange tribes, and to his description
of the gorilla and many curious apes. Du Chaillu was born in France
about 1820. His name is pronounced Du Sha-yu, with accent on second
syllable, and sounding a as in far.


SALE OF TOBACCO BY PRODUCER.

  ORLEANS, Ind.

  Has Congress changed the internal revenue laws so as to allow the
  producer to sell to the consumer?

  A. N. W.

_Answer._—Yes, within a narrow limit: as shown by the following
communication from Mr. Milton C. Springer, the efficient and obliging
Chief Deputy Internal Revenue Collector of this district, showing
changes in the law relating to the sale of leaf tobacco by the
producer:

“The law (see section 3.244, United States Revised Statutes,
paragraph 7) defines a retail dealer in leaf tobacco as a person
whose business it is to sell leaf tobacco in quantities less than an
original hogshead, case, or bale; or who sells directly to consumers;
or to persons other than dealers in leaf tobacco, who have paid
a special tax as such, or to manufacturers of tobacco, snuff, or
cigars who have paid a special tax, or to persons who purchase in
original packages for export.

“Section 2 of the act of March 3, 1883, provides that on and after
May 1, retail dealers in leaf tobacco shall pay two hundred and fifty
dollars ($250), and thirty cents for each additional dollar on the
amount of their monthly sales, in excess of the rate of five hundred
dollars ($500) per annum. Provided that farmers and producers of
tobacco may sell at the place of production tobacco of their own
growth and raising, at retail directly to consumers to an amount not
exceeding $100 annually. This proviso, as in the case of all provisos
to general provisions of law, must be construed literally:

“1. The sales must be made at the place of production.

“2. They must be made strictly to consumers and to no other persons.

“3. The tobacco must be of the growth and raising of the farmer or
producer who makes the sales.

“4. The sales must be of leaf tobacco in the form and condition
of leaf as it is ordinarily dried and cured for the market. If
the tobacco is ‘twisted by hand or reduced into a condition to be
consumed, or in any manner other than the ordinary mode of drying and
curing prepared for sale or consumption, even if prepared without
the use of any machine or instrument and without being pressed or
sweetened,’ it is liable to a tax of 8 cents a pound. (See section
14, act of March 1, 1879).

“5. If the farmer or producer sells ordinary leaf at retail directly
to consumers, as hereinbefore stated, to an amount exceeding $100
annually, he becomes liable to pay a special tax as retail dealer
in leaf tobacco. He also becomes liable if he violates any of the
conditions of the said proviso, as herein stated.”


RAIN-GAUGE AND TEMPERATURE.

  OSBORNE CITY, Kan.

  1. How should a rain-gauge be set in order to register rainfall
  correctly? 2. At what hours per day are the observations of
  thermometer taken to get a mean temperature?

  S. B. F.

_Answer._—There are different kinds of rain-gauges, and instructions
for using accompany each instrument. As a rule the mouth of a
rain-gauge is larger than the graduated chamber which measures the
fall. For special observations different forms of gauges are used,
horizontal, inclined, or vertical. For ordinary observations the
mouth of the instrument should be horizontal. Instructions of the
United States Signal Service direct observers to set the rain-gauge
“whenever practicable, with the top of the funnel-shaped collector
twelve inches above the surface of the ground, firmly fixed in a
vertical position. When a position at the level of the ground cannot
be found with a sufficiently clear exposure, the gauge will be placed
on the top of the instrument-room or roof of the building occupied by
the observer, who will measure the height above the ground and report
it to the Chief Signal Officer. The measuring-rod is graduated in
inches and tenths of an inch, and the proportion between the cylinder
and funnel is as ten to one, so that ten inches upon the rod
correspond to one inch of actual rainfall.” “Snow will be melted and
measured, and reported in the same manner as rain. If for any reason
it cannot be melted, the depth will be measured, and ten inches of
snow reported as one inch of rainfall.” There is a great difference
in measure of rain at several elevations above the ground, not wholly
explainable. Professor Phillips found the fall of rain at York,
England, for the year 1833-34 to be 14.16 inches at 213 feet from
the ground; 19.85 inches at 44 feet; and 25.71 on the ground. Daily
mean relative humidity observations, according to the United States
Signal Service, are obtained by dividing 7 a. m., 2 p. m., and 9 p.
m. observations by three; the monthly means by dividing the sum of
the daily means by the number of the days in the month. 2. The daily
mean temperature is obtained by dividing the sum of the 7 a. m., 2 p.
m., and twice the 9 p. m. observations by four.

When a rain-gauge is not at hand, a perfectly cylindrical pan or tub
may be used to measure the rainfall, but it should be elevated at
least a foot above the level lawn or roof.


NEAREST APPROACH TO THE POLE.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  What is the nearest that any explorer has got to the north pole?

  SUBSCRIBER.

_Answer._—The nearest approach to the north pole, 83 degrees 20
minutes 26 seconds was made May 12, 1876, by a sledge party sent off
from one of the two vessels of the Nares expedition, fitted out by
the British Government. The point is almost exactly half the distance
from Chicago to New York City by the shortest railroad route.


OUR BROAD REPUBLIC.

  GARDEN CITY, Kan.

  Has the United States any territory outside of the States and
  Western Territories, Alaska, and District of Columbia?

  E. C. W.

_Answer._—No; unless this government should conclude to reduce
to possession the lands discovered in the Arctic and Antarctic
regions by Dr. Kane, Dr. Hayes, Commodore Wilkes, and other American
explorers. Several of these bold discoverers planted the American
flag in the ice of those inhospitable lands and gave names to coasts
and islands of large extent, so situated that if “Uncle Sam” insists
on his title he can now boast, with “John Bull,” that the sun never
sets on his possessions.


JOHN RUSKIN’S ST. GEORGE’S COMPANY.

  PETOSKEY, Mich.

  Be kind enough to give a sketch of the life of John Ruskin. Did he
  not attempt to found a society or colony on a novel plan and fail
  of success?

  E. I. L.

_Answer._—John Ruskin, the eminent English art critic, commenced
the publication, in 1871, of a monthly periodical, entitled _Fors
Clavigera_, addressed particularly to workingmen, and urging them
to join him in forming an organization to be known as “St. George’s
Company,” for the purpose of developing among the working classes
a greater love of the beautiful and raising the common standard
of architecture and home surroundings in rural life. He protested
against “the tyranny and defilement of machinery” in country life. He
set apart about $35,000 (£7,000), the tenth of his private fortune,
to promote the success of this society, of which he was chosen Grand
Master. The workingmen responded but poorly to all his appeals, and
the undertaking is regarded as a failure. A sketch of Ruskin’s life
is contained in Our Curiosity Shop of 1880, page 85.


AN EXCEPTIONAL VICE PRESIDENT.

  ANN ARBOR, Mich.

  What would be done in case of the failure of the people to elect a
  Vice President?

  A POSSIBLE CANDIDATE.

_Answer._—Just what was done in the only instance since the adoption
of the twelfth amendment to the Constitution when such a failure has
occurred. In 1836, no one having received a majority of the votes
cast for Vice President, Richard M. Johnson, of Kentucky, was chosen
by the United States Senate, he being one of the highest on the list
of persons voted for by the people.


CENTRAL AMERICA.

  BLALOCK, Ore.

  1. What is the present political condition of Central America? 2.
  Are the States united under one federal government, or are they
  independent of each other?

  W. MARIMER.

_Answer._—After much civil strife the people are becoming accustomed
to republican forms of government, and educational and commercial
advantages are increasing; though it must be said that the progress
is not rapid. At present the country is quiet. 2. Until 1839 the
republics of Central America were united into a confederation; but
now each is an independent republic, governed by a president and
at least one legislative body, chosen by universal suffrage. As a
rule the president is elected for four years, but few have held this
office for an entire term. These States consist of Guatemala, Costa
Rica, Nicaragua, San Salvador, and Honduras.


EXPLORERS OE THE SOUTHWEST.

  WICHITA, Kan.

  Our Curiosity Shop has told us of the first American explorers who
  crossed the Northern part of the United States, now please tell us
  who were the first Americans to cross the continent on or about the
  line of the Union Pacific Railroad, or south of that? Name some
  work on the explorers of the Southwest that is instructive and
  reliable, but not expensive.

  A SUBSCRIBER.

_Answer._—It was long believed, and is still generally supposed,
that, after Lewis and Clarke, General John C. Fremont, then a Captain
of Engineers in the United States Army, with a small force, guided
by the famous Kit Carson, was the first explorer who crossed the
continent within the present boundaries of the United States. This he
did in 1843, following much of the way the route afterward adopted
by the Union and Central Pacific Railroads. However, Mr. William
E. Curtis, in his intensely interesting little book entitled “A
Summer Scamper Along the Old Santa Fe Trail, and Through the Gorges
to Zion,” shows conclusively that, while the world is indebted to
Fremont for the first maps and published descriptions of the country
between Central Colorado and the California coast, hunters and
trappers had wound their way through these savage wilds years before
him, and that as early as Jan. 20, 1824, a bold adventurer by the
name of Sylvester Pattie, a Virginian, and his son, with a party of
five other men, left the Missouri River in company with a trading
party for Santa Fe, and some three years later groped his way down
the Gila River into California; where he visited San Francisco, then
an insignificant Mexican trading post and Jesuit mission station.
Arrested as spies by the jealous Mexicans, and imprisoned, it was
some time before these daring adventurers obtained their release
and secured a passage from San Diego to Vera Cruz, whence they got
back to the United States. “The Summer Scamper” and another book
by the same author, “Children of the Sun,” both by The Inter Ocean
Publishing Company, are full of spirited sketches of the early
explorers of the Southwest, graphic descriptions of the scenery of
this wonderful region, and observations on its natural resources
and the progress of the civilization which is invading it from all
directions.


LIVINGSTONE, THE EXPLORER.

  Albia, Iowa.

  Please give a brief account of Dr. Livingstone’s life and
  explorations.

  J. H. ROWLES.

_Answer._—David Livingstone was a Scotchman, born in Lanarkshire in
1817, and when a boy worked in a cotton factory. In 1840 he landed in
Port Natal, Africa, as a medical missionary of the London Missionary
Society, and became an associate of the Rev. Robert Moffat, whose
daughter he afterward married. For sixteen years he labored earnestly
in the mission work, and during that time discovered Lake Ngami
(1849), and crossed the continent from the Zambesi to Loando, a
journey which occupied eighteen months. While in England, in 1857,
Livingstone published his “Missionary Travels and Researches in South
Africa.” Returning to Africa he devoted himself to exploration, and
in 1865 resolved to find the source of the Nile. During the remainder
of his life he was often not heard from for months, and it was during
one of these protracted absences that Mr. Stanley began his travels
to search for him, and found him in great destitution at Ujiji. Dr.
Livingstone died while exploring the river system of the Chambeze
in the belief that these were the head waters of the Nile, having
reached Ulala, beyond Lake Bemba, in 1873. In 1874 his body was
interred in Westminster Abbey.


SUBDIVISIONS OF GOVERNMENT SECTIONS.

  VENTURA, Mich.

  1. In subdividing a township into sections, to what part of the
  township do the fractional sections belong? 2. Sections sometimes
  overrun or fall short in the subdivision of quarter sections into
  “forties” by the County Surveyor: Is this overplus or deficit
  divided equally among the “forties,” or is it all thrown into one
  side?

  CHARLES OWENS.

_Answer._—1. The sections on the northern and western boundaries of a
township are fractional—i. e., they do not contain exactly 640 acres.
The small fragments of these fractional sections are called “lots,”
and they are numbered from 1 upward in each section. 2. The course
that surveyors are directed by the regulations of the General Land
Office to pursue in the subdivision of sections is to run straight
lines from the quarter section corners established by the United
States survey to the opposite corresponding corners, and the point
of intersection of lines so run will be the common corner to the
several quarter sections, or, in other words, the legal center of the
section. In the subdivision of fractional sections, where no opposite
corresponding corners have been or can be fixed, the subdivision
lines should be ascertained by running from the established corners
due north, south, east, or west lines, as the case may be, to the
water-course, Indian boundary line, or other external boundary of
such fractional section. Where the lines marked in the field by the
United States Deputy Surveyors are not due north and south or east
and west lines, “mean courses” must be adopted. Where there is no
opposite section line the subdivision line must be run parallel
to the section line that is marked. The purpose is to divide the
overplus or deficit arising from the unavoidable irregularities and
errors of the United States survey as nearly equal as possible among
the minor subdivisions of the section.


TEA, COFFEE, AND WHISKY.

  When and by whom were tea, coffee, and whisky first used as a
  beverage?

  H. G. CLAYTON.

_Answer._—The use of tea among the Chinese, from whom it has extended
to all parts of the world, cannot be traced with certainty further
back than to 350 A. D., or thereabouts. This use did not become
general in China until about A. D. 800. It was first introduced into
Europe by the Dutch in 1610. How long coffee has been used in Arabia,
its native country, is not certainly known. It was introduced into
Egypt in the sixteenth century. The first coffee house in Europe
was established in Constantinople in 1551. The first person to make
it known to Western Europe seems to have been Leonhard Rauwolf, a
German physician, a great traveler. Once introduced, the use of this
delightful beverage extended rapidly. Coffee houses sprung up in all
the chief cities. The first one in London was opened by a Greek in
Newman’s court, Cornhill, in 1652; the first one in France was opened
in Marseilles in 1671; the first one in Paris in 1672. The earliest
manufacture of whisky is generally referred to the middle of the
sixteenth century, but there are some reasons for believing that it
had an earlier origin. It was made by the Gaels from barley, which
still yields the best quality, and was called by them _uisge beatha_,
later _usque baugh_, _the water of life_—of which first word “whisky”
is a corruption.


CONVICT LABOR.

  RUTLAND, Ill.

  If convicts can make a better article than those who are not
  convicts, why should other mechanics complain? At least, why
  shouldn’t the public be permitted to utilize the labor of convicts
  for its own good?

  WM. MARSHALL.

_Answer._—No doubt it is sound policy to make use of convict labor
for the public good and the improvement of the criminals themselves,
but the real question is, How is this to be done? Manufacturers and
honest mechanics complain that the present system of hiring out
convicts to contractors puts the labor of the untaxed criminals,
housed at the expense of the State, without families to support, and
free from all social and civil burdens, in unfair competition with
the labor or industrial products of honest workmen who have families
to maintain, taxes to pay, and social and civil duties to perform.
Whether the contract system can be so adjusted as to remove any just
ground of complaint of the nature here pointed out is a question that
is eliciting the earnest study of some of our most profound social
and political economists. We cannot discuss it in this place, nor
have we any dictum to proclaim. It must be said for the system that
it is the only one, with few, if any, exceptions, that has rendered
American penitentiaries self-sustaining.


MUSHROOM GARDENING.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  Tell us how to raise mushrooms. Are they produced from seed or not?

  W.

_Answer._—The mushroom spawn is sold in bricks, and should be used
in the following manner: Procure a quantity of good horse dung and
make it into a heap, which must be frequently turned for a fortnight,
until the rankness has disappeared. Then build it into beds twelve
inches in height and four feet wide, under a shed ten feet wide. This
will allow room for a walk through the center of the shed. Pack the
dung tightly, and cover it with long straw for ten days, when the
straw must be removed and an inch of fine loam spread upon the beds.
On this plant the spawn, which has been broken into pieces the size
of a walnut, in rows six inches apart, and cover with another inch of
mold, over which spread the straw. When the mold is too dry sprinkle
it with tepid water. In five or six weeks the young mushrooms should
appear.


BATTLE OF THE PYRAMIDS.

  RAVANNA, Mo.

  I have a picture entitled “The Battle of the Pyramids.” Where,
  when, and by whom was that battle fought?

  C. E. J.

_Answer._—The “Battle of the Pyramids” was fought at Embabeh,
opposite Cairo, Egypt, July 21, 1798, between the French, commanded
by Napoleon Bonaparte, and the Egyptian Mamelukes, commanded by Murad
Bey. The latter fought with desperate valor, but they were completely
bewildered by European tactics. The French infantry, formed into
squares, received the fierce charges of the magnificent Mameluke
cavalry, which swarmed around them, on their serried bayonets, while
a galling fire of grape and musketry virtually annihilated whole
divisions of their army. Out of an army of over 60,000 men Murad Bey
escaped with barely 2,500 horse, leaving 15,000 men on the field of
battle and the rest of his troops, their arms abandoned, fleeing
in utter rout in all directions completely disorganized. From the
circumstance that this battle was fought within sight of the famous
pyramids of Gizeh, near Cairo, it took the name above mentioned.


FIRES OCCASIONED BY LOCOMOTIVES.

  ADELINE, Ill.

  Are railway companies responsible for damage to farm property
  occasioned by locomotives or must the farmer bear the loss.

  ADELINE READER.

_Answer._—State laws require railway companies to use certain
precautions against fire from locomotive sparks or coals from ash
pan. If it can be shown that damage to property has resulted from
neglect of these laws or through culpability of railway employes,
the company is responsible. The spark extinguishers on locomotive
smoke stacks check the draft and on this account engines frequently
run considerable distances with them uncovered. Again they often
dump panfuls of live coals on the track, when the prairie grass
and stubble are like tinder and the wind is blowing a gale. Damage
done through such culpability is fairly chargeable to the railway
companies, and, if the facts can be proved, they can be made to pay
the loss.


SERGEANT MASON’S SENTENCE.

  GALT, Mich.

  What was Sergeant Mason’s sentence? Please answer and settle a
  dispute. State main facts.

  SUBSCRIBER.

_Answer._—Sergeant Mason, one of the soldiers detailed to guard
Guiteau, fired into his cell on Sept. 12, 1881, with the intention,
as he confessed, to kill him. He was tried by court martial early in
1882, and sentenced to be dismissed from the army, with loss of pay,
and to be imprisoned for eight years in the Penitentiary at Albany.


AUTHOR OF DYING CALIFORNIAN.

  GRAND DETOUR.

Seeing no response to the question as to who is the author of the
poem entitled the “Dying Californian,” I wish to say that this poem
was written by Kate Harris, of Pascoag, R. I., now Mrs. Charles
Plass, of Napa City, Cal. It was suggested by hearing a letter which
was dictated by Brown Owens when dying, on his way to California. It
was read at his funeral services at Chepachet, R. I.

  M. W. GILMAN.


THE CHRISTIAN ERA—WHEN FIRST USED.

  1. When was the practice of reckoning time from the birth of Christ
  instituted, and by whom? 2. What nations now reckon time according
  to this era?

  G.

_Answer._—Dionysius the Little, a learned monk, introduced the use of
this epoch in Italy in the sixth century. It began to be made use of
in Gaul and England about two centuries later. It is now followed in
nearly all Christian countries and in several Eastern nations.


THE TWELVE CÆSARS.

  SAOPI, Minn.

  Who were the twelve Cæsars?

  M. H. MILLER.

_Answer._—The twelve Cæsars are Julius Cæsar and the eleven Emperors
following him, most of whom were from his family. Nerva was chosen by
the Senate, and was the first to select a successor without regard
to family. Following are the names and dates of the reigns of the
twelve: Julius Cæsar, 44; Augustus, 31 B. C.-14 A. D., Tiberius,
14-37; Caius, 37-41; Claudius, 41-54; Nero, 54-68; Galba, 68-69;
Otho, 69; Vitellius, 69; Vespasian, 69-79; Titus, 79-81; Domitian,
81-96. The title Cæsar was given to all of the Roman Emperors, until
the time of Hadrian, after whom Cæsar was the title of the heir of
the throne, and the title of the Emperor was Augustus.


SINKING BRIDGE PIERS.

  FREEPORT, Ill.

  Please explain the use of compressed air in sinking the caissons of
  the great Brooklyn and New York bridge.

  F. R. SMITH.

_Answer._—The method of sinking cylinders by use of compressed air
was invented by Mr. Triger, of England, in 1841, but has been carried
to greater results in the United States than anywhere else. Tubular
cast-iron shells are used to form a large hollow pile, which may be
forced downward by its own weight and superincumbent masonry built
on it as it descends. Compressed air is employed inside such shells
to force the water out at the bottom, where the pile or caisson is
open, while it is air-tight and water-tight at all other points. It
was formerly supposed men could not work under a pressure of more
than three atmospheres, which is required in most cases to keep out
water at a depth of sixty-five feet, but in the case of the St. Louis
bridge, caissons were sunk a depth of 110 feet below the surface.
So, in the case of sinking the Brooklyn bridge piers, the men at
work in the compressed air chamber, excavating the earth as the pier
descended, worked in an atmosphere from three to four times as heavy
as in the open air; a strain which they could endure but a short
while at a time, and which proved fatal in many instances.


PROPERTY OF ALIENS.

  GRISWOLD, Iowa.

  If a Welshman who has not been naturalized dies in this country,
  who inherits his estate? Would the making of a will make any
  material difference as to the control of his property?

  FLORA K. SMITH.

_Answer._—Each of the States has its own laws in regard to the rights
of aliens. In Iowa aliens, that is persons of foreign birth who have
not been naturalized by their own act or that of their parents, may
acquire, inherit, hold, and dispose of property, real or personal,
precisely as if they were citizens. The same is true in most of the
States. In Pennsylvania alien friends may buy lands not exceeding
5,000 acres, nor in net annual income $20,000, and hold the same as
citizens may, but there are certain differences between them and
citizens in the matter of real estate conveyances, inheritance, etc.
A will prevents the property of an alien from escheating to the
State in case of non-appearance of heirs; and, as in the case of
citizens, transcends the statute and common law as to the division of
property among the heirs of persons who die intestate, i. e. without
testamentary wills.


LAND WARRANTS.

  COVE, Oregon.

  Is there anything to prevent a person from locating a land warrant
  on public lands in this State? For what wars were land warrants
  given, and what are they worth?

  JAMES M. SELDERS.

_Answer._—Military bounty land warrants are issued by the
Commissioner of Pensions for services in the several wars before the
year 1855. No warrants are issued for services during the war for
the Union; but soldiers can be credited on homestead entries for the
terms of their enlistments, up to four years of the time of residence
required as a condition of title in cases of ordinary homesteaders.
These warrants call for 40, 60, 80, 120, or 160 acres of land, as the
case may be, and being assignable can be located by any purchaser.
They should be bought only of responsible dealers, with a written
guarantee that, in case of error or defect, the settler will not lose
anything thereby. The market price of such warrants is from $1 to
$1.20 per acre. There is no reason why these cannot be used in paying
for public lands in Oregon as well as in other States or Territories.
Applications must be made as in cash cases, but accompanied with a
warrant duly assigned as payment for the land. Yet where the land
is $2.50 per acre, as the warrant pays only for land at $1.25 per
acre, the remaining $1.25 per acre must be paid in cash. However, a
tract of eighty acres, rated at $2.50 per acre, for example, can be
paid for by two eighty-acre warrants without any cash, except fees
chargeable by land officers, as follows: For a forty-acre tract, 50
cents each to Register and Receiver; for sixty acres, 75 cents each;
for eighty acres, $1; and so on.


NOON BY CLOCK AND BY SUN-DIAL.

  SUN RIVER, M. T.

  The following rule will enable any one to determine the true
  difference between noon by clock-time and noon by the sun-dial or
  noon-mark; which seems to be a vexing question with some of your
  correspondents: Rule: From any almanac take the time from sunrise
  to 12 o’clock and from 12 o’clock to sunset. Half of the difference
  between the two is the number of minutes which the dial shows
  wrong, either plus or minus. This is called the equation of time
  and varies about fifteen minutes either way, at its highest.

  JOHN KERLER.


THREE AMERICAN AUTHORESSES.

  ENGLEWOOD, Ill.

  Please name the author of “The Lamplighter”—an old book, but a good
  one—and who wrote “The Wide, Wide World.”

  E. O. G.

_Answer._—The author of “The Lamplighter” was Maria S. Cummins, born
in Massachusetts in 1827; died in 1866. The writer of “The Wide, Wide
World,” of which there were 500,000 copies sold in the first ten
years, and of “Queechey,” is Susan Warner, born in New York in 1818.
Her sister Anna is the popular author of “The Fourth Watch,” “The
Other Shore,” and other works published under the pseudonym of “Amy
Lathrop.”


BONANZA FARMS—U.S. MARINE.

  PLEASANT PLAINS, Ill.

  1. Who owns the largest farm in Dakota and how many acres does it
  contain? Which is the largest in the United States? 2. How many
  ships has the United States engaged in commerce?

  ALBIN C. DEMARY.

_Answer._-The largest farm in the United States is the estate of
the late Dr. Glenn, of California, over 60,000 acres. The largest
farm in Dakota is the Grandin Farm, covering about 50,000 acres, and
requiring the labor of 150 men at seed time and 250 at harvest. The
largest cultivated area under one control is the 28,000 acres farmed
by Oliver Dalrymple. 2. June 30, 1880, the shipping of the United
States was classified as follows: Sailing vessels, 16,830; steam
vessels, 4,717; barges, 1,930, and canal-boats, etc., 1,235; total,
24,712, measuring 4,069,035 tons. In 1882 (June 30) the commercial
navy of this country numbered 24,368 vessels, of 4,165,933 tons.


WHERE POSTAL SERVICE IS SELF-SUPPORTING.

  LONGMONT, Col.

  In what States is the United States postal service self-supporting.

  C. WATSON BROWN.

_Answer._—In Connecticut, Delaware, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Maine,
Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New
York, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont, Wisconsin, and Alaska, in
which States and Territory the excess of receipts over expenditures
in the year ending June 30, 1882, amounted to $6,951,696, while
the excess of expenditures over receipts in the rest of the Union
amounted to $5,114,930, leaving a surplus, for the first time in
several years, amounting to $1,836,765.


THOMAS NAST, THE CARICATURIST.

  ASHKUM, Ill.

  Give a short biographical sketch of Thomas Nast, the great
  “caricaturist.”

  C. K. LANGLEY.

_Answer._—Thomas Nast is a Bavarian, having been born at Landau,
Sept. 27, 1840. At six years of age he came to the United States with
his father, and at 15, with six months instruction from Theodore
Kaufmann, he began to furnish illustrations for newspapers. His
reputation, by the caricatures he made, was won during the civil war.


MAXIMILIAN I.

  URBANA, Ill.

  Please give me a short biography of Maximilian I., of Germany.

  NETTIE AYERS.

_Answer._—Maximilian I., one of the greatest German Emperors, was
born in 1459, and at the age of 19 married Maria, daughter of Charles
the Bold. This union led to war with Louis XI. of France, who tried
to seize some of Princess Maria’s possessions. In 1486 he was
crowned King of the Romans, and in 1493, at the death of his father,
Maximilian became Emperor of Germany. Later he married the daughter
of the Duke of Milan. He was led to war with the Swiss, Venetians,
and French. He died in 1519.


ORPHAN ASYLUMS.

  CARTHAGE, Ill.

  Is there an asylum for orphan children in Illinois? If so, where is
  it?

  H. L. RAND.

_Answer._—The only State orphan asylum in Illinois is the Soldiers
Orphans’ Home at Normal. There are several orphan asylums in Chicago
and vicinity, sustained by churches or by private benefactions.
Among these are the Chicago Protestant Orphan Asylum, 2228 Michigan
avenue; Chicago Nursery and Half Orphan Asylum, 855 North Halsted
street; German Orphan Asylum, at Rose Hill (Havelock Postoffice);
St. Joseph’s Orphan Asylum, Douglas avenue, corner of Lake; and St.
Mary’s Orphan Asylum, 2928 Archer avenue; Uhlich Orphan Asylum. There
are others of similar nature in other parts of the State, as the
German Evangelical Lutheran Orphan Asylum, at Addison; Orphan Home,
Jacksonville; Asylum of St. Casimir for Polish children, LaSalle;
Home for the Friendless, Peoria; Woodland Home, Quincy. Besides these
there are in Chicago several houses for foundlings.


LANGUAGES AND TONGUES.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  What is the difference between a language and a tongue? How many
  languages and tongues are now spoken?

  J. G. SMITH.

_Answer._—Language is a term that is applicable to any mode of
conveying ideas, whether by speech, writing, hieroglyphics, or a
system of gestures or pantomime. Even the deaf and dumb have several
languages, but cannot be properly said to have “tongues.” Tongue
is an English term for the spoken language of a particular people,
as the French tongue, the German tongue, and so on. The number
of languages of all the kinds above designated or the number of
tongues in all the world is not known. There are over 6,000 known
languages and dialects: how many more will be discovered when we have
thoroughly explored Africa and Central and Northern Asia is still a
matter of conjecture.


AMERICAN VESSELS SOLD.

  SHEBOYGAN, Wis.

  What proportion of American shipping was sold to foreigners during
  the civil war? How much was sold last year?

  SUBSCRIBER.

_Answer._—During the four years, 1861 to 1865, inclusive, the tonnage
of American vessels sold to foreigners, mainly to escape capture,
or because it could not be profitably employed while exposed to war
risk, compared with our total merchant marine as follows:

  Years.    Total tonnage.      Tons sold.
  1861        5,539,813            26,649
  1862        5,112,164           117,756
  1863        5,155,056           222,199
  1864        4,986,400           300,865
  1865        1,579,994           133,832
                                  ———————
      Total tons sold             801,301

As the laws of the United States interdict the re-enrollment of any
of these vessels, and restoration of the privileges of our flag, this
was a permanent loss to the tonnage of our merchant marine, although
it is certain that many of them continued to be the property in fact
of American citizens, sailing under foreign colors. The sale of
American vessels to foreigners in 1879 amounted to 43,312 tons, and
in 1880 to 26,883 tons.


QUEEN VICTORIA’S SURNAME.

  PANORA, Iowa.

Having noticed in Our Curiosity Shop what is said in regard to the
surname of the Queen of England, I send you the following extract
from the _Whitehall Review_ on this subject: “At dinner the other
night the conversation lapsed, as it sometimes will lapse with
the best, into questions hardly distinguishable from conundrums.
A celebrated historian was present, and I put a question to him
which I know has puzzled a great many people at different times:
‘What is the surname of the royal family?’ ‘Guelph, of course.’
That is the usual answer, and it was the historian’s. I ventured
to suggest that although the royal family are Guelphs by descent,
her Majesty’s marriage with Prince Albert of Saxe-Cobourg must have
the effect which the marriage of a lady has in all other cases, and
that the surname of the present house must be the Prince Consort’s.
But what is the surname of the Prince Consort’s family? Simple, but
staggering. No one knew. All guessed, and all were wrong. I happened
to have looked up the subject a few months ago, so I knew that the
name was ‘Wettin.’ Of course no one had heard it before. Every one
smiled at the horrible idea of the Guelphs being reduced to Wettins!
The point was referred to Theodore Martin. ‘You are quite right,’
said the graceful biographer of the Prince Consort. ‘Wettin is the
family name of the house of Saxony, to whom the dominion of Saxony in
the year 1420. The king of Saxony and the minor princes of the house
are, therefore, all Wettins; or, German, Wettiner.’” [Nevertheless,
the fact remains that none of the royal family sign either of the
names, Guelph or Wettin, or are addressed by either name in any form
of address, oral or written.—ED.]

  MRS. H. R. BRYAN.


NATIONAL, STATE AND LOCAL WEALTH AND DEBT.

  SIOUX CITY, Iowa.

  Tell us what is the total public indebtedness of the United States
  of all kinds, National, State, county, city, township, district,
  etc. Also what part of the Union, the East, West, or South, owes
  the most. Finally, give the wealth per capita East, West and South.

  DISPUTANT.

_Answer._—According to statistics in “The West in 1880,” since
confirmed by the census returns, the local indebtedness of the
several States (consisting of county, city, town and district
debts, bonded and floating) added to State indebtedness, aggregated
$1,117,821,671, or $22.28 per capita; and the wealth, measured by the
assessed valuation, amounted to $336.89 per capita, distributed by
States and Territories as follows:

                                                Per          Wealth
  States and Territories.       Debt.         capita.       per cap.
  New Eng. States           $178,654,977      $44.54        $661.27
  Mid. States                488,638,655       41.57         473.55
  South. States              204,887,805       13.43         155.29
  West. States               243,984,183       13.17         333.63
  Territories                  1,656,051        2.73         211.29
                          ——————————————      ——————        ———————
    Total                 $1,117,821,671      $22.28        $336.89

In some States local indebtedness has diminished since 1880, while in
others it has increased. Assuming that the total local indebtedness
is about the same, we may add to the above $1,117,821,671, the
National debt at close of June 30, 1883, say $1,884,171,728, and
it appears that the total public debt of this country is about
$3,001,993,399.


PERVERSITY OF THE MISSISSIPPI.

  OPDYKE, Ill.

  Seeing that the earth’s diameter at the equator is greater than at
  the poles, and Lake Itasca is nearer the center of the earth than
  the surface of the Gulf of Mexico, why isn’t it proper to say that
  the Mississippi River runs up hill?

  HARRY.

_Answer._—This notion that the Mississippi, in order to accommodate
itself to theories as to the shape of the earth, is performing the
remarkable feat of running up hill, is sufficiently prevalent to
lead to the iteration and reiteration of the above question as often
as once a week at least. Of course we cannot reiterate answers so
frequently, and hence generally pass the question unnoticed, as
correspondents have passed our by-gone replies. A lengthy answer
will be found in Our Curiosity Shop of last year, page 95. Here and
now we will merely say that the United States Hydrographical Survey
flatly contradicts the notion that Lake Itasca is lower than the Gulf
of Mexico. It gives the levels at numerous points between that lake
and the mouth of the Mississippi, and, surprising as it may seem,
considering that the equator has “got the bulge” on all the rest of
the world, this survey demonstrates that this old-fashioned river,
following the custom of other rivers, with unyielding perversity,
is running down hill; in some places at the rate of twenty-five
feet and more per mile, and in others at the rate of only several
inches. Perhaps this all comes of its never having been “to high
school,” or a gymnasium. In fact its education has been totally
neglected, except down South, where it has been trained into a bad
habit of climbing levees. Whatever the shape of the earth—whether
its equatorial diameter is twenty-six miles greater than its axial
diameter, or more or less; and whether the waters of the ocean are
or are not drawn toward the equator by the centrifugal force of
the earth’s diurnal motion, until they stand several miles higher
there than they would if the globe had no diurnal motion—one fact is
established beyond all equivocation, and that is, that tide level
at the mouth of the Mississippi is about 1,575 feet lower than Lake
Itasca; which entirely relieves this grand old son of Neptune of any
necessity for waging war with the laws of nature and fighting his way
up hill to revisit the halls of his father, the “Trident-bearer,”
in the briny chambers of the sea. Probably if the earth’s motion on
its axis were to cease there would be a reflux of waters from the
equatorial region into the Gulf of Mexico, up the Mississippi Valley,
across into the Red River of the North and the Mackenzie, submerging
the greater part of North America. Let us hope that the earth will
continue to spin on its axis at about the same rate as now, at least
until we have sold out all our farms and corner lots and moved to
equatorial America, where land will then be considerably higher than
it is at present in more senses than one.


FIRST CHAPLAINS OF CONGRESS.

  LEIGHTON, Iowa.

  When was the first prayer offered in the Congress of the United
  States and by whom? Is there any official record of the matter? If
  so, where can it be found?

  H. CLEW.

_Answer._—The first chaplain of the Senate of the United States was
the Rt. Rev. Samuel Provoost, of the Episcopal Church, Bishop of New
York. The first chaplain of the House of Representatives was the Rev.
Wm. Lynn, D. D., of the Presbyterian Church. Both of these officiated
in the first Congress organized under the present Constitution in
the spring of 1789. The Congressional proceedings of that time are
preserved in the “American State Papers,” selected and edited under
authority of Congress.


THE HARMONICA.

  UNION CITY, Ind.

  Please give a history of the harmonica.

  FORD A. CARPENTER.

_Answer._—The original harmonica consisted of drinking glasses,
played with moistened fingers. We read that about 1750 Mr.
Packeridge, an Irish gentleman, was noted as a player upon glasses,
whose pitch was regulated by the amount of water contained in each.
Benjamin Franklin greatly improved the harmonica by making the
glasses revolve about a spindle and fixing the pitch by the size of
the glass. He also adopted a different color for each note in the
scale, and moistened the rims by passing them through water. Miss
Davis, a relative of Franklin, became a celebrated harmonica player,
and performed at concerts with great credit. The mouth organ, which
is now commonly called the harmonica, is a toy in which the sounds
are produced by the vibration of metallic reeds, moved by the breath.
Reed instruments essentially similar have been in use in China,
Germany, and Holland from very early times. The inventor is unknown.


OREGON AND WASHINGTON TERRITORY.

  ALTA, Iowa.

  Please inform your readers about Northern Oregon and Washington
  Territory. Is any part of them safe from Indian depredations? Is
  the land mainly government or railroad grants? State chief facts as
  to soil, climate, and the various kinds of grain raised.

  R.

_Answer._—The Indians in Oregon and Washington Territory are all
gathered into reservations, and are now peaceable. They are not so
fierce and restless as the tribes on this side of the Rockies, being
more inclined to pastoral life, farming, and fishing. Little trouble
is to be apprehended from this source, particularly in Oregon, the
Indian population of which is not large. There are great bodies of
public lands. The railroad land-grants are not so extensive as in
the Missouri Valley States. There are immense quantities of fine
timber lands open to purchase at the minimum price of $2.50 per
acre under the “timber lands act” of June 3, 1878, which applies
only to such lands in Oregon, Washington Territory, California, and
Nevada. There are also wide sections in these States for sale at 25
cents an acre under the “desert lands” act of March 3, 1877. Great
bargains have been made in lands passed under this description which
are capable of easy irrigation, and are then remarkably productive.
Oregon is divided into two parts, differing essentially in climate
and productions by the Cascade Range of mountains, running nearly
parallel with the Pacific coast, with an average breadth of 50 to 60
miles, and an average elevation of 8,000 feet. The portion of the
State west of this range, constituting about one-third of its total
area, is well watered, is generally very fertile, and, for the most
part, covered with forests of valuable timber. The eastern two-thirds
of the State, with the exception of the broad, fertile valleys of the
Colombia and Wallawalla Rivers, is mainly made up of elevated plains,
with insufficient rainfall for agriculture, except in districts where
artificial irrigation is practicable.

The description of Washington Territory corresponds in the main
with that of Oregon. The Territory is similarly divided, as regards
climate and productions, by the Cascade Range. The rainfall is even
greater in the western portion of Washington Territory than in the
corresponding portion of Oregon, ranging from 70 inches in the
south to the remarkable measure of 125 inches in the north, where
it borders on Puget Sound. In this same region the temperature is
remarkably equable, varying but 27 degrees during the year between
the lowest and highest points. East of the Cascades a narrow strip
on the north is mountainous and covered with forests, but south of
this lies the Great Plain of the Columbia. Along the western border
of this vast region, next the Cascade Range, it is claimed that the
rainfall is sufficient for good cereal crops. The same is asserted of
its eastern edge, bordering the Coeur d’Alene Mountains of Idaho; but
the rest of it, like the southern extension of the same plain into
Oregon, is fit only for grazing, except where irrigation is possible.
It resembles very much the western portions of Kansas and Nebraska
and the western parts of Colorado and Wyoming. In both regions
the nutritious, self-curing bunch grasses, which form the chief
reliance of the herdsmen east of the Rockies, abound. The grazing and
agricultural interests of Oregon and Washington are increasing with
great rapidity. The census of 1880 credits Oregon with 500,000 cattle
and 1,250,000 sheep, and Washington with 250,000 cattle and 200,000
sheep, and since then the increase has been nearly 100 per-cent. The
wheat crop of Oregon, according to the census, was 7,480,010 bushels,
the oat crop 4,385,650 bushels, and the barley crop 920,977 bushels.
At the same time in Washington Territory the wheat crop was 1,921,322
bushels, the oat crop 1,571,706, and the barley crop 566,537 bushels.
Undoubtedly the completion of the Northern Pacific Railroad this year
will open an era of marvelous growth in the State and Territory above
described.


WILLIAM COBBETT, THE AGITATOR.

  ALDER GROVE, Neb.

  Who was William Cobbett? He is spoken of as a reformer.

  J. M. K.

_Answer._—He was an English political writer of the latter part of
the last and the first third of the present century. Born at Farnham,
Eng., in 1762, the son of a farmer of moderate means, he acquired
habits of industry and self-dependence. Not liking rural pursuits,
he went to London and engaged as a copying clerk. Soon tiring of
this occupation, he enlisted in the British army, where he rose by
merit to the rank of Sergeant Major. His spare time in barracks was
given to self-education, and on obtaining his discharge, in 1791,
he married and emigrated to Philadelphia, where he entered upon his
after career as a political writer under the pseudonym of “Peter
Porcupine.” At this period he satirized American democracy and
French republicanism, attacking the inconsistencies and political
fallacies of the time in terms of scorn and bitter denunciation. He
was denounced by the American press, particularly by the Democrats,
or “Republicans” of those times, as a Tory aiming at reviving the
royalistic element in this country, not then completely eradicated.
Not pleased with the reception of his political diatribes he returned
in 1800 to England, and in 1802 began the publication of his _Weekly
Political Register_, now famous, which he continued to his death,
June 18, 1835. At first Tory, the _Register_ gradually changed its
politics until it became the most fierce and unrelenting opponent of
the government, then conducted by Pitt, and the foremost champion
of English Radicalism. He advocated the abolition of flogging in
the army, and for strictures on the government and satires and
charges claimed to be libellous against certain high officials, he
was condemned to imprisonment for two years in Newgate Prison, and
to pay a fine of £1,000. He attacked the six acts of the British
Parliament for the suppression of free discussion, pouring vials of
abuse on the leaders of the government party; and to escape pecuniary
embarrassments and the dread of again going to Newgate, he once
more came to America, where his change of politics had raised up
many friends. He virtually edited his _Weekly Political Register_
from this side the Atlantic until some years later when he returned
to England. Radicalism had made great strides, and he found himself
one of its recognized champions. In 1829-30 he delivered political
lectures in several of the principal towns of England and Scotland,
and was everywhere met with enthusiastic welcome as the boldest
and most powerful advocate of the people’s rights. In 1832 he was
elected to the first reformed Parliament as the member for Oldham.
He was re-elected in 1834, and continued in this relation until his
death the following year. Among his many popular works may be named
“Cottage Economy,” “Rural Riches,” “Advice to Young Men and Women,”
“The Emigrant’s Guide,” “Parliamentary History,” and an “English
Grammar.”


CONCRETE OR GROUT HOUSES.

  FOUNTAIN, D. T.

  Please describe the method of building houses with concrete walls.
  What should be used to make the concrete, and in what proportions?
  Will common lime answer, or must Portland cement or water lime be
  used? The former comes high here.

  WM. M. FISK.

_Answer._—For the foundation, especially in sandy or wet soils, it
is best to use water lime, or a mixture of Portland cement or water
lime and quick lime in the proportions of two shovelfuls of the
former and one of quick lime putty to fourteen of fine gravel (or
fine and coarse mixed) and one of coarse sand. Above the ground or
embankment use quick lime in the proportions of one shovelful of lime
putty to six or eight of gravel sand. The proportions depend on the
strength of the lime, which varies according to the quality of the
stone from which it is made. Slake the quick lime into putty ready
for use, mix it partially with the gravel, and only add the water
lime at the last moment before filling the barrow or hod. For the
foundation dig a ditch of the proper size and dump the concrete into
it. Cover it and give it a couple of days to set and harden before
starting the upper walls. Take fence boards for mold boards; make
clamps of three-quarter inch strips, tapering from two inches to one
and one-half inches, so as to drive out of the wall easily before
the concrete is hard; bore a half-inch hole in each and two inches
further apart than the thickness of the wall, and make half-inch pegs
four inches long for these holes. Set one tier of these molds on
top of the foundation all around, resting on clamps at distances of
five to six feet, and with as many clamps on upper edge to gauge the
molds. Now shovel or dump in the fresh concrete as fast as you can
mix it. If the weather is fine you can set a second tier of molds on
top of the first, twenty-four hours, or even eight hours, after the
first were filled, and fill in at the same rate as before, provided
you leave the first molds undisturbed. As soon as the second tier
is filled, draw the pegs from the taper ends of the lowest tier of
clamps and drive them out. Remove the lower set of mold boards and
begin a third tier at once. Leave the holes left by clamps, for the
air to circulate through. A foot wall for first story and ten-inch
above that, with eight-inch for partitions, will make a good strong
building. The outside should have a coat of plaster made of medium
fine sand, mixed with equal portions of quick lime and water lime;
and this plaster should be marked out, before it becomes fully
hardened, into blocks, to resemble stonework. As concrete houses,
like brick ones, are apt to be damp if plastered directly on the
walls, it is best to run in small blocks or strips sixteen inches
from center to center, on top of every third or fourth course, before
filling the molds with concrete, keep these flush with the inside of
walls. Nail inch strips to these blocks to serve for scantling, and
lath and plaster over this “furring,” as it is called, and you will
have dry walls. Have window and door frames ready to build in as you
go; securing them by blocks nailed to jambs, around which pack the
concrete to hold them firm. Level up the course of concrete when
you reach the height for the first joists, and lay an inch board
four inches wide on concrete to rest joists on. Have ends of joists
that enter wall cut beveling, so that in case the inside of building
burns the joists will drop without prying the walls down. Set joists,
leveling them carefully, and go on building wall as before. A
concrete house built in this way is as substantial as brick.


LAS VEGAS HOT SPRINGS.

  BATAVIA, Iowa.

  Are the hot springs of Las Vegas, N. M., beneficial in cases of
  chronic rheumatism? How far are they from Chicago, and what is the
  route to them? Also, kindly state the fare.

  E. C.

_Answer._—The Las Vegas hot springs are reputed to be highly
beneficial in cases of chronic and inflammatory rheumatism;
particularly in the latter. They are situated on the New Mexico
line of the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railroad, 770 miles from
Kansas City, which makes them 1,259 miles from Chicago, via the
Chicago and Alton. The regular fare from Chicago to Kansas City is
$14.90; from Kansas City or Atchison to Las Vegas and return it is
$42.80. It is claimed also that these springs are of great benefit
to patients suffering with blood-poisons, paralysis, dyspepsia, and
nervous diseases. In the mountain streams the fishing is good, and
game is plenty in neighboring localities. From this point to Santa
Fe, sixty-five miles, the railroad runs through one of the most
interesting portions of this continent, historically considered; a
region filled with the wonderful ruins of the old Aztec civilization,
the birthplace of the Montezumas.


BASKET WILLOW

  LOVELAND, Col.

  Is the basket willow marketable in the United States at rates that
  pay for cultivating it? If so, how is it cultivated, and what soil
  is best suited for it.

  I. H. DAVIS.

_Answer._—Repeated efforts have been made to cultivate the osier, or
basket willow, in the United States, but the labor of peeling and
preparing it for the market costs so much more here than in Europe,
where this work is done by women and children at trivial wages, that
it has been found difficult to compete with the imported stock. The
annual importation of prepared willow during the ten years ending
in 1879 averaged $33,000, and the willow-work $170,000 a year. The
soils best adapted for the osier are rich alluvions and reclaimed
swamps. If liable to overflow in spring floods, the ground should
have drainage ditches. It is well to have means of irrigating the
land in very dry weather. It is propagated from cuttings, selected
from the wood grown the year before, cut smoothly into lengths of
about ten inches, thrust into soil butt-end first, so as to leave
only about an inch above ground. Care must be taken not to peel the
bark in setting these slips, and for this reason it is sometimes best
to use a hard wood or iron rod to make the hole. They should slope
at an angle of 45 degrees toward the north. It is best to plant in
straight rows from 20 to 28 inches apart, according to whether they
are to be cut every year or every other year, and at intervals of
six or eight inches. It is sometimes preferable to set in trenches,
and, if the soil is poor, to fertilize with leaf-mold, stable manure,
or bonedust, and irrigate with the soakings of manure during dry
weather. The ground should be kept mellow and well weeded. The time
of cutting should be late in the fall or in winter. The rods should
be sorted into sizes, tied in bundles, dried in the sun, and stored
in a dry place until ready for peeling. When peeled they should be
dried for a day or so in the sun, when if properly prepared they will
be white and brilliant; otherwise they will look dull, which impairs
their value in market. If exposed to cold and dry winds, the growing
osier should be protected by wind-breaks. Dr. F. B. Hough, Chief of
the Forestry Division of the Department of Agriculture, Washington,
D. C., says: “An osier plantation costs about $20 per acre for
cultivation and yields about $100 to $125 per acre.” If this holds
good anywhere in this country, it is strange that osier cultivation
is so generally reported unprofitable.


CHEAP PROCESS OF SILVERING METALS.

  WEST LIBERTY, Iowa.

  Please give us instructions for plating or silvering cups, spoons,
  and other metal articles.

  A. H. COX.

_Answer._—Electro-plating is a process that requires apparatus, and
a degree of skill in using the same which render it scarcely worth
while to enter into a detailed description of it. We outlined the
process not long ago, and cannot reiterate it. A cheap and simple
method of silvering metals, that any one can put in practice, is as
follows:

Clean the articles to be silvered with nitric acid, rub them with
a mixture of cyanide of potassium and powdered silver, and wash
thoroughly in clear, warm water. Then plunge them into a liquor
composed of two parts, by weight, of grape sugar or sugar of milk,
two of gallic acid, and 650 parts of distilled water, filtered and
kept from the air in tightly-corked bottles until the instant of use.
After a few minutes take them out of this liquor and immerse them in
another composed of twenty parts, by weight, of nitrate of silver,
twenty parts of ammonia solution, and 650 parts of distilled water.
Repeat this process, plunging the articles first into one liquor and
then into the other, every few minutes, until they are all well
coated. The process can be accelerated by heating either the mixture
or the articles to a moderate degree. Some persons prefer to mix the
two liquors at the moment of use in equal quantities. In such case,
shake the mixture thoroughly and filter before immersing the metals.
The ammonia solution should be of standard strength. If there is any
doubt of this, dissolve the nitrate of silver for the second liquor
in the distilled water, add the first liquor, mix thoroughly, and
add only enough ammonia to clear the mixture. This is the process
for copper, brass, German silver, and similar articles, but before
silvering iron or steel they should be coated with copper by leaving
them for a little time in a solution of sulphate of copper.


THE GUILLOTINE.

  FAIRMONT, Neb.

  I should like to know who was the inventor of the guillotine. How
  was it constructed and operated.

  W. P. JACKS.

_Answer._—For many years the invention of the guillotine, the
instrument for inflicting capital punishment adopted by the French
during the reign of terror, was accredited to Joseph Ignace
Guillotine, a French physician, born in 1738, who in 1785 recommended
its use in France from motives of humanity, in place of the barbarous
gibbet. However, there is in the Antiquarian Museum of Edinburgh a
guillotine made before 1581, which served to behead the Scottish
Regent, Morton, who had introduced it into use in that country. It
was used in Italy in the thirteenth century in a form resembling
the instrument now used in France. The guillotine is composed of
two upright beams, grooved upon the inside, and surmounted by a
cross-beam. Between these beams and sliding in the grooves is a
sharp, iron blade, which falls by its own weight with great speed and
certainty, severing the head from the body.


ASSESSMENT OF DEPOSITS.

  ANDOVER, D. T.

  Has an assessor in Dakota any right to assess money on deposit in a
  bank in Michigan?

  SUBSCRIBER.

_Answer._—According to the laws of most States and Territories
a certificate of deposit is just as assessable as the money it
represents. Money is subject to assessment wherever it belongs.


GOVERNORS OF ALABAMA.

  GREENVILLE, Ala.

  Please give the names of all of the Governors and Senators of
  Alabama since the admission of the State into the Union, with the
  years during which they served.

  SEA.

_Answer._—The Governors were the following: William W. Bibb, 1819-20;
Thomas Bibb, 1821; Israel Pickens, 1821-25; John Murphy, 1825-29;
Gabriel Moore, 1829-31; John Gayle, 1831-35; Clement C. Clay,
1835-37; Arthur P. Bagby, 1837-41; Benjamin Fitzpatrick, 1841-45;
Joshua L. Martin, 1845-47; Reuben Chapman 1847-49; Henry W. Collier,
1849-53; John A Winston, 1853-57; Andrew P. Moore, 1857-61; John G.
Shorter, 1861-63; Thomas H. Watts, 1863-65; Lewis E. Parsons, 1865;
Robert M. Patten, 1865-68; William H. Smith, 1868-70; Robert B.
Lindsay, 1872; David P. Lewis, 1872-74; George S. Houston, 1874-79;
Rufus W. Cobb, 1879-81. The present Senators are John T. Morgan,
1883-89; James L. Pugh, 1879-85. For former Senators see “Lanman’s
Biographical History of the Civil Government of the United States;”
it is too long a list to copy here.


BACCHUS—TRADE MARKS.

  WILMINGTON, Ill.

  1. Explain the use of trade marks. 2. Who was Bacchus?

  L. F. HAZELTON.

_Answer._—1. Trade marks secure a proprietary right of a single firm
in the article thus marked. They are intended to prevent an unknown
manufacturer from palming off upon the public imitations of goods
that have acquired a reputation from the original manufacturer; or
they are a certain warrant of the quality of articles bearing them.
2. Bacchus, or Dionysius, was the Greek god of wine, and, according
to the myth, the son of Zeus and Semele, the daughter of Cadmus of
Thebes. At his birth he was carried by Hermes to Nysa, to be reared
by the nymphs. Being struck with madness, at the command of Juno, he
wandered from land to land, attended by nymphs having their heads
wreathed with vine and ivy leaves and bearing in their hands the
thyrsus. To him is ascribed the knowledge of the cultivation of the
vine and the manufacture of intoxicating wine, for in his wanderings
he carried to men of many lands this information. Those who received
him hospitably were rewarded, but all who rejected him brought upon
themselves some form of misery. This hero and demigod was worshiped
throughout Greece, but chiefly at Thebes, with sacrifices of goats
and oxen, and many noisy and indecent rites, until, in 186 B. C.,
the Roman Senate suppressed the mysteries, which were the principal
feature of the worship.


APOCRYPHA AND THE SACRED CANON.

  ALGONA, Ill.

  I should like to know in what year the Bishops of the Church of
  Rome accepted the Apocrypha as a part of the canon.

  LAURA A. BARSLON.

_Answer._—As early as the latter part of the first century of the
present era discussions arose among Christians regarding the books
rejected by the Jews as profane, and at the Council of Laodicea
(360 A. D.) the Greek Church rejected all books except those in the
present Protestant canon. In 474 Pope Gelasius convened a council of
seventy Bishops, which confirmed the opinion of Pope Innocent I.,
recognizing the Apocryphal books as sacred, and rejecting some of the
doubtful books of the New Testament. The Council of Trent (1545-1563)
finally settled the mooted question for the Roman Catholic Church,
accepting the “Apocrypha” as a part of the sacred canon. The Greek
Church has much the same books, while the Protestants retain only the
Hebrew canon of the Old Testament.


CHURCH REFORMATION—PAPAL INFALLIBILITY.

  DANVILLE, Ill.

  Did any reformatory movements or discussions occur in the Roman
  Catholic Church before the time of Luther? 2. Are all of the Popes
  considered infallible?

  JOHN SHORT.

_Answer._—After the union of church and state, during the reign of
Constantine the Great, as the church attained great temporal power
and wealth, imposing rites and ceremonies were added to her service,
and, with these, abuses and corruption crept in. The first great
evil was the assumption by the church of spiritual dictatorship, and
to oppose it arose St. Ambrose, St. Martin, and St. Stephen. Then
occurred the great reform within the church itself, inaugurated by
Pope Gregory III. for the purification of the clergy; and at the same
time came Abelard, preaching liberty of thought in theology. But
the growth of new sects specially characterized the four centuries
immediately preceding the Lutheran Reformation. Of these the
principal ones were the Lollards (1324), the Hussites (1373), the
Moravian Brethren (1417), and the Mystics (1340-1471). 2. The supreme
authority of the Pope in all religious matters has been generally
acknowledged in the Roman Catholic Church from very early times, but
the infallibility of the Pope, in regard to faith and morals, was not
formulated and decreed by the Vatican Council until July 18, 1870.


A COMPARISON OF NATIONS.

  MEDIA, Kan.

  What effect does the present system of tariff have upon American
  commercial and industrial interests of the United States? How do
  the commerce and industrial products of the United States compare
  with those of other countries?

  J. H. VICK.

_Answer._—There are several articles on the tariff in Our Curiosity
Shop for 1880, to which we must refer you; particularly one on
page 149, entitled “The Tariff and the Farmers.” According to high
statistical authority the commerce and principal industries of this
country, Great Britain, France, and Germany in 1880 compared as
follows:

    Countries—      Commerce.      Manufactures.

  United States   $1,505,000,000   $4,440,000,000
  Great Britain    3,460,000,000    3,790,000,000
  France           1,660,000,000    2,425,000,000
  Germany          1,920,000,000    2,135,000,000

The commerce above referred to is mainly foreign commerce. In the
case of Great Britain, what corresponds to our inter-State commerce
(the trade between the different portions of the one extended
government) is included under the head of “Commerce,” swelling the
aggregate largely, whereas but a small portion of the interstate
commerce of the United States is included in the above estimate
of our “Commerce.” Our fifty million people buy and sell among
themselves to supply each other’s wants, and consume a much larger
proportion of their domestic products per capita for their own
comfort than do the English, French, or Germans. The effects of the
tariff in building up American manufactures are shown in the above
table, and in the table below are indicated some of the effects on
mining, agriculture, and the carrying trade:


                                                    Carrying
  Countries—           Mining.     Agriculture.      Trade.

  United States     $360,000,000  $3,000,000,000  $830,000,000
  Great Britain      325,000,000   1,200,000,000   805,000,000
  France              60,000,000   2,000,000,000   810,000,000
  Germany            105,090,000   1,700,000,000   845,000,000

Comparatively few of our manufactures are exported, because our
agriculture, mining, manufacturing, commercial, and professional
classes consume them at home. So, too, the products of our mines are
mostly kept at home, and four-fifths of our agricultural products. If
our foreign carrying trade is not so large as Great Britain’s, our
coasting and other domestic carrying trade exceeds hers. By division
of labor we are creating a world of our own, setting up our own
standards of wages, and modes of living, and are, as a consequence,
living better, enjoying more of the comforts of life, man for man,
than any other people under the sun.


THE JEWISH SCRIPTURES.

  ALGONA, Iowa.

  I come to you for a little light. In Abbott’s “Life of Cleopatra”
  the author states that in early times the Bible was not kept by
  the Jews as any other than a vulgar history. I should like to know
  whether there is any authority for the assertion.

  LAURA A. BARSLOW.

_Answer._—For hundreds of years before the birth of Christ the books
of Moses and other works sanctioned by the prophets (whose duty it
was to guard the people against spurious writings or the loss of what
was genuine) were regarded by the Jews as so sacred that “no one
dared to add to or omit or alter anything;” so Josephus tells us.
An authentic copy was kept in the Temple, while others copied from
it were circulated for use in the synagogues of different places.
A Jewish tradition ascribes to Ezra, after the return of the Jews
from the captivity, and the college of learned men called the “Great
Synagogue,” the collection and selection of writings which form the
Jewish and the present Protestant Old Testament canon. There is no
good authority for the statement in your question.


SHOOTING NIAGARA.

  KANSAS CITY, Mo.

  Did any steamboat ever go through the great whirlpool in Niagara
  River with anybody on board and without being wrecked?

  CONTROVERSY.

_Answer._—The little excursion steamer Maid of the Mist, which used
to ply on the Niagara River, between the falls and the whirlpool, ran
through the seething rapids and the great whirlpool of that river in
1861, with the captain and two companions on board, one of whom was
hurt on the passage. It was a foolhardy feat, and came near ending in
the wreck of the vessel and the death of all on board.


THE SUN’S STAY IN THE NORTH.

  GILMAN, Ill.

  To settle a dispute, state whether the sun stays north of the
  equator longer than it does south of it; and if so, why.

  YOUNG READER.

_Answer._—The earth’s orbit is not a perfect circle, but an ellipse
with the sun in one of the foci, at a point on the long diameter of
the orbit something more than a million miles from the center in the
direction of perigee, or the place where the earth approaches nearest
to the sun. In 1882 the sun was in perigee Dec. 31, and in apogee—the
point furthest from the earth—on July 3. For several thousand years
to come the perigee point will be south of the equator, as it has
been for several thousand years past. As a consequence of this and
because the earth moves more rapidly the nearer it gets to the sun,
it takes it less time to travel through that part of its orbit south
of the equator than through the portion north of it. In the year 1800
the sun was north of the equator seven days 16 hours and 51 minutes
longer than it was south of it. The sun crossed the equator, coming
north, March 21, 1882, at 12:02 o’clock at night, and crossed it on
the return Sept. 22, 1882, at 10:29 o’clock p. m., an interval of
185 days 10 hours and 27 minutes. It reached the equator next on its
return northward, March 20, 1883, at 5:39 o’clock p. m., an interval
of 177 days 19 hours and 10 minutes. So that the northern hemisphere
had a longer spring and summer than the southern hemisphere last
year by seven days 15 hours and 27 seconds. The Brazilians and Terra
del Fuegans may console themselves with the reflection that in
about 6,000 years they will get even with us, and that in a little
more than 12,000 years from now the sun will linger in the southern
hemisphere a full week longer than in the northern.


AREA OF PALESTINE.

  OSCEOLA, Iowa.

  What is the extent of Palestine? Where can I get a first-class map
  and geographical description of Palestine?

  C. M. F.

_Answer._—The area is variously estimated as from 11,000 to 12,000
square miles. The former is Kitto’s estimate, and according to that
Palestine has not quite one-fifth the extent of Illinois (56,650) or
Iowa (56,025). Maps of Palestine, ranging in cost from $4 to $30,
with or without descriptive pamphlets, or geographies, may be ordered
of any of the church publication societies in this city by yourself
or through the nearest bookseller.


DATES OF CONSTITUTIONAL AMENDMENTS.

  NEWTON, Kas.

  Please give the dates of the amendments to the Constitution of the
  United States.

  C. A. HERRICK.

_Answer._—The first ten were added before the adoption of the
Constitution, in 1791; the eleventh in 1798, the twelfth in 1804, the
thirteenth in 1865, the fourteenth in 1868, and the fifteenth in 1870.


SENATOR SHARON.

  MANLY JUNCTION, Iowa.

  Please give a brief sketch of Senator Sharon.

  A SUBSCRIBER.

_Answer._—William Sharon was born in Smithfield, Ohio, Jan. 9, 1821.
After preparing himself for admission to the legal profession he
decided to enter the banking business, and upon his removal to Nevada
became interested in mining operations. He is at present a trustee of
the Bank of California, and has great influence in the business of
the Pacific slope. He was United States Senator from Nevada for the
term 1875-81.


THREE BLACK FRIDAYS.

  ODESSA, Neb.

  What was “Black Friday,” and what part did ex-President Grant take
  in it?

  ED. S. JELLEY.

_Answer._—September 24, 1869, Jay Gould and James Fisk, Jr.,
attempted to create a corner in the gold market by buying all the
gold in the banks of New York City, amounting to $15,000,000. For
several days the value of gold rose steadily, and the speculators
aimed to carry it from 144 to 200. Friday the whole city was in a
ferment, the banks were rapidly selling, gold was at 162½ and still
rising. Men became insane and everywhere the wildest excitement
raged, for it seemed probable that the business houses must be
closed, from ignorance of the prices to be charged for their goods.
But in the midst of the panic it was reported that Secretary
Boutwell, of the United States Treasury, had thrown $4,000,000 on the
market, and at once gold fell, the excitement ceased, leaving Gould
and Fisk the winners of $11,000,000. There is no good evidence that
President Grant had any connection with the sales. The fact that his
brother-in-law was interested in Wall street operations at that time
led to the charge against Grant by his enemies. The day noticed above
is what is generally referred to as Black Friday in this country,
but the term was first used in England, being applied in the first
instance to the Friday on which the news reached London that the
young Pretender, Charles Edward, had arrived at Derby, creating a
terrible panic: and finally to May 11, 1866, when the failure of
Overend, Guerney & Co., London, the day before, was followed by a
widespread financial ruin.


FORFEITURE OF HOMESTEAD.

  CAMARGO, Ill.

  Is it absolutely necessary for a homesteader to commence his bona
  fide residence on his claim within six months?

  G. H. SNEDAKER.

_Answer._—The homestead law contemplates immediate settlement by the
claimant upon the land; and section 2,297 of the Revised Statutes
declares that if at any time after he has filed his entry affidavit
it is shown, to the satisfaction of the receiver of the land office,
that the claimant has actually changed his residence, “or abandoned
the land for more than six months,” at any time, the land shall
revert to the government. “Copps’ American Settlers’ Guide,” page
53, says: “At the expiration of six months from date of entry the
homestead party who has not been able to establish a bona fide
residence upon the homestead, owing to climatic reasons, must file
his affidavit, duly corroborated by two credible witnesses, giving
in detail the storms, etc., that rendered it impossible for him to
commence residence within six months.” We would add that it is safest
to comply with the law, making it unnecessary to appeal to the decree
of the General Land Commissioner, a very uncertain resort in cases of
this nature.


LIQUOR DRANK IN ILLINOIS.

  CARLINVILLE, Ill.

  In an argument on the temperance question a few days ago, a public
  speaker quoted THE INTER OCEAN as authority for the statement that
  there are $60,000,000 worth of liquor drank in Illinois during the
  course of a year. 1. Did THE INTER OCEAN say so? If it did, give us
  the figures in the Curiosity Shop to prove it. 2. He also said that
  this amount was one-third greater than the total value of the wheat
  crop of this State. Prove that too.

  T. E. D.

_Answer._—The principal facts on which THE INTER OCEAN rests the
estimate above quoted are re-stated below once for all. If they can
be successfully refuted, let us have that refutation. The following
estimate is based on observations made as to the patronage of
six Chicago saloons, so long ago as 1877, by the founders of the
Citizens’ League. The figures in the first column give the number
of persons, male and female, seen to enter these places between 7
o’clock p. m. and midnight; the second column is our own computation
of the money paid in, assuming that nothing but beer was called for,
at 5 cents a glass, two-thirds of the customers drinking but one
glass, and the rest of them averaging only two glasses each; and the
third column indicates the probable actual receipts, adding for the
ordinary consumption of drinks more costly than beer:

  Number         Receipts        Gross
  entering.      if beer.       receipts.

  2,863            $190          $250
  2,806             187           250
  1,979             132           176
  1,820             121           160
  1,741             116           155
  1,685             112           150

Observe that these are the receipts in saloons where lager beer was
the chief drink; that the above figures cover only the five hours
after 7 p. m., and that liquors in kegs, bottles, pitchers, and jugs
ordered for home use are not taken into account. There are a few
establishments dealing chiefly in whisky, brandy, wine, etc., whose
receipts are at times nearly double the highest amount above given as
the daily average.

To add assurance to the above calculation, one of the most thorough
investigators and accurate reporters on THE INTER OCEAN local staff
was detailed to ascertain, as nearly as may be, the actual receipts
of Chicago saloons. He made the following report:

  —————————+—————————+——————————————————————————————
           |Average  |
  No. of   |receipts |
  Saloons  |   per   |             REMARKS.
           |  day.   |
  —————————+—————————+——————————————————————————————
  10       |  $150   |Chapin & Gore’s, Monroe st.;
           |   or    |  Hannah & Hogg, Madison st.;
           |  $200   |  Batchelder’s, Mahler & Gale.
  —————————+—————————+——————————————————————————————
  50       |   $75   |“Dutch” Henry, House of David,
           |   or    |  Hansen’s, Dunhams, and
           |  $100   |  Chapin & Gore’s branches,
           |         |  and dens on “the Levee.”
  —————————+—————————+——————————————————————————————
  100      |   $50   |The ordinary down-town saloons
           |         |  and very good saloons
           |         |  in outlying districts.
  —————————+—————————+——————————————————————————————
  2,000    |   $30   |Decent saloons in extreme
  or       |   and   |  north, south, and west portions
  over     |   $25   |  of city, Rolling Mill and
           |         |  Stock Yards districts; mostly
           |         |  beer trade.
  —————————+—————————+——————————————————————————————
  1,000    |   $15   |The same as the above, with
  to       |    to   |  smaller trade, or houses in
  1,200    |   $20   |  hard neighborhoods, with no
           |         |  legitimate trade, but which
           |         |  wait for victims to be
           |         |  “steered” into them.
  —————————+—————————+——————————————————————————————
  300      |   $10   |Little German beer saloons in
  to       |         |  sparsely settled districts,
  500      |         |  containing simply an ice-box
           |         |  and a keg of beer. Do a
           |         |  “can” trade mostly.
  —————————+—————————+——————————————————————————————

On the foregoing data a moderate estimate of the gross annual
receipts of the 3,750 licensed saloons of Chicago figures as below:

  No. of       Average daily     Receipts
  saloons.      receipts.        for year.

     10           $175            $838,750
     50             85           1,551,250
    100             50           1,825,000
  1,000             30          10,950,000
  1,000             25           9,125,000
  1,090             15           5,967,750
    500             10           1,825,000
  —————                        ———————————
  3,750                        $32,082,750

This schedule does not cover unlicensed saloons, or other places
where liquor is sold; the average daily receipts are taken at less
rather than more than the probable truth, and yet it charges Chicago,
which contains only about one-sixth of the population of the State,
with an outlay of over $32,000,000 per annum for spirits, wines,
and fermented drinks. It is not so easy to ascertain the number of
saloons in the rest of the State and their average daily sales, but
data are not wholly wanting. Take the following figures, compiled
from a list of high-license towns, where in several instances the
number of saloons has been reduced by more than half.

                  Population.    No. of    License.
                                saloons.
  Anna               1,500          9        $500
  Aurora            13,500         25         500
  Apple River          650          2         300
  Bloomington       23,000         32         600
  Cabery               325          3         400
  Carmi              2,500         12         300
  Charleston         3,250          6         800
  Chandlerville        700          3         500
  Chenoa             1,100          5         300
  Dongola              700          4         300
  Elmwood            1,700          3         800
  Galesburg         12,000         18         600
  Gillespie            800          8         450
  Hillsboro          2,000          3         800
  Joliet            14,500         60         500
  Kenny                600          2         500
  Lamoille             500          1         300
  Minier               650          3         300
  Mason City         2,000          4         750
  Mattoon            7,000          8         800
  Moline             9,000         30         300
  Mount Morris         900          1         500
  Noble                400          1         300
  Odell              1,000          2         750
  Ohio                 400          3         475
  Oswego               700          2         300
  Paris              5,500          8         800
  Rockford          15,000         20         500
  Rochelle           2,000          4         433
  Savanna            1,500         10         500
  Strawn               400          3         300
  Tiskilwa             800          2         400
  Washburn             500          3         300

In Peoria, Quincy, Rock Island, Galena, Alton, Cairo, Belleville,
Springfield, LaSalle, Ottawa, Morris, Kankakee, and low-license
towns generally, the number of saloons as compared with population
is still greater, averaging but little better than Chicago with its
license of only $103, and one saloon to every 160 inhabitants—men,
women, and children. Fifty-eight high-license towns of the State,
with a population of 189,000, contain 401 saloons, or one to every
470 inhabitants. Make all the allowance that can be reasonably asked
for the moderate drinking of the farming classes, and discount, if
possible, our estimate for Chicago, and the total cost of liquor
drank in Illinois exceeds $60 000 000 per annum. 2. The Illinois crop
report for 1882 makes the winter wheat of that year worth $45,472,045
and the spring wheat $1,242,331.


THE DIAMOND.

  SHENANDOAH, Iowa.

  When, how and by whom were diamonds first discovered? What is the
  etymology of the word diamond? How did their value when first
  discovered compare with the same now? What is the value of a
  one-carat diamond of the finest quality?

  R. P. DRAKE.

_Answer._—The discoverer of diamonds is unknown. From references
in Exodus it is apparent that the diamond was a precious stone in
Egypt in those early times; and even before that it was known in
India, where probably it was first obtained. The name is derived from
the Greek word _adamas_, meaning “unsubduable,” referring to its
hardness, and later was written _diamas_, in Latin. From Pliny, a
writer of the first century, we learn that the diamond was regarded
as the most valuable of all things, and but few kings even could
afford to buy them. But as no means of artificial polishing had been
discovered the stone depreciated in value, so that the ruby and
emerald became more precious. The discovery by Ludwig van Berquen, in
1476, of a mode of cutting and polishing it, at once returned this
gem to the first place among precious stones. The present value of a
fine brilliant, weighing one carat, varies from $50 to $100. The rose
and table diamonds command much less. Larger diamonds appreciate in
value much more rapidly than the ratio of their weight. The Orloff
diamond, 193 carats, is valued at $500,000; the Pitt diamond, 136
carats, at $600,000; the Dudley diamond, 254½ carats, at $750,000;
while the Kohinoor, for various reasons, although now it weighs but
102½ carats, is estimated to be worth $2,000,000.


AUTHORS OF CERTAIN POEMS.

  RANDOLPH, N. Y.

The title of the poem containing the couplet—

    “And is this the man, thou vaunting knave,
    Thou hast dared to compare with the weeping slave?”

is “The Peasant.” It was written by William Howitt. The author of the
poem containing the lines, “I sat alone with my conscience,” etc., is
Charles W. Stubbs. It appeared in the _Spectator_ under the title,
“The Conscience and Future Judgment.”

  LEO BOARDMAN.


GENERAL TOM THUMB.

  GRISWOLD, Iowa.

  How old was General Tom Thumb when he died? State his real name in
  full, and that of his wife; also a few of the principal facts as to
  his size, history, etc., and oblige several readers.

  A SUBSCRIBER.

_Answer._—The true name of this celebrated dwarf was Charles Heywood
Stratton. He was born in Bridgeport, Conn., Jan. 4, 1838, and died
at his residence, Middleboro, Mass., July 15, 1883, of apoplexy.
The attention of P. T. Barnum, the showman, was first drawn to
Stratton in November, 1842, when the midget was about 4 years old.
He was then less than 2 feet high, weighed less than 16 pounds, was
beautifully formed, a blonde, with ruddy cheeks and mirthful eyes.
Barnum introduced him to the public Dec. 8, 1842, by the name of
General Tom Thumb; now known the world over. He paid him $3 a week
and expenses for himself and his mother for the first four weeks,
after which he engaged him for a year at $7 a week, but, as the boy
proved a great attraction, he soon raised the wages to $25 a week. In
January, 1846, under a contract of $50 a week, Mr. Barnum took him
to Europe, where he made a profitable tour through England, France,
and Germany. He was presented to Queen Victoria, Louis Phillipe,
King William of Prussia (now the German Emperor), and other rulers,
who treated him with marked kindness. The next year he returned to
Europe for three months. On his return home he proved a greater
attraction than ever, and Mr. Barnum says that in twelve days in
Philadelphia he received $5,504.91; and in one day at Providence
he took in $976.98. In 1857 he took Tom Thumb and Cordelia Howard,
famous as little Eva in “Uncle Tom’s Cabin,” to Europe, where these
children appeared in humorous characters, creating a furore and
gathering a golden harvest. In 1862 Mr. Barnum introduced the two
sister midgets, Lavinia and Minnie Warren, to the public, the former
of whom young Stratton married before the end of that year. True
to his chief instinct Barnum desired to turn the courting and the
marriage ceremony to pecuniary account, offering $15,000 to postpone
the wedding for a month, and then have it take place in the Academy
of Music as an exhibition at so much a seat. To the credit of the
bride and groom, they repelled this offer with just indignation, and
were married in Grace Church, New York. The public reception at the
Metropolitan Hotel, immediately following, was a notable affair.
After this, for week after week, the three tiny folks drew crowds
of admirers at Barnum’s old museum on the corner where the New York
_Herald_ office now stands, the receipts sometimes being over $3,000
a day. Mr. and Mrs. Stratton had a pleasant home at Middleboro, where
they spent a large part of their time when not on the stage. They had
one child, who died at the age of 2 years and 6 months. Both of them
have been noted for sprightly intelligence, and have hosts of friends
in all circles of society.


NAPOLEON BONAPARTE.

  URBANA, Ill.

  Will you please to give a short biography of Napoleon Bonaparte?

  NETTIE AYERS.

_Answer._—He was born at Ajaccio, Corsica, Aug. 15, 1769. His mother,
a strong and cultured, but severe woman, ruled her household with a
rod of iron, and to her the son owed his indomitable will. At ten
years of age he was sent to a military school at Brienne, France, and
six years later entered the army. In 1792, having taken an active
part in the defection in Ajaccio, he was expelled, with the rest of
his family, from the city. After several years of brilliant military
service Napoleon was made commander of the campaign in Italy, which
closed with the treaty of Campo Formio. On the eve of his departure
he was married to the beautiful and accomplished Mme. Josephine
Beauharnais. The year after the close of the Italian campaign (1797)
Napoleon set out for Egypt, designing to investigate its wealth, art
treasures and other antiquities, but the expedition proved disastrous
and he soon returned to meet a critical state of affairs in France,
leaving the army under the command of General Kleber. On Aug. 2,
1802, the French people made Bonaparte First Consul for life, and in
the same year received at his hands the famous Code Napoleon, the
product of the best legal talent of the nation, and undoubtedly one
of the noblest monuments of his administration. It still forms the
great body of French law. Two years later, he was proclaimed Emperor.
After a remarkable career in war and peace, he sacrificed his heart
and highest manhood to his ambition by divorcing his faithful
Josephine to form a royal alliance with Maria Louisa, daughter of the
Emperor of Austria. The decline of his power soon followed, like a
pursuing Nemesis; beginning with the fearful disasters succeeding
the burning of Moscow and the ensuing retreat in the midst of a
Russian winter, and ending with the disastrous battle of Leipsic,
the fall of Paris, his first abdication, and his exile (1814) to the
little island of Elba. He escaped to France ten months later; raised
another army, and hastened to meet the allies—English, Germans, and
Netherlanders—in Belgium, on the fatal field of Waterloo. A few
months later and he was a prisoner for life on the desolate island
of St. Helena, in custody of Great Britain, where he died of cancer
of the stomach May 5, 1821. By almost universal concession he is
regarded as the greatest military commander that ever lived. Had his
diplomacy been equal to his military genius it is probable that he
would have remained to his death, as he was for a period of more than
six years, the virtual master of nearly all the civilized States of
Continental Europe. In 1840 his mortal remains were carried to France
and buried in Paris, the scene of his greatest triumphs as of his
final downfall.


WEIGHT OF LUMBER.

  DECATUR, Ill.

  Please publish a table of the weight per thousand feet, “Chicago
  yard measure,” of planed and unplaned boards, flooring, siding,
  etc., and do your readers a practical service.

  OLD SUBSCRIBER.

_Answer._—The following table is given in the lumber inspection rules
printed by the Northwestern Lumberman Publishing Company of this
city. It presents the average of the actual weights in the shipment
of 20,000,000 feet of lumber during a single season:

                                                    Weight in
  Description                                        pounds

  Boards, 1, 1¼, and 1½ inch thick, surfaced
    on one side per thousand ft.                      2,102
  Boards, 1, 1¼, and 1½ inch thick, surfaced
    on two sides                                      2,068
  Boards, 2 inches thick, surfaced on one side        2,000
  Flooring, white pine, dressed and matched           1,890
  Flooring, 4 inches wide, dressed and matched        1,793
  Flooring, hard pine, dressed and matched            2,366
  Ship laps, 8 inch                                   1,711
  Ship laps, 10 inch                                  1,725
  Ship laps, 12 inch                                  1,855
  Ceiling, white pine, ⅜ inch                           786
  Ceiling, hard pine, ⅜ inch                            950
  Siding                                                865
  Piece stuff, rough                                  2,560
  Piece stuff, surfaced on one side                   2,210
  Thin, clear                                         1,380
  Ceiling, ⅝                                          1,120
  Rough boards                                        2,524
  Fence, hard pine                                    2,910
  Fencing, 6 inch                                     2,433
  Shingles, pine, per 1,000                             248
  Shingles, cedar, per 1,000                            203
  Lath, dry                                             502


ST. ANASTASIUS—APOSTLE OF HUNGARY.

  Who was called the “Apostle of Hungary,” where was he born, and
  when did he live?

  W. I. PRATT.

_Answer._—St. Anastasius, surnamed Astric, was born in France, A.
D. 954, and died in 1044. He gained great influence over Stephen
I., King of Hungary, 997-1038, who intrusted the zealous missionary
with almost unlimited powers. These he used with such rare wisdom
and spirit that the Hungarians were rapidly converted from paganism.
The freedom of all Christian slaves was proclaimed, the political
organization of the kingdom was reconstructed, schools were
established, and, in fine, Hungary was transformed from barbarism to
a state of inchoate Christian civilization. He is honored in history
and tradition as the “Apostle of Hungary.”


EXECUTIVE AND DEPARTMENT SALARIES.

  AUGUSTA, Kan.

  Please give the organization of the President’s household, give the
  salaries of its several officers, and state who pays the same. Also
  give the organization of each of the departments under the several
  members of the President’s Cabinet.

  C. H. M.

_Answer._—The President’s salary is $50,000 a year. The organization
of the executive office gives him a private secretary, with salary
of $3,250; assistant secretary, $2,250; two executive clerks, each
$2,000; stenographer, $1,800; five other clerks, severally $1,200,
$1,400, and $1,800; steward, $1,800; usher, $1,400; five messengers,
each $1,200; four doorkeepers, each $1,200; watchman, $900;
furnace-keeper, $864.

The principal officers of the Department of State are: Secretary of
State, salary, $8,000; Assistant Secretary, $4,500; Second Assistant,
$3,500; Third Assistant, $3,500; Chief Clerk, $2,750; Examiner of
Claims, $3,500; Chief of Diplomatic Bureau, $2,100; Chief of Consular
Bureau, $2,100; Chief of Indexes and Archives, $2,100; Chief of
Bureau of Accounts, $2,100; Librarian, $2,100; Translator, $2,100.
There are thirty-nine clerks with salaries ranging from $1,800 down
to $900; a proof-reader, $1,300; a lithographer, $1,200; chief
engineer, $1,200; assistant engineer, $1,000; messengers, watchmen,
laborers, and firemen, in all twenty-four, ranging from $1,000 down
to $660.

The Treasury Department is one of the most, perhaps the most
important and laborious department of the government. The Secretary’s
salary is $8,000, the Assistant Secretary receives $4,500; Second
Assistant Secretary, $4,500; Chief Clerk, $2,700; First Comptroller,
$5,000; Second Comptroller, $5,000; Commissioner of Customs, $4,000;
First, Second, Third, Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Auditors, each,
$3,600; Treasurer of the United States, $6,000; Assistant Treasurer,
$3,600; Register of the Treasury, $4,000; Comptroller of the
Currency, $5,000; Commissioner of Internal Revenue, $6,000; Solicitor
of Internal Revenue, $4,500; Solicitor of the Treasury, $4,500;
Director of the Mint, $4,500; Chief of Bureau of Engraving and
Printing, $4,500; Chief of Bureau of Statistics, $2,400; Supervising
Architect, $4,500; Superintendent of United States Coast Survey,
$6,000; Chairman of Lighthouse Board, $4,000; Superintendent of
Life-saving Service, $4,000; Inspector General of Steamboats, $3,500;
Chief of Appointment Division, $2,500; Chief of Warrant Division,
$2,750; Chief of Public Moneys Division, $2,500; Chief of Customs
Division, $2,750. The subordinate officers and employes under the
above chief officers of the Treasury number many thousands, varying
in number with the emergencies of the service. The total official
list of this department for all parts of the country, including
collectors of customs and internal revenue and their employes, covers
195 octavo pages, with from sixty to ninety-six names on a page.

The Department of the Interior is organized as follows: Secretary
of the Interior, salary, $8,000; Assistant Secretary, $3,500; Chief
Clerk, $2,750; Assistant Attorney General, $5,000; Commissioner
of General Land Office, $4,000; Commissioner of Pensions, $5,000;
Commissioner of Patents, $4,500; Commissioner of Indian Affairs,
$4,000; Commissioner of Education, $3,000; Director of Geological
Survey, $6,000; Superintendent of Census, $5,000. Other officers and
employes in all parts of the country, but mainly at Washington, vary
in number from time to time, more perhaps than those of any other
department, ranging from about 7,500 to about 9,000, with salaries
from $3,000 down to $600.

The Secretary of War receives $8,000 a year; Chief Clerk, $2,500;
Adjutant General, $5,500; Inspector General, $5,500; Quartermaster
General, $5,500; Commissary General, $5,500; Surgeon General, $5,500;
Chief Medical Purveyor, $4,200; Judge Advocate General, $5,500;
Chief of Engineers, $5,500; Chief Signal Officer, $5,500; Chief of
Ordnance, $5,500. The complete official list of the department at
present embraces about 4,000 names, with salaries from $3,000 to $660.

The Secretary of the Navy receives $8,000; Chief Clerk, $2,500;
Judge Advocate General, $4,500; Chiefs of the Bureaus of yards and
docks, navigation, ordnance, provisions and clothing, medicine
and surgery, equipment and recruiting, construction and repair,
steam-engineering, each $5,000; Commandant of navy yard, $4,500; Pay
Inspector, $3,000; Commandant of Marine Corps, $4,500; Superintendent
of Naval Observatory, $5,000; Superintendent of Nautical Almanac,
$3,500; Chief Signal Officer, $3,500; Hydrographer, $3,500. The total
official list of the Navy numbers now about 2,800, with salaries from
$3,000 to $660.

The Postmaster General receives $8,000; the First, Second and Third
Assistants, each $3,500; Superintendent of Foreign Mails, $3,000;
Assistant Attorney General for Postoffice Department, $4,000;
Superintendent of Money-order System, $3,000. The total official list
for employes at Washington numbers about 5,000, with salaries ranging
from those already given down to $660 a year.

The Department of Justice is organized with Attorney General, salary,
$8,000; Solicitor General, $7,000; First Assistant Attorney General,
$5,000; Second Assistant Attorney General, $5,000. There are about
fifty clerks, copyists, messengers, laborers, etc., at salaries from
$2,200 to $660.


WHEN THE SEASONS BEGIN.

  WENONA, Ill.

  To end an argument, please inform us, through Our Curiosity Shop,
  when summer begins.

  C. M. TURNER.

_Answer._—The civil or tropical year, the one commonly used in
the measure of time, is the period which elapses from the sun’s
appearance on one of the tropical circles to its return to the same.
It varies very slightly, and has a mean length of 365 days, 5 hours,
48 minutes, and 49.7 seconds. Astronomically considered, the four
seasons begin at the equinoctial or the solstitial points. The summer
solstice is the meridian, passing through the point where the sun
touches the tropic of cancer; the winter solstice is the meridian
passing through the point where it touches the tropic of capricorn;
and the equinoctial points are the points at which the sun’s path or
equinoctial crosses the celestial equator. All these points shift,
according to very exact astronomical laws, from year to year; and so
the precise times when the seasons begin are matters of the nicest
mathematical calculations. For example, last year the seasons began
as follows:

Winter began Dec. 21, 1881, at 10:52 a. m. and lasted 90 days, 1
hour, and 10 minutes.

Spring began March 21, 1882, at 12:02 p. m. and lasted 91d, 20h, and
4m.

Summer began June 21, 1882, at 8:06 a. m. and lasted 93d, 14h, and
23m.

Winter began Dec. 21, 1882, at 4:45 p. m. and lasted 89d, 18h, and
16m.

The beginning of the seasons this year are given as follows:

Winter began Dec. 21, 1882, at 4:45 p. m. and lasted 88 days, and 54
minutes.

Spring began March 20, 1883, at 5:39 p. m. and lasted 92d, 20h, and
14m.

Summer began June 21, 1883, at 1:53 p. m. and lasts 93d, 14h, and 35m.

Winter will begin Dec. 21, 1883, at 10:44 a. m. and last 89d, 16h,
and 16m.


HENRY CLAY.

  HOOSIER, Pa.

  Please give me an account of Henry Clay and his descendants.

  A SUBSCRIBER.

_Answer._—Henry Clay was born near Richmond, Va., April 12, 1777. His
father died in 1782, and ten years later his mother married again
and moved to Kentucky, leaving Henry as a clerk in Richmond. In 1797
Henry followed her, and opened a law office in Lexington. He took an
active part in the framing of a new constitution for Kentucky, upon
her separation from Virginia when he strongly urged some provision
for the abolition of slavery, but in vain. From this time he became
prominent in politics. In 1803 a State Senator, a United States
Senator in 1806, one of the negotiators of peace in the war of 1812,
and twice a Speaker of the House, he was no stranger to statesmanship
when in 1824 he appeared as a candidate for the presidency. He was
defeated, however, as was also the case in 1832 and 1844 when he was
the candidate of the Whig party. As an orator he stands among the
very first that this country has produced. As a statesman he was
far-seeing, a wise political economist, a devoted lover of the Union,
and absolutely incorruptible. “I would rather be right than be the
President,” is one of his utterances, made under circumstances that
tested his sincerity. He did what he believed was right, offended
the slave oligarchy thereby, as he foresaw he should do, and barely
failed of election to the presidency in the ensuing campaign as the
consequence. Knowing the desperate measures to which the champions
of slavery would resort to preserve and extend that institution,
he averted threatened secession in 1821 by bringing forward the
“Missouri Compromise;” again in 1850 by another compromise known
as the “Omnibus bill.” The effect of these pacific measures was to
defer the inevitable final appeal to arms until the strength of the
free States had outgrown the slave power, and the Union was able to
grapple with secession and throttle it. As one of the commissioners
who negotiated the treaty of Ghent, at the close of the second war
with England, he caused the erasure of the clause granting free
navigation of the Mississippi to British vessels. Protection to
American industry through a wise adjustment of the tariff, found
in him one of the ablest of its early champions. Mr. Clay married
Lucretia Hart, in 1799, who bore him six daughters and five sons. The
last of the daughters died in 1835. Of the sons, the most promising,
Henry, born in 1811, fell at the battle of Buena Vesta, Feb. 23,
1847. James B., born in 1817, was a representative in Congress from
his father’s old district, 1857-9. He was a member of the Peace
Commission of 1861; died at Montreal, Jan. 26, 1864. Thomas Hart,
born in 1803, took office under President Lincoln as minister to
Nicaragua, and, later, to Honduras. He died at Lexington, Ky., March
18, 1871.


FOUNDING OF YALE AND DARTMOUTH.

  MELVIN, Ill.

  Please state when and by whom Yale, Harvard, and Dartmouth colleges
  were founded.

  A. BUCKHOLZ.

_Answer._—Yale College was founded in 1700, by the Connecticut
Colony, under the trusteeship of the ten principal ministers of
the colony. Harvard University was founded at Cambridge in 1636,
and named for the Rev. John Harvard, who gave $3,500 toward its
endowment fund. Dartmouth College was chartered in 1769, and named
for Lord Dartmouth, because of his interest and benefactions. These
institutions were chartered by corporations, and not by single
individuals.


SWARMING OF BEES.

  KEWANEE, Ill.

  In swarming, do the old or the young bees leave the hive?

  “TOPSY.”

_Answer._—The first swarm of a season leaves the hive under the
guidance of the old queen, before the new brood is hatched. This
swarm consists of most of the old workers and drones. As soon as the
new brood is five or six days old, young queens lead forth other
swarms, composed for the most part of young bees, until only one
queen remains in the old hive with a swarm.


MARTIN LUTHER.

  URBANA, Ill.

  Will you please give me a short biography of Martin Luther?

  NETTIE AYRES.

_Answer._—Martin Luther was born of poor parents, at Eisleben, in
1483. After studying at Erfurt and being confirmed priest, Luther
accepted a professorship at the University of Wittemberg in 1508. In
1510 he was sent on a mission to Rome, where he had an insight into
the corruptions of the papacy, and upon his return he immediately
entered upon his work of reform, especially attacking the sale
of indulgences. One of his first acts was to nail on the door of
Wittemberg Church ninety-five theses, in which he denied the power
of the Pope to forgive sins. Great excitement followed, and Luther
was summoned by Pope Leo X. to appear at Rome. The university and
electors interfered, and a legate from Rome came to Germany to hear
Luther’s defense. Soon Luther’s books and papers gained a wide
circulation, and in 1520 came a papal bull of excommunication, which
Luther burned in the gate of Wittemberg in the presence of a large
company. The next year Charles V. convened the Diet of Worms, which
ordered the destruction of Luther’s books and the arrest of the
heretic. He was now imprisoned by friends in the Castle of Wartburg
for his protection, and soon after his release married the gifted
Katharine Von Bora, a nun whom he had converted to Protestantism.
His later life was spent in writing and controversy, though, on the
whole, very quiet. He died in 1546.


FALL OF WESTERN RIVERS.

  1. What is the elevation of Rock Island, St. Louis, and Cairo above
  the Gulf of Mexico? 2. What is the fall per mile required to give a
  river a current of two miles an hour? 3. State average fall of the
  Mississippi River and its tributaries.

  J. H. RHODES.

_Answer._—1. Rock Island is about 536 feet, St. Louis 408 feet,
and Cairo about 322 feet above tide-water. 2. The number of inches
fall per mile required to give a current of two miles depends very
greatly upon the volume of the stream, the character of the bed, and
the directness of the channel. The same stream is sluggish at low
water and a rushing torrent at high flood. The current of the Lower
Mississippi, with a fall of nearly three inches per mile, has an
annual average of three miles an hour in midstream. 3. The slope of
rivers falling into the Mississippi from the west is about six inches
per mile, and that of those from the east is about three inches per
mile, except in the case of the Ohio River, whose mean descent from
Pittsburg to Cairo, including the falls and rapids at Louisville, is
about 5⅙ inches. The mean descent of the Mississippi from the mouth
of the Ohio to the gulf is a little over 2⅘ inches a mile. Between
Lake Itasca and the mouth of the Ohio the descent of the Mississippi
is much more rapid. From its source to the Falls of Pecogama, 270
miles, the total descent is 324 feet; thence to Pine River, 200
miles, the fall is 165 feet; thence to Crow Wing, 47 miles, it is 49
feet. Below this are the Sauk Rapids, then the Rapids and Falls of
St. Anthony, 18 feet at a leap and 66 feet in a single mile; then the
Rock Island Rapids, 22 feet; and the Des Moines Rapids, 24 feet. The
total descent between Lake Itasca and the mouth of the Ohio is 1,285
feet.


PRINCIPAL BATTLES OF THE REBELLION.

  YORK, Neb.

  Please give the dates of the principal battles of the rebellion,
  who commanded in each, and the number killed on both sides.

  J. I. MOSBARGER.

_Answer._—Bull Run (first), July 21, 1861: North, General McDowell;
killed, 481: South, General Beauregard; killed, unknown. Shiloh,
April 7, 1862: North, General Grant; killed, 1,735; South General A.
S. Johnston; killed, 1,728. Seven Pines and Fair Oaks, May 31 and
June 1, 1862: North, General McClellan; killed, 890; South, General
J. E. Johnston; killed, 2,800. Antietam, Sept. 16 and 17, 1862;
North, General McClellan; killed, 2,010; South, General Lee; killed,
3,500. Chancellorsville, May 2 and 3, 1863: North, General Hooker;
killed, 1,512: South, General Jackson; killed, 1,581. Gettysburg,
July 1, 2, and 3, 1863; North, General Meade; killed, 2,834; South,
General Lee; killed, 3,500. Vicksburg, July 3 and 4, 1863: North,
General Grant; killed, 545: South, General Pemberton; killed,
unknown. Chickamauga, Sept. 19-23, 1863: North, General Thomas;
killed, 1,644; South, General Bragg; killed, 2,389. Wilderness,
May 5, 6, and 7, 1864: North, General Grant; killed, 5,597; South,
General Lee; killed, 2,000. Spottsylvania, May 8-21, 1864: North,
General Grant; killed, 4,177; South, General Lee; killed, 1,000. The
above figures are based on medical official returns, and do not agree
with returns of Adjutant General. No two reports agree. Adjutant
General makes killed at Wilderness 2,261, and at Spottsylvania 2,270;
while General Meade’s report, based on reports immediately after the
battle, states killed at Wilderness at 3,288; at Spottsylvania 2,146.


SILVER COINS AT A PREMIUM.

  HEBRON, Ind.

  Can you give a list of the United States silver coins that are at a
  premium?

  FRANK RICHARDS.

_Answer._—There is a considerable demand for United States silver
coins of rare issues to complete collections for coin cabinets. The
following are quotations for a few of the rarer coins, taken from two
coin price lists, one published in Chicago and the other in Reading,
Pa.:


UNITED STATES DOLLARS.

                                                 Reading.  Chicago.
  1794, flowing hair                              $30.30   $12.50
  1795, flowing hair                                1.50     1.25
  1795, fillet head                                 1.65     1.25
  1796, fillet head                                 1.65     1.25
  1797, fillet head, 6 stars facing                 1.75     1.75
  1797, fillet head, 7 stars facing                 2.00     1.25
  1798, fillet head, 13 stars, small eagle          4.75     1.25
  1798, fillet head, 15 stars, small eagle          6.00     2.00
  1798, 13 stars, large eagle                       1.35     1.15
  1799, 5 stars facing                              2.25     1.40
  1799, 6 stars facing                              1.25     1.15
  1800, spread eagle                                1.45     1.25
  1801, spread eagle                                1.75     1.50
  1802, spread eagle                                1.45     1.35
  1802 over 1801, spread eagle                      1.50     1.35
  1803, spread eagle                                1.50     1.25
  1804, excessively rare, “boss dollar”           500.00   200.00
  1836, C. Gobrecht’s name in field                          6.00
  1836, flying eagle                                         3.00
  1838, flying eagle                               12.00    15.00
  1839, flying eagle                               18.00    15.00
  1851, liberty seated                             18.00    15.00
  1852, liberty seated                             18.00    15.00
  1854, liberty seated                              5.50     2.25
  1855, liberty seated                              3.25     2.00
  1856, liberty seated                              2.25     1.50
  1857, liberty seated                              2.75     1.50
  1858, liberty seated                             20.00    15.00


U. S. HALF DOLLARS.

  1794, flowing hair, fair                          3.50      2.00
  1794, flowing hair, good                          5.00      3.25
  1796, fillet head, 15 stars                      20.00     15.00
  1796, fillet head, 16 stars                      20.00     16.00
  1797, fillet head, 15 stars                      20.00     12.50
  1801, fillet head                                 3.50      2.00
  1802, fillet head                                 3.50      2.75
  1815, head to left, good                          3.50      2.60
  1815, head to left, fine                          5.00      3.50
  1836, liberty cap, milled edge                    2.00      2.00
  1836, liberty cap, milled fine                    2.50      2.50
  1838, liberty cap, having “O” mark underhead      7.00      3.00
  1852, liberty seated                              2.50      1.50
  1852, liberty seated, fine                        3.50      2.00


QUARTER DOLLARS.

  1796, fillet head, fair                           2.00      1.75
  1796, fillet head, good                           3.50      2.00
  1804, fillet head, fair                           1.50      1.25
  1804, fillet head, good                           2.00      1.50
  1823, head to left, fair                         15.00     13.50
  1823, head to left, good                         25.00     20.00
  1827, head to left, fair                         15.00     17.50
  1827, head to left, good                         25.00     20.00
  1853, liberty seated, without arrows              5.00      2.50


TWENTY-CENT PIECES.

  1877                                                        1.25
  1878                                                        1.50


DIMES.

  1796, fillet head, fair                            .75      1.00
  1796, fillet head, good                           1.50      1.25
  1797, 13 stars, fair                              1.00      1.25
  1897, 13 stars, good                              1.75      1.75
  1797, 16 stars, fair                              1.00      1.25
  1797, 16 stars, good                              1.75      1.75
  1798, fillet head, fair                            .75      1.00
  1798, fillet head, good                           1.00      1.50
  1800, fillet head, fair                            .50      1.00
  1800, fillet head, good                            .75      1.50
  1801, fillet head, fair                            .75      1.00
  1801, fillet head, good                           1.00      1.50
  1802, fillet head, fair                           1.50      1.25
  1802, fillet head, good                           2.50      2.00
  1803, fillet head, fair                           1.25       .75
  1803, fillet head, good                           1.75      1.25
  1804, fillet head, fair                           4.00      1.75
  1804, fillet head, good                           5.50      2.00
  1800, head to left                                1.25       .60
  1811, head to left                                 .70       .60
  1822, head to left, fair                          1.50      1.50
  1822, head to left, fine                          2.00      2.00
  1846, liberty seated                              1.00       .50


HALF DIMES.

  1794, flowing hair, fair                          2.00      1.25
  1794, flowing hair, good                          3.00      2.00
  1795, flowing hair, good                           .70       .50
  1796, 15 stars, fillet head, fair                 1.50      1.00
  1796, 15 stars, fillet head, good                 2.00      1.50
  1797, 15 stars, fillet head, fair                 2.50       .75
  1797, 15 stars, fillet head, good                 2.50      1.25
  1797, 16 stars, fillet head, fair                 1.50       .75
  1797, 16 stars, fillet head, good                 2.50      1.25
  1800, fillet head, fair                            .40       .25
  1800, fillet head, good                            .60       .50
  1801, fillet head, fair                           1.25       .75
  1801, fillet head, good                           2.00      1.25
  1802, fillet head, fair                          25.00     10.00
  1802, fillet head, fine                          40.00     30.00
  1803, fillet head, fair                           1.25       .75
  1803, fillet head, good                           2.25      1.25
  1805, fillet head, fair                           1.50      1.00
  1805, fillet head, good                           2.50      1.50
  1846, liberty seated, without stars, fair         1.50       .50
  1846, liberty seated, good                        2.00       .75
  1846, liberty seated, fine                        2.00      1.00


SILVER THREE-CENT PIECES.

  1863                                               .60       .25
  1864 to 1869, inclusive                                      .25
  1870, large star in center                                   .20
  1871, large star in center                                   .20
  1872, large star in center                                   .20
  1873, large star in center                         .90       .60

Such quotations are subject to frequent fluctuations, but New York
auction sales of old United States coins, reported from time to time,
indicate that coin purchasers can make a fair profit on the above
prices.


THE SALVATION ARMY.

  BELLE RIVER, Wis.

  Will the Curiosity Shop please to give some information regarding
  the “Salvation Army,” its origin, object, and modes of work?

  W.

_Answer._—Eighteen years ago, when General Booth began his work
in London as a Methodist minister to the artisan classes, he was
confronted by the great question, how to bring the gospel to the
hearts of the ignorant and degraded so as to make it a vital power.
After many trials and failures he began the organization of what is
now known as the Salvation Army numbering at present 320 corps, with
760 officers who give their entire time to the work, having over all
a “general.” Their creed is the literal gospel, and it is preached
by them in no less than 6,200 meetings a week. Their territory is
divided into thirteen districts, each under the care of a “major,”
who inspects and controls all the corps in his district. To each
corps is assigned a “captain,” assisted by one or two “lieutenants,”
who devote all their time to conducting meetings, visiting those
enlisted, and organizing work among the unconverted. The system of
promotion is slow and guarded. When a person professes a change
of heart he must at once rise and confess it before his former
associates. He is then placed under the supervision of the sergeant
of the district in which he resides, whose duty it is to report him
to the captain if he fails in the proper performance of any religious
duty. He must always wear the letter S in some conspicuous place,
and is soon given the charge of a part or the whole of a street. If
faithful in these duties, godly in character, and of good general
ability, he may be recommended by his captain for promotion. The
major refers him to the general, and if he answers satisfactorily
a long list of questions asked him by the latter he is sent to the
“training barracks” at Clapton, whence, after from six weeks to three
months, he is dispatched to some distant field as lieutenant. Each
officer is expected to lead from nineteen to twenty-five meetings
a week, and spend eighteen hours in visiting families. The army
has become so large that the management of affairs devolves upon
the majors. Its property is held by an attorney in the name of
the general. All who are able must contribute toward the general
expenses, and most of the corps are now self-supporting. The salaries
are met by general subscription.


COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF OF BRITISH ARMIES.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  Who is the present Duke of Cambridge, Commander-in-chief of the
  British armies? Please give an outline of his career.

  INQUIRER.

_Answer._—He is first cousin to Queen Victoria; being the son of
Adolphus Frederick, Duke of Cambridge, tenth child of George III.,
of whom Edward Augustus, Duke of Kent, the Queen’s father, was fifth
child. He succeeded to the title of his father, July 8, 1850. In
1837 he was promoted to a colonelcy in the British army. In 1854 he
was Lieutenant General commanding the first division sent to aid
Turkey against Russia in what is known as the Crimean war. He led the
troops at Alma and Inkerman. There was a good deal of dissatisfaction
expressed at the slow progress of the war, and under the plea of
ill-health he returned to England, where, in 1856, he succeeded
Viscount Hardinge as Commander-in-chief. In 1862 he was raised to
the rank of Field Marshal. He has never married, but—like his Uncle
William IV., who lived for many years with Mrs. Jordan, the actress,
rearing a numerous illegitimate family by her, and his Uncle Augustus
Frederick, Duke of Sussex, who, in violation of the royal marriage
act, married a subject, the Lady Augusta Murray, who bore him two
illegitimate children—he has persistently lived for many years with
Miss Fairbrother, once known as a beautiful actress, by whom he has
several illegitimate children, well provided for out of his large
income.


THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN.

  BRUSHY PRAIRIE, Md.

  Please give a synopsis of the observations and opinions of the best
  geologists of the present time as to the antiquity of man upon the
  earth.

  R. ASHLEY.

_Answer._—To summarize the earliest recorded geological evidences of
man’s life as briefly as possible it may be said: 1. In the words of
Professor Archibald Geikie, of Edinburgh University, “The geological
deposits which contain the history of the human period are cavern
loam, river alluvia, lake bottoms, peat mosses, and other superficial
accumulations.” Human remains are not found imbedded in stratified
rock, as in the cases of the fossilized plants and animals of the
lower orders. The entire period in which any supposed evidences of
the existence of man have been discovered is the Miocene or middle
epoch of the Tertiary period. They consist of a few flint flakes,
fancied to have been used, possibly, as human implements, but so
roughly shaped that it is admitted they may be simply natural; and
some bones of animals, scratched as if scraped by men, but more
probably by the teeth of wild animals. No geologist of high repute
acknowledges any of these crude objects and marks as proof of the
existence of man in the Miocene period. It has been claimed that
traces of man were found in California, in Calaveras County, and
on Table Mountain, in the next later formation, the Pliocene. But
M. Favre, reviewing the whole subject up to 1870, and Mr. Evans,
President of the Geological Society of London, still later, in 1875,
declare that the existence of man in any epoch of the Tertiary period
is unproved. 2. The next period is the Quaternary, which immediately
precedes the geological epoch in which we are living, known as the
“recent epoch.” The Quaternary period is subdivided into three
epochs, of which the earliest was the “glacial,” the second the
“champlain,” and the third the “terrace.” During the first of these
the northern regions of Europe, Asia, and America appear to have
been capped with ice down to about the latitude of 40 degrees north.
During the second the glaciers melted, the ice cap receded toward
the pole, and the greater part of the now cultivable regions of the
northern hemisphere were flooded with seas and lakes, underneath
which heavy sedimentary deposits were found. During the third epoch
land continued to rise; the lakes were drained off; mighty rivers
took the place of many of the lakes, cutting deep channels through
the old flood plain-deposits left by glaciers and lakes, and leaving
terraces or bluffs, such as are seen along the Mississippi, Missouri,
and other great rivers. In this formation, in the terraces of the
river Somme, near Abbeville, M. Boucher de Perthes discovered, about
1858, chipped flints, associated with the bones of the mammoth,
rhinoceros, hyena, horse, etc., which are generally regarded as human
implements. Similar discoveries were made at Hoxne, England, in
strata underlying the higher level river-gravels, but overlying the
glacier deposit, which seems to fix this discovery in the champlain
epoch. A well-shaped human skull was found in a cave at Engis, near
Liege, Belgium, associated with bones of extinct and living species,
beneath a crust of stalagmite, which are believed to belong to the
middle or latter part of the Quaternary period. Near Nice, in a
cave at Mentone, a few years ago, was found the skeleton of a man,
associated with the bones of the cave-bear and the cave-lion—long
extinct in that region—and the bones of living species, such as the
reindeer and stag, with twenty-two perforated teeth of the stag lying
around his head as if they had been worn as a necklace. In what
is called the Aurignac cave in France were found seventeen human
skeletons of both sexes and all sizes, along with entire bones of
extinct animals, and human implements and ornaments. The cave was
closed up with a slab, and outside of it was a deposit of ashes and
cinders, with burnt and split and knawed bones of extinct animals,
covered with talus, or a sloping heap of broken rock and earth.
Coming down from these discoveries to those of apparently later
times, the habitations of more civilized men have been discovered
in what are called the “lake dwellings” of Switzerland, of New
Guinea, South America, and in some parts of Africa. Such are the
chief indications of the antiquity of man, reckoned by geological
periods and epochs; but how to reduce these latter to years is still
an unsolved problem; so much so that some geologists claim that the
beginning of the terrace epoch, which, as above shown, contains the
earliest well-defined human remains, does not extend back more than
7,000 to 10,000 years, while others date it back from 50,000 to
60,000 years. Professor Le Conte sums up his review of this question
by saying: “In conclusion, we may say that we have as yet no certain
knowledge of man’s time on the earth. It may be 100,000 years, or it
may be only 10,000, but more probably the former than the latter.”
The fact that the deposits in which human remains and implements have
been discovered are all confessedly “superficial” gives opportunity
for unending disputations as to the origin of such remains, the
date of their deposit, and the time requisite to produce subsequent
physical changes.


PALACE OF THE CÆSARS.

  MULBERRY, Ind.

  Please give a description of the Palace of the Cæsars and the
  “Golden House” of Nero. How far were they apart, and how much did
  they cost?

  J. J. R.

_Answer._—The Palace of the Cæsars, if we judge from the Latin
authors, was of all palaces of its time the most magnificent. The
palace of Augustus, built upon the site of the houses of Cicero and
Catiline, was its beginning, and each succeeding Emperor altered
and improved it. Tiberius and Caligula enlarged it, Nero added his
Golden House, and Titus used the portion on the Esquiline Hill for
his famous baths. It is now a mass of shapeless ruins, extending
over three hills of Rome, and covering an area 1,500 feet in length
and 1,300 feet in width, giving no hint of what it once was in
architecture or embellishment. All is left to the imagination of the
poet except the beauty of the Golden House, which soon outrivaled
the splendor of the older palace of which it was a part. It is
said to have been the houses of Augustus and Maecenas connected by
arches and columns, and it extended over the Palatine, Esquiline,
and Cælian Hills of Rome. The interior was covered with gold and
precious stones, and adorned with the finest paintings and statuary
that the world afforded. The circular banquet hall, perpetually
revolving in imitation of the apparent motion of the sun about the
earth, had vaulted iron ceilings, which, opening, scattered flowers
upon the guests, and golden pipes through which ran sweet perfumes.
In the vestibule stood Nero’s statue, 120 feet in height. The palace
was surrounded by a triple portico a mile in length, and supported
by a thousand columns, and within this lay an immense lake, whose
banks were bordered by great buildings, each representing a little
city, about which lay green pastures and groves, where sported “all
animals, both tame and wild.” It is impossible to learn how much
these palaces cost. They were not far apart, but reference to Tacitus
Annals shows that they were distinct structures.


HOMEOPATHY IN THE UNITED STATES.

  CAMBRIDGE, Ill.

  Please inform me, if you can, who was the first teacher of
  homeopathy in this country, and the extent to which the practice of
  it has spread.

  W. N. BOYER, M. D.

_Answer._—It is generally conceded that Hans B. Gram, a native of
Boston, who studied in Denmark, introduced homeopathy into the United
States in the year 1825. There are now twelve colleges of this school
of medicine in this country, graduating from 300 to 400 students a
year—380 in 1880—45 homeopathic dispensaries; over 30 hospitals; 15
periodicals devoted to this practice; and about 7,500 physicians and
surgeons.


NEBRASKA AND LINCOLN’S MONUMENT.

  FREMONT, Neb.

  To settle a dispute, state whether Nebraska voted $500 toward the
  National Lincoln Monument at Springfield, Ill., and then took it
  back, or refused to pay it over to the Monument Association.

  A. C. F.

_Answer._—By an act approved Feb. 15, 1869, the Legislature of
Nebraska appropriated $500 “to aid in the construction of the
National Lincoln Monument at or near Springfield, Ill.” In September,
1882, when visiting the monument, the Hon. Isham Reavis, of Falls
City, Neb., who voted for this appropriation, learned incidentally
from Mr. J. C. Power, the custodian, that the Association had never
received the money. On his return to Nebraska he went to Lincoln, and
by examination of the Auditor’s books found that the $500 had never
been remitted, and that in due time it had by operation of law been
covered back into the treasury with other unexpended balances. With
the hearty co-operation of the Hon. C. H. Gere, of the _Nebraska
State Journal_, who as a member of the Senate had participated in
the act of appropriation, Judge Reavis induced leading members of
the last Legislature to revive the appropriation. The Legislature of
New York had set an example some time before by the reappropriation
of the $10,000 which it had voted to the monument, but which had
been permitted to lapse before it had been called for. Having
been informed that the monument was then about complete, that the
association was not in debt, and that the receipts from visitors for
admission to the monument pay all current expenses, but that if the
Nebraska appropriation was paid over it would be used in embellishing
the nine acres of ground surrounding the monument, the Legislature,
on or about Feb. 23, 1883, reappropriated the original amount of
$500. After all, therefore, Nebraska has a share in this splendid
memorial to the immortal Lincoln.


LOW TARIFF AND FIAT MONEY.

  EMPORIA, Kan.

  Your reply to J. R. Thompson has awakened in my mind a desire to
  know more about the Japanese currency and financial conditions.
  What led to the issue of the Japanese “fiat money,” as you call
  it? Was this paper money “convertible?” What was it based on? When
  was it redeemable, and how? What was the financial standing of the
  government at the time, and what is it now?

  E. D. HUMPHREY.

_Answer._—The treaties made with Japan by foreign nations when that
country was wholly unsophisticated in treaty-making and inexperienced
in the laws of international commerce, provided for the admission
of foreign products on what is practically a free-trade basis.
As a consequence, the balance of trade has for years past been
against Japan, her exports being considerably less in value than
her imports. For example, in 1880 the exports from Japan to Great
Britain (which country gets two-thirds of the whole Japanese foreign
trade) amounted to only £531,621, while the British “home produce”
alone imported into Japan amounted to £3,290,906. Again and again
Japan, seeing the ruinous effects on home industry resulting from
the too moderate tariff fixed by the foreign treaties, has sought to
get a modification of those treaties permitting her to increase the
tariff, but thus far with little effect. Of course the difference
between the value of the imports and exports has to be paid in the
precious metals. The country was already suffering from this drain of
bullion, when a civil war broke out in 1868, and the government was
forced to issue paper currency to meet its ordinary and extraordinary
expenses. This first issue bore a promise of redemption at the end
of thirteen years; but, though the rebellion had been put down and a
peaceful and, in many respects, a strong, progressive government had
been established, this government was not in a condition to keep its
promises, and the old currency issue was replaced with a new one,
without any stipulation as to when it should be redeemed. The people
looked upon it with distrust, and, although it was a legal tender, it
was not long before it dropped to 50 cents on the dollar as compared
with specie. The government took warning, entered upon a contraction
of expenditures, strove to inspire confidence in the currency, and by
contracting the volume somewhat, it has raised the value of its paper
money to about 75 cents on the dollar.

When Japan opened its ports to foreign commerce it was substantially
without debt. It is not even now heavily burdened, and could it once
check the influx of foreign goods and so develop its home productions
as to bring exports and imports to something like an equilibrium,
its financial condition would be superior to that of most other
countries. Its foreign debt in January, 1875, amounted to no more
than £3,400,000, which had been reduced by the action of the sinking
fund to £2,134,700 at the end of 1881; and its home debt in July,
1880, stood at £69,406,919—a total of about $357,700,000; of which
$108,000,000 was the “fiat money,” or irredeemable paper currency
above described.


MEANING OF A AND AP IN SURNAMES.

  GREENVILLE, Ill.

  What do the abbreviations _a_ and _ap_ before a surname denote?

  SEA.

_Answer._—These particles, “a” and “ap,” are abbreviations of Latin
prepositions meaning “of” and “at” or “from.” Generally, when
connected with names, they refer to the town or place where one was
born, or the family estate. In the case, for example, of Thomas _a_
Kempis, author of that famous work entitled “Imitation of Christ,”
which has been translated into more languages than any other book,
save the Bible, the “a” denotes “from.” His family name was Thomas
Hammerken. He was born in 1379 or 1380 in the town of Kempen, near
Cologne. He was educated first at Deventer, then at Zwolle, and in
the Convent of St. Agnes. After the custom of the times at these
schools, he was known as “Thomas from Kempen,” and, finally, as
happened in many other such cases, the school name pushed aside the
family name.


TROPICAL PLANTS IN LABRADOR.

  TINGLEY, Iowa.

  Have any tropical plants been discovered in the rocks of Labrador?
  If so, where and by whom?

  JAMES S. WILLIAMS.

_Answer._.—Tropical vegetation once existed far north of Labrador,
as is shown by fossil remains discovered in Greenland, Iceland and
Spitzbergen; but we do not know whether similar discoveries have been
made in Labrador. We must refer you to Hind’s “Explorations of the
Labrador Peninsula,” and Bell’s “Report of the Geological Survey of
Canada,” 1879.


CURING BASKET WILLOW.

  WINNECONNE, Wis.

In your edition of July 26 is an inquiry on the basket willow from
T. H. Davis, of Loveland, Col. I think the answer right all but the
directions for curing. In England I have seen them set the willows,
after they are cut, in bundles, standing in a pond or stream of
water, butts down, with stakes and poles to keep them in position.
In the spring, when the sap rises, peel them by drawing through a
crotched stake set firm in the ground and faced in the crotch with
iron. If the willow is allowed to dry before peeling it will be hard
to get the bark off and the wood will be discolored.

  F. LIGHTFOOT.


JEAN PAUL RICHTER.

  OCONOMOWOC, Wis.

  Will you oblige me with a short sketch of Jean Paul Richter. How is
  Richter pronounced?

  A READER.

_Answer._—Jean Paul Friedrick Richter was one of the most original
characters in the literary world. He was a man of much general
information, but of erratic genius. It has been said that he wrote in
“gems,” so filled are his works with beautiful ideas. But his style
is too careless and his thoughts too rambling to place him among
classical writers. He was born at Wunsiedel, in Bavaria, March 21,
1763. Though, when quite young, his father’s death left the family
in poverty, Jean Paul resolved to go to Leipsic, and by the greatest
self-sacrifice he accomplished his resolve. At the end of four
years, however, he was obliged to leave the town secretly to escape
being arrested for debt. He now abandoned the idea of entering the
church and taught for a few years, writing meanwhile. When, in 1794,
he began his visits to German literary centers, he found himself
the idol of the ladies, who treasured even the shorn locks of his
poodle, and sometimes ventured to propose to the eccentric author
himself. But he rejected them all, and in 1801 chose for himself
the brilliant Caroline Mayer, of Berlin. Ever afterward the King of
Bavaria gave him an annual pension of 1,000 florins and he received
the degree of doctor from the University of Heidelberg. In his later
years his mental strength failed and in 1824 he became totally blind.
He died at Bayreuth Nov. 14, 1825, surrounded by loving friends.
His character, though eccentric, was beautiful in its gentleness
and philanthropy. The poor were his chief mourners. Carlyle has
translated some of his writings and found in him a theme for two of
his best essays. The ch in Richter’s name has the same sound as in
the German word for book. It can be learned properly only by oral
instruction.


INVENTOR OF COTTON GIN-WHITNEY.

  WINDSOR, Ill.

  Please give some items connected with the life of Eli Whitney.

  SUBSCRIBER.

_Answer._—Eli Whitney, a graduate of Yale College in 1792, was
induced to invent a machine for cleaning cotton by the widow of
Nathaniel Greene, with whom he boarded while studying law. He
patented the cotton-gin, but the idea was stolen by other parties,
and it was only after years of litigation that he obtained the
$50,000 which had been voted him for the invention by the Legislature
of Georgia. In 1793 he established a manufactory for the machine near
Washington, Ga., but five years later he turned his attention to the
improvement of firearms, reaping a fortune therefrom.


ISINGLASS.

  GLENALLIN, D. T.

  Please tell me how isinglass is made, and whether the raw material
  is valuable.

  A. H. CHASE.

_Answer._—The raw material of isinglass is the air bladders or sounds
of fish, and is invaluable except for this one purpose. In Russia,
where the finest isinglass is made, the sounds of the sturgeon are
cut open and steeped in water until the outer membrane separates from
the inner; then the latter is washed and dried in the sun. The sounds
of the common cod, the hake, and other gadidae are also used for
isinglass.


MOCHA ISLAND.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  Is there an island by the name of Mocha? If so, please describe it.
  Also tell where Mocha coffee grows.

  HENRY COLLINS.

_Answer._.—There is an Island named Mocha off the coast of Auracania,
belonging to Chili. It is about eight miles long, very broken, and
at the north end mountainous, rising to 1,230 feet above the sea.
Whalers occasionally resort to it for wood and water, both of which
are scarce, while the landing is bad. There is a portion of Southwest
Abyssinia called Mocha. But the place by this name that is of most
importance is a fortified port on the Arabian side of the Red Sea.
It gives its name to the finest variety of coffee known to commerce,
most of which is produced in the interior of Arabia, in the province
of Yemen.


A SPORTING TERM—HIGH-BINDER.

  ALEDO, Ill.

  What is the meaning of “high-binder,” an old sporting term, I think?

  JOSEPH WHITTAUS.

_Answer._—The high-binder is an athlete, such as a circus tumbler and
jumper. The term is sometimes applied to horses that jump hurdles and
ditches, or steeple-chasers.


UNITED BRETHREN.

  KINGMAN, Kan.

  What is the date of the founding of the sect known as the United
  Brethren in Christ; what are the present statistics of the church,
  and how does it differ from the Methodist Episcopal Church?

  A SUBSCRIBER.

_Answer._—This sect was founded among the Germans in Pennsylvania
by Philip William Otterbein and Martin Boehm in 1760. In 1875 they
numbered 4,010 churches, 1,967 ministers, 136,076 members, and their
church property was valued at more than $2,500,000. The church
has ten educational institutions in Western States, and a large
printing establishment at Dayton, Ohio. The members are sometimes
called German Methodists, as their faith is Arminian; but their
church polity is a mixture of Methodism, Congregationalism, and
Presbyterianism. Like the Methodists, they have quarterly, annual,
and general conferences, but their bishops are elected for only four
years. They are very severe in the requirements of candidates for
membership, admitting none who are members of secret societies or
sanction slavery and the use of alcoholic liquors.


EMBER DAYS.

  CHAMPAIGN, Ill.

  What is understood by the ember days?

  N. ZEIGLER.

_Answer._—The ember days are days set apart in the calendar of the
Romish and Episcopal Churches for the purpose of fasting and prayer,
imploring a divine blessing upon the fruits of the earth, and upon
the ordinations performed at that time. Wednesday, Friday, and
Saturday, in the week following the first Sunday in Lent, Whitsunday,
the 14th of September, and the 13th of December, are called ember
days, and the weeks in which they occur are called ember weeks.


VICTOR HUGO’S WORKS.

  VIENNA, Iowa.

  Please give a sketch of the life of Victor Hugo, the poet and
  novelist. Name some of his most noted writings, and where they may
  be found?

  H. S. ELLWANGER.

_Answer._—A brief biographical sketch of Victor Hugo may be found in
Our Curiosity shop for 1880. His earlier novels are “Han d’Islande,”
“Bug-Jargal,” and “Notre Dame de Paris;” his dramas, “Cromwell,”
“Marion Delorme,” “Le Roi s’amuse,” “Lucrèce Borgia,” “Ruy Blas,”
and “Hernani;” his poems, “Les Feuilles d’Automne,” “Les Chants du
Crépuscule,” and while an exile upon the island of Guernsey he added
“Les Misérables,” “Les Travailleurs de la Mer,” “L’Homme qui Rit,”
and “Quatrevingt-Treize.” Since then he has published his “Speeches,”
the “Légende des Siècles,” “L’Histoire d’un Crime,” and a poem, “Le
Pape.” He is one of the most original and perhaps the most popular
writer of fiction and lyric verse France has ever produced.


PRESIDENTS OF THE SENATE.

  WAUSAU, Wis.

  Please give the names of the Presidents of the United States
  Senate up to date. How long do the Presidents pro tempore retain
  that position? Give the names of Speakers of the House of
  Representatives, beginning with the Forty-second Congress.

  N. A. S.

_Answer._—The Vice President of the United States is President of the
Senate when sitting in that body, but in his absence a President pro
tempore is proposed and chosen by ballot. “His office is understood
to be determined on the Vice President appearing and taking the
chair, or at the meeting of the Senate after the first recess.” (See
Jefferson’s Manual.) The persons who have presided over the Senate
are: John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Aaron Burr, George Clinton,
William H. Crawford, Elbridge Gerry, John Gaillard, Daniel D.
Tompkins, John C. Calhoun, Hugh L. White, Martin Van Buren, Richard
M. Johnson, John Tyler, Samuel L. Southard, Willie P. Mangum, George
M. Dallas, Millard Fillmore, William R. King, David R. Atkinson,
Jesse D. Bright, John C. Breckinridge, Hannibal Hamlin, Andrew
Johnson, Lafayette S. Foster, Benjamin F. Wade, Schuyler Colfax,
Henry Wilson, Thomas W. Ferry, William A. Wheeler, Chester A. Arthur,
David Davis, and the present incumbent, George F. Edmunds. It is not
worth while to mention those who have filled the chair only for a
few hours at a time. The Speakers since the Forty-second Congress
have been James G. Blaine, Michael C. Kerr, Samuel J. Randall, and J.
Warren Keifer.


DAVID H. STROTHER—“PORTE CRAYON.”

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  Kindly give the right name of the author of “Virginian
  Illustrated,” “Life in the Old Dominion,” “Virginian Canaan,” etc.,
  which appeared in _Harper’s Monthly_, vols. 6 to 12, under the nom
  de plume of “Porte Crayon.” What became of him? Is he still living?

  JAMES BUTCHER.

_Answer._—The real name of this author is David Hunter Strother. He
was born in Virginia, in 1816, studied art in New York; first became
known to the public as “Porte Crayon” in 1853; entered the Union army
as Captain in 1864, resigned, and in 1867 was brevetted Brigadier
General; after the war, published in _Harper’s Monthly_ a series of
“Personal Reminiscences of the War;” and in 1879 went to Mexico as
Consul General, an office he still holds.


THE GUINEA PIG.

  WATERVILLE, Kan.

  Will you please tell me, through your department, the nature and
  origin of the Guinea pigs? Where do they come from, and how often
  in a year do they breed?

  “MAGNOLIA.”

_Answer._—Properly speaking, the “Guinea pig” (cava caboya) is not a
pig, but a rodent closely related to the restless cavy of Uraguay and
Brazil, belonging to the same natural order as the rat and beaver.
Like the cavidae, it burrows in the ground, and feeds upon fruits
and herbs. Its chief value consists in its beauty, which may be
described thus: A white fur, patched with red and black, covering a
little animal a foot long and weighing from a pound to a pound and a
half—a creature inoffensive and helpless in the extreme, exceedingly
restless, and not remarkably intelligent. It is supposed that this
cavy was carried from South America to Europe in the fifteenth or
sixteenth century, and there domesticated; and that its name is a
corruption of Guiana pig. It is very prolific, beginning to breed at
the age of two months, and rearing a brood of four to twelve three
times a year.


DARIUS AND THE SCYTHIANS.

  GENEVA, Ill.

  In “Gibbon’s Rome,” Vol. III., chap. 26, page 13, we find the
  following foot-note: “When Darius advanced into the Moldavian
  desert, between the Danube and the Niester, the King of the
  Scythians sent him a mouse, a frog, a bird, and five arrows; a
  tremendous allegory!” What did this allegory signify?

  C. P. DUTTON.

_Answer._—It has been variously interpreted. The following is the
meaning given it by some writers: “You make war (the arrows) on a
people you cannot conquer until you can subsist on roots and wild
grain like the mouse, inhabit either land or water, like the frog,
and flee with the swiftness of a bird.” Another rendering is: “We
subsist in the wild fields like the mouse; live either on land or
water, like the frog; flee like the bird, and slay our pursuers as we
flee, for our right hands are full of arrows for our enemies.” Darius
Hystaspes had demanded an offering of earth and water from them as
a token of submission, and this was the answer of these invincible
barbarians; and they made good their allegory. As Darius pursued them
with an army of 700,000 men they led him farther and farther, through
forests, swamps, and deserts, until his troops died of fatigue,
malaria, and famine, and he was compelled to return, utterly defeated
in his object, leaving all but a mere remnant of his immense army
dead in the wilderness.


THE MISSISSIPPI AND MISSOURI RIVERS.

  YELLOWSTONE, Wis.

  The “New American Dictionary” says that the Missouri is the longest
  river in the world, 4,194 miles, and that the Mississippi is
  3,200. “Wilson’s Geography” says the Mississippi is 4,396, and the
  Missouri is 3,960 miles long. Please tell us which is right, and
  the reasons for these variations.

  JAMES LYONS.

_Answer._—The fact is that the precise lengths of the chief rivers
of the globe are not known. They shift their channels and wind to
such a degree as renders it a difficult problem to determine the
exact length of any one of them, and exactness in such cases is not
as yet a matter of sufficient practical importance to justify the
expense of making accurate measurements. If it were, it would be
found that every great river varies in length from time to time by
cutting new channels for itself. As a consequence all statements are
only estimates, and scarcely two original writers precisely agree.
The latest edition of “Lippincott’s Gazetteer of the World” does not
presume to speak positively, but says: “The Mississippi is about
3,000 miles long (or, as some say, 3,160).” Speaking of the Missouri,
it says: “The total length of the stream, from its source to the
Gulf of Mexico, is computed to be 4,300 miles.” “Chambers’ Universal
Knowledge” says the Mississippi River is 2,986 miles long from its
source to its mouth, and that from the latter to the source of the
Missouri is 4,506 miles. Probably Lippincott’s statements are nearest
to the truth, but none of them claim to be absolute measurement.


WHY EASTER IS A MOVABLE FEAST.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  Why does Christmas always fall on the same day of the month,
  while the days celebrated in commemoration of Christ’s death
  and ascension change? I have submitted this question to several
  ministers and other learned persons without receiving a
  satisfactory answer.

  BUSCANDO.

_Answer._—Christ was crucified on Friday, the 14th day of the Jewish
month Nisan, and rose from the dead on the following Sunday. The
14th of Nisan was the Jewish “passover,” the day observed by them in
commemoration of the sprinkling of their door-posts with the blood
of the paschal lamb on the night when the “Destroying Angel” passed
over the dwellings of the Israelites but smote the first-born of the
Egyptians. As the year of the Jews is a lunar year, and the 14th of
Nisan is always a full-moon day, the Christian Church, regarding
the observance of the crucifixion of Christ as a substitute for the
passover of the Jewish Church, determine Good Friday and Easter
Sunday by the rules for reckoning the Jewish ecclesiastical year.
Christmas, intended to commemorate the birth of Christ, had no
connection with the ritual of the old church, and, like some two or
three hundred other immovable feast days of the Church of Rome, many
of them birthdays of saints, it was finally settled that it should be
observed on a given day of the common calendar.


OMAHA INDIAN RESERVATION.

  BOONE, Iowa.

  Isn’t it about time that the Omaha Indian Reservation was opened
  for settlement, under the act of Congress approved Aug. 7, 1882?

  GRANGER.

_Answer._—The same question, substantially, comes to THE INTER OCEAN
at least once a week from one part of the country or another. In
reply to an inquiry, the Acting Commissioner of the General Land
Office recently wrote as follows:

  WASHINGTON, Aug. 4.—Editor of Inter Ocean: In reply to your inquiry
  of the 17th ult., I have to state that this office is unable to
  say what time will elapse before the Omaha Indian Reservation,
  in Nebraska, will be open to settlement. The requirements of the
  act of Aug. 7, 1882, as to appraisement, have not yet been fully
  complied with, and these lands are still under the jurisdiction of
  the Office of Indian Affairs. Yours respectfully,

  LUTHER HARRISON,
  Acting Commissioner.

The substance of the act above referred to is given in Our Curiosity
Shop for 1882, pages 113 and 128.


FIRST AMERICAN FREE SCHOOLS.

  DOUGLASS, Kan.

  Where and in what year were free schools first established in this
  country? Who was the first advocate of them? When did they become
  general?

  HENRY BUTLER.

_Answer._—A law was passed in Massachusetts in 1649 requiring every
township to maintain a free school, and every town of 100 families
to maintain a grammar school to “fit youths for the university;”
and it is recorded in 1665 that a free school was then supported by
each town in New England. The Connecticut, Plymouth, and New Haven
Colonies soon followed this good example of Massachusetts, either
in whole or in part. The first public school in Pennsylvania was
established in Philadelphia by the Quakers, in 1689, free to those
who could not pay. In 1694 Maryland enacted that every county should
have a public school, and every parish a free library of at least
fifty volumes. A free grammar school was established in New York by
an act passed in 1702, but a system of free common schools was not
inaugurated in this State until after 1795, in which year, on the
recommendation of Governor Clinton, the Legislature appropriated
$50,000 to encourage the establishment of common schools—not wholly
free. It was years after this before the system of schools free
to all (except colored children) went into general operation in
New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois, Indiana, and Michigan. The
Southern States waited until after the war before adopting the
free-school system even for white children. Their common schools
were free only for the children of confessed paupers. Who was “the
first advocate” of free schools it is now impossible to determine
positively. Several of them came over in the Mayflower, as there
were a few free schools in Massachusetts before the above enactment
of 1649, making it obligatory on every town to have them, the chief
argument then being that “every child must know how to read the
Bible.”


CORDOVA, MEXICO.

  UNION CITY, Iowa.

  My regiment was stationed at Cordova, Mexico, at the close of the
  Mexican war. How old is that city, by whom was it founded, and what
  is its present population?

  M. W. V.

_Answer._—Cordova, situated about fifty-seven miles inland from
Vera Cruz, Mexico, is now a city of 6,500 to 7,000 inhabitants. The
district around it is very fertile, and the tobacco, sugar, coffee,
and cotton produced here foster an increasing trade. Its streets
are regularly laid out and well paved; most of the houses are built
of stone, and the fine cathedral is much admired for its interior
architecture and decorations. The city was founded by the early
Spanish adventurers and missionaries on the site of an old Aztec
town, and named in honor of the forerunner of Cortez, Francisco
Fernandez de Cordova, the discoverer of Yucatan and the southeastern
extremity of Mexico, in the year 1517. The date of the first Spanish
settlement is uncertain.


MARSHAL KEITH.

  FAIRMONT., Neb.

  Who was Marshal Keith, “the noble exile,” killed at the battle of
  Hochkirchen?

  W. P. JACKS.

_Answer._—He was Francis Edward James Keith, a Scotch nobleman,
born at Inverngie Castle, Aberdeenshire, in 1696. He and his elder
brother, the Earl Marischal, espoused the cause of the “Elder
Pretender,” as he is called, James Francis Edward, son of the deposed
James II. of England, in the insurrection of 1715. That affair ended
in speedy disaster, and being attainted of treason, he fled to
France. Here after some two years, spent for the most part in study
at the University of Paris, he took part in the disastrous expedition
of the Pretender to the highlands of Scotland in 1719. Escaping
again to France, he lived in obscurity and want, first at Paris and
then at Madrid, until he received a colonel’s commission in the army
of the King of Spain. Here his Protestantism stood in the way of his
promotion, and he soon took a recommendation from the King to Peter
II. of Russia, in whose service he soon rose to the rank of general.
In 1747 he entered the service of Frederick the Great of Prussia, who
made him a field marshal, accounting him one of his ablest generals.
Quick to discern the military exigencies and opportunities of the
moment, and prompt to avail himself of them, “sagacious, skillful,
imperturbable, without fear and without noise, a man quietly ever
ready,” as Carlyle describes him, he had the full confidence, and
even won the affection, of Frederick, who was wont to place him in
the most responsible positions. He was killed Oct. 14, 1758, in the
battle of Hochkirch, in which Frederick the Great suffered one of the
most terrible defeats of that bloody war at the hands of the combined
Austrian and Prussian armies.


SUNDAY SCHOOLS IN ALL THE WORLD.

  SALMON CITY, D. T.

  Please give the origin of the Sunday school, where and by whom
  first started, and the number of such schools in this country, and,
  so far as known, in the whole world.

  W. H. ANDREWS.

_Answer._—The following statistics of Sunday schools were reported by
Mr. E. P. Porter to the Robert Raikes Centennial Convention held in
London, England, June 28, to July 3, 1880. They comprise only those
of the “Evangelical denominations,” and are incomplete even for this
class of schools. Full returns, including the enrollment in schools
of denominations not classed by Mr. Porter as Evangelical, probably
would increase the above aggregate by from 20 to 25 per cent.

  Countries.     Teachers.    Scholars.      Total.

  Europe           550,001    5,332,813    5,882,814
  Asia               1,772       38,000       39,772
  Africa               300       15,000       15,300
  N. America       931,740    6,974,454    7,906,194
  S. America         3,000      150,000      153,000
  Oceanica          17,800      170,000      187,800
                 —————————   ——————————   ——————————
      Total      1,504,613   12,680,267   14,184,880

The numbers reported for the United States, at the above convention,
were as follows: Schools, 82,261; teachers, 886,328; scholars,
66,233,124. Your other questions are all answered with great care on
pages 58 and 96 of Our Curiosity Shop, in book form, for 1882; price
per mail, 25 cents.


SCHOOLS OF BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

  MILES, Iowa.

  How do the public school privileges of Ireland compare with those
  of England?

  H. G. BRYANT.

_Answer._—The total population of Ireland in 1881 was 5,159,839. The
total number of national schools in 1880 was 7,590, with 1,083,020
pupils, aided by a parliamentary grant of £722,366, or about
$3,611,830. The population of Great Britain proper—England, Wales and
Scotland—was 29,703,859 in 1881, and the number of public schools
inspected in 1880 was 20,670, with an attendance of 3,155,534 pupils.
The parliamentary grant amounted to £2,468,077, or about $12,340,385,
so that the parliamentary grant in aid of primary education in
Ireland is about 70 cents per capita of the total population,
while for England, Wales and Scotland it is only about 41 cents.
The above figures cover only the national schools for elementary
instruction, in addition to which there are hundreds of parochial,
or denominational and private schools in both countries. In Ireland,
in 1880, there were 158 workhouse schools under the superintendency
of the National Board, with an enrollment of 16,945, and an average
attendance of 8,880. There were fifty-two industrial schools in 1879,
with 4,979 inmates. There were in 1880, ninety-four school farms,
nineteen school gardens, and a large number of agricultural schools
under local management. The total number of pupils who entered the
examination in agriculture in 1880 was 33,648, of whom 15,652 passed.
The statistics of industrial schools in England, Wales, and Scotland
are not conveniently obtainable.


SUNLIGHT OVERFLOWS THE HEMISPHERE.

  HAPPY HOLLOW, Ill.

  The sun being so much larger than the earth, does not a little more
  than one-half of the earth’s surface receive its rays at the same
  time?

  W. C. COLGROVE.

_Answer._—A little more than half of the earth’s surface is
illuminated by the sun at any given moment. There is a very slight
extension of the area of illumination for the reason you mention,
and beyond that an extension of from thirty-five to forty miles all
around on account of horizontal refraction. If you put a silver coin
into a bowl, then stand back until the edge barely hides the coin,
and while you keep this same position another person fills the bowl
with water, you will see the bottom of it seem to lift until the coin
comes into sight. This is because the rays of light reflected from
the bottom of the bowl are bent out of a straight line in passing
through the water and out into the thinner medium, the air. This is
called refraction. The rays of light from the setting sun are bent
downward in a similar manner as they enter the earth’s atmosphere,
and so the sun appears to be above the horizon a little more than
two minutes after it has actually dropped below the true horizon. A
difference of two minutes in time corresponds to a distance of thirty
miles on the earth’s surface.


THE BRITISH PARLIAMENT.

  SANDUSKY, Iowa,

  1. Does Parliament serve the same purposes in Great Britain
  as Congress does in the United States? 2. How is Parliament
  constituted?

  A. C. STARIN.

_Answer._—Like the Congress of the United States, the British
Parliament legislates for the whole nation. But, in addition to
this, it takes the place of the separate legislative bodies that
used to exist in Scotland and Ireland, and makes local laws for
England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, such as in this country can
only be made by State Legislatures. As regards the Dominion of
Canada, the Australian Provinces, and other colonial possessions,
with legislatures of their own, the powers of Parliament are somewhat
analogous to those of Congress over the States. 2. Parliament is
composed of two houses, the Lords and the Commons. The House of
Lords consists of peers who hold their seats either by virtue of
hereditary right; by creation of the sovereign (who is unrestricted
in his power of creating peers); by virtue of office, as the
English bishops; by election for life, as the Irish peers; or by
election for duration of Parliament, as the Scottish peers. This
House, in the session of 1882, consisted of 516 members, of whom 5
were peers of the blood royal, 2 were archbishops, 22 were dukes,
19 marquises, 117 earls, 26 viscounts, 24 bishops, 257 barons,
16 Scottish peers, and 28 Irish representative peers. More than
two-thirds of these hereditary peerages have been created within the
present century—over one-third of them by the present sovereign,
which marks one of the strongest factors of the power of the Crown.
In the same year the Commons consisted of 639 members, classified as
“knights of the shire,” or representatives of counties; “citizens,”
or representatives of cities; and “burgesses,” or representatives of
boroughs—all of whom hold office by election. The qualifications of
electors were given in an article published in Our Curiosity Shop
a few months ago. The total number of these electors in 1882 was
3,134,801.


REMOVAL OF ARTHUR FROM CUSTOM HOUSE.

  MILWAUKEE, Wis.

  Why did President Hayes remove Chester A. Arthur from the New York
  Custom House? Was he charged with dishonesty?

  S. J. SMITH.

_Answer._—There was no official charge or imputation of dishonesty
against Chester A. Arthur when in the New York Custom House. His
administration of that office was a great improvement on any
preceding one for many years back. He had effected great reforms
and ousted officers who had fattened on corruption under his
predecessors. President Hayes distinctly disclaimed any want of
faith in Mr. Arthur’s integrity as a cause for replacing him, and
the official reports of Secretary Sherman bore unequivocal testimony
to the efficiency of the Collector’s administration of his difficult
office, and clearly recognized his personal integrity. Mr. Arthur did
not approve certain changes which Secretary Sherman wished to make,
and he was known also to be in sympathy with Mr. Conkling and others
not favorable to Secretary Sherman’s aspirations for the Presidency.
It is generally believed that the above were the chief reasons
for the Secretary’s desire to supersede Mr. Arthur, which finally
prevailed.


ROGER BACON.

  MELVIN, Ill.

  Please tell us something of the life and works of Roger Bacon.

  A. BUCKHOLZ.

_Answer._—Roger Bacon was an English monk of penetrating intellect,
who by his scientific investigations and writings greatly advanced
the cause of science in a time when the study of nature had been
supplanted by the theological disputations and philosophical
speculations of the “schoolmen.” He was born near Ilchester, England,
in the year 1214, of a respectable family. He graduated at Oxford
and Paris, and, entering the order of Franciscan monks, settled
at Oxford, where he devoted himself to the study of physics. His
discoveries were looked upon as wonderful by the ignorant, and
were made the means by his clerical brethren of bringing him into
disfavor with the Pope, who deprived him of his professorship. He was
imprisoned for some years, until the elevation of Clement II. to the
Papal throne. Despite the Franciscan interdiction, Clement requested
Bacon to send him his writings, and, in answer, John of London became
the bearer to the Pope of “Opus Majus” and two other works. For ten
years Bacon was at liberty, but in 1278 he was again imprisoned, and
the reading of his works forbidden. Through the intercession of many
influential English noblemen, his release was granted shortly before
his death, which occurred in 1292 or 1294. He wrote much, but several
of his works have not been printed. Chief among his inventions was
the magnifying glass, and his superior knowledge won for him the
title, “Doctor Mirabilis.” He sought to know nature through the study
of mathematics and by investigation. He pointed out the errors in the
calendar, growing out of the old style of reckoning, long before Pope
Gregory instituted the present calendar. As a Latin writer, his style
was elegant and forcible; as a scientific scholar, he was fully two
centuries in advance of his age; as a man, his character was pure and
noble.


THE SPHINX—GUNPOWDER.

  1. Is the Sphinx made of one solid block of stone, or is it built
  of mortar and brick? 2. Who invented gunpowder?

  A. L.

_Answer._—1. The “great Sphinx” at Gizeh, Egypt, only 300 feet east
of the second pyramid, was hewn out of the natural rock where it
stands. It measures 172 feet 6 inches long by 52 feet high. 2. Nearly
all authorities agree in referring the invention of gunpowder to
China or India, the weight of evidence being in favor of crediting it
to the former.


COUNTIES LARGER THAN STATES.

  COLUMBIA, D. T.

  Is it true that Brown County, D. T., contains a larger area than
  Rhode Island? Please give the exact figures.

  R. A.

_Answer._—Brown County, D. T., contains forty-eight Congressional
townships, or, disregarding fractional sections, 1,728 square miles;
whereas the area of Rhode Island is but 1,250 square miles. There
are several counties of Dakota that are larger than Delaware, which
contains but 2,050 square miles; such, for example, as Grand Forks,
Pembina, and Burleigh. Some of the unorganized counties are as large
as Connecticut. It will not be long before, following the practice
in the most thickly settled parts of the Territory, these undergrown
but over-extended counties will be subdivided into smaller ones of
sixteen to twenty townships, the ordinary size of an Iowa county,
each about half the size of “Little Rhody.”


LORD BYRON.

  GARNAVILLO, Iowa.

  Please give a sketch of Lord Byron.

  WILLIAM A. KREGEL.

_Answer._—George Gordon, Lord Byron, was born in London in the year
1788, and at the age of 11 succeeded to the title and estate of his
grand uncle, William, Lord Byron, near Nottingham. In 1807, two years
after entering Trinity College, he published his first volume of
poems, entitled “Hours of Idleness.” Stung by the sarcastic criticism
on these poems by Lord Brougham in the Edinburgh _Review_, he soon
after wrote “English Bards and Scotch Reviewers,” a scathing satire,
and at once sailed for Turkey and Greece. “Childe Harold” and a few
shorter poems were written between the years 1812 and 1818. After a
year of riotous living in Italy he sailed for Greece in 1823, and
took a conspicuous part in the struggle for Greek independence. In
this he succeeded so far as to restore comparative order to the
disorganized army, but his health soon began to fail, and exposure to
a storm induced a fever which terminated his life, April 10, 1824.
His body was interred in the Huckwall church-yard, being denied
admission to Westminster Abbey. Byron undoubtedly possessed great
genius and wrote many beautiful and ennobling poems, but his restless
and passionate temper and the immorality of his life tainted most of
what he wrote and debarred him from the list of really great English
poets. In descriptive power, fervor, imagery, and melody his powers
were marvelous, and many passages in his writings are unsurpassed in
these respects by anything in the English language.


TIN AND TARIFF.

  BELOIT, Wis.

  What is meant by “tin and terne plates,” and what is the gist
  of the demand of the “American Tinned Plate Association” for an
  increase of the duty on these plates?

  SUBSCRIBER.

_Answer._—“Tin plates” are plates of sheet-iron or soft steel, coated
with tin, used chiefly for making household and dairy utensils,
and for cans of all sorts. “Terne plates” are iron or soft steel
sheets, coated with mixed lead and tin, used for roofing and similar
purposes. About 95 to 98 per cent of these products are iron or
steel, the tin and lead coating constituting the remaining 2 to
5 per cent. Soft steel is used chiefly now, because the quality
required can be made cheaper than in iron, is more homogeneous and
solid, and less liable to blister in the tinning processes. The
association above named claims that the British plates imported to
this country are “of poor quality, meanly coated, and, if low priced,
are wasteful in the end.” That if home manufacture of such plates
were encouraged by as heavy a tariff as is put upon other forms of
finished iron—say 50 per cent, instead of only 15 to 30 per cent,
as at present—American competition would act in this case as it
has done in other classes of “protected industry,” to improve the
qualities and ultimately to reduce the actual cost of the goods. But
it is not only in these respects that it would benefit the country,
says this association, but in bringing out the buried resources of
our own mines and increasing the home market for American goods and
American labor. The extra cost of American labor is, after all,
accounted for mainly by the better manner of living of American
laborers; their earnings are distributed among the American consumers
of their wares, instead of being sent abroad to pay foreign laborers,
while the native products utilized are so much clear gain. The tin,
a small percentage of the sheets as above shown, would be imported
to this country directly from Australia or the Dutch East Indies
and “Straits Settlements,” but aside from this the materials used
would be American products. In 1882 there were 480,596,480 pounds
of British tin and terne plates sold in the United States, valued
at $18,000,000 at Liverpool, and costing about $2,000,000 more for
transportation. For this tin the American consumers paid about
$30,000,000. To produce this in the United States would cost about as
follows:

  Tin (to be Imported), lbs           25,000,000
  Tallow, home product, lbs           10,000,000
  Sulphuric acid,  lbs                30,000,000
  Lead, lbs                            5,000,000
  Iron ore, tons                         850,000
  Limestone, tons                        300,000
  Coal, tons                           1,500,000
  Pig iron, tons                         300,000
  Charcoal, bu                         5,000,000
  Labor                              $12,000,000
  Interest on $30,000,000, capital
    invested in machinery              1,800,000
  Cost of repairs                      1,000,000
  Oils and lubricants                    100,000
  Insurance and taxes                  1,000,000

The whole of this amount, excepting the cost of the 25,000,000 pounds
of tin ore, or “block tin,” would be produced and the money involved
kept at home. Such is the substance of the arguments used by the
American Tinned Plate Association to induce Congress to increase the
tariff on “tin and terne plates.”


DEATH RATE OF CITIES.

  NEW ORLEANS, La.

  Will you state the death rate in the principal cities of America
  and Europe?

  E. C.

_Answer._—The following represents the number of deaths per annum
in the United States out of 1,000 inhabitants, according to the
census of 1879: New York, 25.82; Boston, 19.80; Philadelphia, 17.20;
Chicago, 17.20; St. Louis, 18.19; New Orleans, 21.60. The deaths
per 1,000 in the following European cities were as follows: London,
22.83; Berlin, 27.81; Paris, 22.04.


A STANZA FROM MRS. BROWNING.

  PONTOOSUC, Ill.

  The lines quoted in the inquiry of “A Reader” in THE WEEKLY INTER
  OCEAN of Aug. 30 are from the pen of that grand Christian poetess,
  Elizabeth Barrett Browning, and may be found in the fifth verse of
  the beautiful poem, “A Woman’s Shortcomings.” One of the lines is a
  little different from what your questioner has it. I will give you
  the whole verse:

    “Unless you can muse in a crowd all day,
      On the absent face that fixed you;
    Unless you can love as the angels may,
      With the breadth of heaven betwixt you;
    Unless you can dream that his faith is fast,
      Through behooving and unbehooving;
    Unless you can die when the dream is past—
      Oh, never call it loving!”

  Your correspondent has the fourth line, “With the breath of heaven
  between you.”

  MILLARD E. LITTLE.


CORN IN DAKOTA.

  PIERRE, D. T.

I notice that in THE WEEKLY INTER OCEAN of Aug. 23, in answer to
W. K., Chicago, you say that corn is generally conceded to be a
hazardous crop in Southern Dakota. That theory is like the one of
olden time, that Dakota is a vast wilderness where only the sagebrush
and wild buffalo abound. Both theories have been exploded by actual
demonstration, and it is no longer an experiment. Corn ripens in
South Dakota in from 90 to 100 days from date of planting, which
is 10 to 15 days shorter time than it takes in Northern Illinois or
Iowa. It is the soil, the long days and short nights that do it; and
there are numerous farmers here who can testify to the fact.

  W. B. STEERE, M. D.


A GULLED ENGLISHMAN.

  CAPRON, Ill.

In reply to the inquiry of one of your correspondents, referred to
me, as to whether there is “any truth in the statement made in a book
published by some returned English tourists, to the effect that an
itinerant lecturer advertised to give an entertainment at Capron,
Ill., and at the close of the lecture shoot himself dead; that the
home was crowded at $1 a head; and that, true to the programme,
at the conclusion of his speech, this peripatetic orator actually
committed suicide,” I would say that there was such a story written
by a barber here, which was published in the county paper. It was
false. The lecture never was given; at least the funeral never came
off.

  ALEXANDER VANCE, P. M.


SAINT SIMON, THE SOCIALIST.

  DANVILLE, Ill.

  Who was Saint Simon, and what were his principles?

  JOHN SHORT.

_Answer._—Claude Henri, Saint Simon, was a French nobleman, who was
noted as a social philosopher and the founder of the sect named for
him Saint Simonians. He entered the American army in 1778, at 18
years of age, and served therein with distinction and honor. While
returning to his native land he was captured by British seamen and
carried to Jamaica, where he remained until 1783. When at length he
reached France he won many disciples to his socialistic views, and
before his death, in 1823, he wrote several works upon philosophy and
social reform. His greatest work was the ‘Nouveau Christianisme’ (New
Christianity), in which he embodies his final and complete design
for the amelioration of the poor and the preservation of society. He
advocates a social hierarchy, controlling and regulating the choice
of vocations, the fixing of salaries, the division of heritages,
whose chief aim it shall be “to make the labors of each conduce to
the good of all;” and to aid his projects he advised the union of
France and England.


DIXON AND ELGIN BRIDGE DISASTERS.

  BLENDON, Kan.

  Please state the date and the occasion of the Dixon bridge
  disaster, with the number of killed and wounded.

  SUBSCRIBER.

_Answer._—This calamity occurred on Sunday afternoon, May 4, 1873,
resulting in the death from drowning and injuries of over forty men,
women, and children, and the serious injury of nearly forty others.
Its immediate cause was the overcrowding of the bridge by spectators
of an immersion service of the Baptist Church of that city. The real
cause was the faulty construction of the bridge, which was an iron
structure, known as a Truesdell truss. It was a wagon and root bridge
of five spans, each about 120 feet long. Both shore spans fell into
the water while the three middle ones, resting entirely upon stone
piers, remained suspended by the wrought-iron members of the main
cords from six to eight feet below their proper place, dropped down
between the piers. The number of persons on the first span that went
down was variously estimated to be from 150 to 200, representing a
weight of not more than 30,000 pounds. A Truesdell bridge, erected
over Fox River at Elgin, fell in December, 1868. This was rebuilt by
Mr. Truesdell. On Monday, July 5, 1869, a crowd of about 300 persons
gathered on the bridge to witness a tub race, when the east span, 68
feet in length, fell, precipitating about one hundred men, women, and
children into the water. Fortunately the stream was but about four
feet deep at this time, and no persons were drowned and but two or
three deaths followed from injuries received.


CONGRESSMAN GEORGE W. JULIAN.

  NEODESHA, Kan.

  Was the Hon. George W. Julian a Republican? Describe in brief his
  life.

  E. K. KRONE.

_Answer._—George Washington Julian was born in Centerville, Ind., May
5, 1817. After receiving a common school education he was admitted
to the bar in 1840. He was chosen a member of the Legislature in
1845. From 1849 to 1851 he represented his district in Congress. The
Pittsburg convention nominated him on the Free Democratic ticket
for Vice President with John P. Hale for President. In 1856 he was
prominent among the organizers of the Republican party. In 1861
he was re-elected to Congress, where he continued to do excellent
service for several terms.


GEOLOGICAL DIVISIONS OF TIME.

  Please give the geological divisions of time, beginning with the
  present, and a brief explanation of each.

  N. JAY DEEMS.

_Answer._—The divisions of time established by geologists are based
upon the formations of strata and the advents of different forms of
animal life. The history of the earth is divided into five “eras,”
seven “ages,” twenty-two “periods,” and the last two periods are
subdivided into seven epochs. These divisions, proceeding from the
fifth downward to the first, are as follows: 5. Psychozoic era,
age of man, human period, and recent epoch. 4. Cenozoic era, age
of mammals—embracing the quaternary period, which comprehends the
terrace, Champlain, and glacial epochs, and the tertiary period,
which comprehends the pliocene, miocene, and eocene epochs. 3.
Mesozoic, or middle, era, the age of reptiles, the cretaceous,
jurassic, and triassic periods. 2. Paleozoic era, the carboniferous
age, or age of acrogens and amphibians; the Devonian age, or age of
fishes; the silurian age, or age of invertebrates, or mollusks—the
names of the fourteen periods into which these ages are divided are
not in common use. 1. Archaean, or eozoic era; the archaean age, and
the Huronian and Laurentian periods. For an explanation of the terms
used in this division consult Webster’s or Worcester’s unabridged
dictionaries, and study the clear illustration accompanying the word
“Geology” in the former work.


SUBMARINE CABLES.

  EVERGREEN, Iowa.

  How many telegraph cables cross the Atlantic, and where? How many
  ocean cables are there in all?

  GUY SMITH.

_Answer._—There were in 1879 seven telegraph cables between Europe
and America—five from Ireland, one from France, and one from Portugal
to Brazil. Since then a new cable has been laid between New York and
Flores, in the Azores, from which one extension runs off to France,
England, and Holland, and another to Fayal, San Miguel, and Lisbon,
embracing in all 7,300 miles. The longest line before this latter was
the French cable, 2,585 nautical miles. There are now some 225 ocean
cables in all parts of the world, of the aggregate length of over
68,000 miles.


“I” AND “WE” IN JOURNALISM.

  DAYTON, Ohio.

  1. What is the rule of THE INTER OCEAN as to the use of
  the pronouns “I” and “we” in the office and in editorial
  correspondence? 2. What is your rule respecting a contributor’s
  using “we” when referring to himself?

  J. W. H.

_Answer._—1. The use of the word “we,” under all circumstances, is
deprecated. Senator Conkling once said: “Only three classes of people
are allowed to say ‘we:’ Kings, editors, and men with a tape-worm.”
In this office “THE INTER OCEAN” is used instead of “we.” 2.
Correspondents use “I,” when necessary, but are instructed to be as
impersonal as possible. “Your correspondent” is preferred.


PROVIDENCE SPRING—ANDERSONVILLE PRISON.

  GILMAN, Iowa.

  Is it true that in the Andersonville prison pen, during the late
  civil war, at a time when the water in the creek had become very
  scarce and foul and the captive Unionists were dying from this
  cause, a spring suddenly burst out of the hillside? If this is
  a fact, state some of the particulars, giving the date of the
  occurrence.

  H. W.

_Answer._—It is a fact, and, whether it was a “special providence”
or not, as most, if not all, of those wretched prisoners believed,
it served all the purposes of one, as much as the miracle in the
desert of Sinai, when Moses smote the rock, and the waters gushed
forth which saved the thirst-stricken hosts of Israel. Of the origin
of this spring John McElroy, who spent fourteen months in Southern
prison pens, gives substantially the following account: “Toward the
end of August, 1864, the water in the creek was indescribably bad.
Before the stream entered the stockade it was rendered too filthy for
any use by the contaminations from the camp of the guards, situated
about half a mile above. Immediately upon entering the stockade
its pollution became terrible. The oozy seep at the bottom of the
hillsides drained directly into it all the filth from a population of
33,000. Imagine the condition of an open sewer through the heart of
a city of that many people, and receiving all the offensive products
of so dense a population into a shallow, sluggish stream a yard
wide and five inches deep, heated by the burning rays of the sun at
the thirty-second parallel of latitude.’ The prisoners dug wells in
the swampy earth with their pocket-knives to a depth of 20 to 30
feet, pulling up the earth in pantaloon-legs. But a drought came on
and these wells, which at the best were not free from pollution,
began to fail. To approach too close, even by a hair’s breadth, to
the “dead-line” on the west side of the stockade, where the creek
entered, in the effort to get water as free from filth as possible,
was to sign one’s death warrant, which the whizzing bullet of the
heartless guard executed instantly. “More wicked and unjustifiable
murders were never committed than those almost daily assassinations
at the creek,” says the historian. Sickness had multiplied in this
horrible prison-pen until the wretched victims of such barbarism sat
face to face with despair constantly. At this awful extremity what
was the astonishment and gratitude of the camp one morning, when
it was discovered that “during the night a large, bold spring had
burst out on the north side, about midway between the swamp and the
summit of the hill, and pouring out was a grateful flood of pure,
sweet water, in an apparently exhaustless quantity.” This was the
morning of Aug. 13, 1864. The overjoyed Union prisoners christened it
“Providence spring,” the fitting name by which it is still known.


CATTLE IN THE UNITED STATES.

  JETMORE, Kan.

  State the total number of cattle in the United States, and what
  percentage of them are milch cows.

  C. E. BOUGHTON.

_Answer._—The statistician in the Department of Agriculture estimates
the total number of cattle in all the States and Territories in
January, 1882, as 35,891,870, of which number 12,611,632, or a little
more than 35 per cent, were milch cows. This estimate, so far as
the number of cattle in the Territories, Colorado, and Texas are
concerned, is largely conjectural.


JULES SANDEAU AND “GEORGE SAND.”

  MENDOTA, Ill.

  Who was Jules Sandeau, who is said to have given Madame Dudevant
  the now famous nom de plume of “George Sand?” Why did she take that
  name?

  ALICE.

_Answer._—Leonard Sylvain Jules Sandeau, a French novelist and
dramatic writer of some distinction, was born at Anbusson, France,
Feb. 19, 1811. He studied law in Paris, but subsequently turned his
attention to literature. In 1831 he became acquainted with Madame
Dudevant, who lived with him in three small rooms in the Quai Saint
Michel at a yearly rental of 300 francs. She it was who induced him
to enter upon a literary career. In 1832 they produced together “Rose
et Blanche,” a novel in five volumes, signed “Jules Sand.” It was
received by the public with encouraging favor. Before she returned
to Nahant she conferred with Sandeau respecting a new romance, each
of them to write half of it. Fearing that he would neglect the work
when she was not at hand to spur him to his task, she wrote the
whole of “Indiana,” published the same year, in which her splendid
genius rose far above anything in “Rose et Blanche.” Returning to
Paris, she found that Sandeau had not written a line. Handing him her
manuscript, she exclaimed: “Read that.” He did so, and declared it
to be such a masterpiece that he could not review it. She wished to
retain the name of “Jules Sands,” but as he had taken no part in the
work, he positively declined to allow it. Appealing to their mutual
friend, De Larouche, he advised her to take for a Christian name the
name of the patron saint of the day, St. George, retaining the name
“Sands,” a piece of advice which she instantly adopted. M. Sandeau
afterward produced numerous novels and dramas, conspicuous among
which are “Mdlle. de la Sergliere,” in two volumes, 1848, dramatized
in 1851—generally esteemed his best novel; “La Maison de Penarvan,”
1858, dramatized in 1858; “Le Gendre de M. Poirier,” written in
connection with Emil Angier, 1854—his best comedy. In 1853 he became
keeper of the Mazurin Library, and in 1858 was elected a member
of the French Academy, one of the highest distinctions to which a
Frenchman can aspire. He died April 24, 1883.


MAXIMILIAN AND CARLOTTA.

  CORNING, Iowa.

  Please give a short biography of the Empress Carlotta and the late
  Emperor Maximilian of Mexico.

  LILLIAN ELDRIDGE.

_Answer._—Ferdinand Maximilian Joseph, Archduke of Austria, younger
brother of Francis Joseph I., the present Emperor of Austria-Hungary,
and now generally referred to as the Emperor Maximilian I. of Mexico,
was born in 1832. He was liberally educated, with a mind enriched
by extensive reading, wide travel, and intercourse with many of
the leading spirits of Europe. In 1857, on July 27, he married the
sister of the present King of the Belgians, Charlotte Marie Amelie,
born June 7, 1840. This amiable, beautiful, and highly intellectual
lady was reared by her father, Leopold I., of Belgium, the most
progressive of European sovereigns, with the greatest care, until she
adorned every court she moved in. In 1861, taking advantage of the
troubled condition of Mexico and the civil war in the United States,
France, Spain, and Great Britain commenced hostilities against
Mexico, ostensibly to enforce certain pecuniary claims. But in 1862,
when the real purpose of the French manifested itself, the British
and Spanish forces withdrew, and the French declared war, proclaiming
the intention to liberate the Mexican people from the tyranny of
their President, Benito Juarez. They overran the eastern and central
part of Mexico, captured the capital—receiving more or less support
from the clerical party among the natives—and finally set up a
provisional government, headed nominally by General Almonte, but
really under dictation of the invaders. An “Assembly of Notables,” so
called, convened at Mexico, July 10, 1863, decided by a vote of 281
to 19 in favor of a “limited hereditary monarchy,” with a Catholic
prince for sovereign, under the title of Emperor. At the instigation
of Napoleon, who had already begun to realize the folly of his
undertaking to subdue the whole of Mexico and hold it in subjection
to his own will, seeing that the Republicans of Mexico were still
organized and were continually harrassing the usurpers, the scepter
of this new government was proffered to Maximilian. Not until all but
the four northern provinces were in possession of the French forces
and their Mexican recruits did he accept this uneasy crown. On May
29, 1864, the Emperor and Empress landed at Vera Cruz and on June
12 they made their public entry into the capital amid a brilliant
military and civic display, accompanied by many signs of popular
welcome. Before winter the Imperialists had gained possession of all
the chief places in every State in the so-called empire. However,
the fugitive President of the desperate republic still maintained a
species of guerilla warfare in various places, and the sympathies of
the people of the United States were with them. No sooner was the
great civil war in this country ended than this sympathy began to
make itself felt very sensibly. On Nov. 6, 1865, Secretary Seward
directed the American Minister at Paris to represent to Napoleon
III. that the presence of the French army in Mexico was a “cause of
grave reflection to the government of the United States,” and that
the latter could on no account allow the establishment of an imperial
government, based on foreign aid, in that country, or recognize
there any other than republican institutions. This increased the
unpopularity of the war in France. Napoleon took warning, and in
the summer of 1866 withdrew his forces. Deserted by his European
allies, Maximilian’s empire hastened to a most melancholy end, so
far as himself and the Empress were concerned. Charlotte went to
Europe to enlist aid, but in vain. Her husband’s perilous position,
added to the bitter disappointment and mortification of her failure,
at last dethroned her reason. Maximilian refused to leave with the
last French detachment, though urged to do so. He felt bound in
honor to remain and share the fate of his Mexican supporters. At
the head of 10,000 men he made a brave defense of Queretaro against
the republicans under General Escobedo. On the night of May 14,
1867, the stronghold of his position was betrayed into the hands
of his foes by the Emperor’s most trusted friend, General Lopez.
Even then he refused the opportunity proffered him by his immediate
captor to escape in civilian’s dress, lest it might compromise this
generous foe. Along with Generals Miramon and Mejia, he was tried by
court-martial, and on the 19th of July the three were shot. “Poor
Carlotta,” as she is sorrowfully called, has never fully recovered
her reason, although cared for with the greatest tenderness by her
royal brother.


BOSS COINS OF AMERICA.

  GALESBURG, Ill.

  Our Curiosity Shop has given a list of American silver coins that
  command a high premium; now please give a list of high-price copper
  coins of the United States, and colonial pieces. At least name all
  the “boss” coins, silver and copper.

  NUMISMATIST.

_Answer._—As shown in the table of United States silver coins now
obtainable only at a high premium, which has already been given in
Our Curiosity Shop, the “boss dollar,” the rarest of all, is that
of 1804, price $400 to $500, according to condition; the “boss
half-dollar” is that of 1796, with sixteen stars, price $20 to
$27.50—although that of 1796, with only fifteen stars, and that of
1797, each command nearly the same premium; $20 to $25. The “boss
quarter-dollars” are those of 1823 and 1827, each quoted at $15 to
$25. The “boss dime” is that of 1804, quoted at $4 to $6. The “boss
half-dime” is that of 1802, worth $25 to $40. The “boss cent,” the
rarest of all the cents, is that of 1799, quoted at $4 to $6; a
higher rate of premium even than that of the “boss dollar.” The “boss
half-cent” is that of 1796, worth $5 to $8, or from one thousand to
sixteen hundred per cent more than its face.

The following are the United States cents that are worth 50 cents
apiece and upward:

  Year.     Description.                           Good.    Fine.

  1793—Cent, wreath, stars, and bars on edge      $2.00    $3.50
  1793—Cent, with chain ameri                      2.75     5.00
  1793—Cent, chain, America on the reverse         1.75     3.75
  1793—Cent, clover leaf under bust                1.50     2.50
  1793—Cent, liberty cap, rare                     3.00     6.00
  1793—Cent, dot after date, and legend “Liberty”  3.00     5.00
  1795—Cent, thick planchet, edge lettered           75     1.00
  1799—Cent, the rarest of the cents               4.00     6.00
  1804—Cent, very rare                             3.00     5.00
  1839—Cent, over date of 1836                                75
  1855—Pattern cent, flying eagle, copper            60       70
  1856—Nickel cent, flying eagle                   1.50     2.00
  1858—Nickel cent                                            50
  1873—Two-cent piece                                50       75

Next we give United States half-cents, valued at 50 cents and upward:

  Year.     Description.                           Good.    Fine.

  1793—Half-cent, rare                            $1.75    $2.50
  1793—Half-cent of smaller planchet               1.50     3.00
  1794—Half-cent of several varieties                40       50
  1795—Half-cent, lettered edge                      75     1.00
  1795—Half-cent of thin planchet                    40       60
  1796—Half-cent, the rarest of all                5.00     8.00
  1797—Half-cent, several varieties                  50       75
  1802—Half-cent                                     50       75
  1811—Half-cent                                     60       75
  1831—Half-cent                                   2.50     3.50
  1836—Half-cent                                   2.50     3.50
  1840 to 1848 inclusive—Half-cent                 2.50     3.50
  1849—Half-cent, small date                       2.50     3.50
  1849—Half-cent, large date                         05       10
  1852—Half-cent                                   2.50     3.50

The coins minted by any of the American colonies and now at a high
premium are as follows:

  Year.     Description.                           Good.    Fine.

  1786—Cent, Vermontensium Respublica             $0.40    $0.68
  1786—Cent, Vermonts Respublica                     30       50
  1788—Cent, Nova Cesarea, horse head to left        75     1.25
  1788—Mass. half-cent,                              40       65
  1787—New York “Excelsior” cent                   2.00     3.00
  1783—Chalmer’s Annapolis shilling and sixpence   2.50     3.00
  1652—Oak Tree shilling and sixpence              3.00     4.00
  1852—Pine Tree shilling and sixpence             3.00     4.00
  1722—Rosa American half-cent                       60       75


“A LITTLE BIRD TOLD ME.”

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  A friend says that the saying “A little bird told me so,” is in
  the Bible, but she don’t know where. Is she right? If so, please
  explain it.

  ONE OF YOUR GIRLS.

_Answer._—This mild expression for “I won’t betray my informer,”
is not a literal quotation, but is undoubtedly borrowed from
Ecclesiastes, chapter x, verse 29: “Curse not the King, no, not in
thy thoughts: and curse not the rich in thy bedchamber: for a bird of
the air shall carry the voice, and that which hath wings shall tell
the matter.”


METEORIC STONES.

  WYOMING, Wis.

  When and where did the largest meteoric stone, of which there is
  any record, fall? Please give a description of the meteoric stone
  that fell in Iowa a few years ago.

  WILLIAM YALE.

_Answer._—An immense aerolite, or meteoric stone, fell near
Ægospatami, in Asia Minor, in 467 B. C., which was described by
Pliny as being as large as a wagon. There is a remarkable one in
the Smithsonian Institution, weighing 1,400 pounds, which fell in
Mexico about A. D. 1500. The largest meteoric masses on record were
heard of first by Captain Ross, the Arctic explorer, through some
Esquimaux. These lay on the west coast of Greenland, where they were
subsequently found by the Swedish Exploring Expedition of 1870. One
of them, now in the Royal Museum of Stockholm, weighs over 50,000
pounds, and is the largest specimen known. Two remarkable meteorites
have fallen in Iowa within a few years past. On Feb. 12, 1875, a very
brilliant meteor, in the form of an elongated horseshoe, was seen
throughout a region of at least 400 miles in length and 250 breadth,
lying in Missouri and Iowa. It is described as “without a tail but
having a sort of flowing jacket of flame. Detonations were heard,
so violent as to shake the earth and to jar the windows like the
shock of an earthquake,” as it fell, at about 10:30 o’clock p. m.,
a few miles east of Marengo, Iowa. The ground for a space of some
seven miles in length by two to four miles in breadth was strewn
with fragments of this meteor, varying in weight from a few ounces
to seventy-four pounds; the aggregate of the parts discovered being
about five hundred pounds.

On May 10, 1879, at about 5 o’clock p. m., a large and
extraordinarily luminous meteor exploded with a terrific noise,
followed at slight intervals with less violent detonations, and
struck the earth in the edge of a ravine, near Estherville, Emmet
County, Iowa, penetrating to a depth of fourteen feet. Within two
miles other fragments were found, one of which weighed 170 pounds and
another 32 pounds. The principal mass weighed 431 pounds. All the
discovered parts aggregate about 640 pounds. The one of 170 pounds
is now in the cabinet of the State University of Minnesota. The
composition of this aerolite is peculiar in many respects; but, as in
nearly all aerolites, there is a considerable proportion of iron and
nickel.


A SKELETON IN EVERY CLOSET.

  MADISON, Wis.

  What gave rise to the expression, “There is a skeleton in the
  closet,” and just what does it mean?

  ALICE.

_Answer._—There is an old story that a soldier once wrote to his
mother, who complained of her unhappiness, asking her to get some
sewing done by some one who had no care or trouble. Coming in her
search to one who, she thought, must be content and happy, this lady
took her to a closet containing a human skeleton. “Madam,” said she,
“I try to keep my sorrows to myself, but know that every night I am
compelled by my husband to kiss this skeleton of him who was once his
rival. Think you, then, I can be happy?” The inference is certainly
too clear to need interpretation.


FINANCES OF CONFEDERATE STATES.

  AMES, Iowa.

  What was the amount of the Confederate debt at the close of the
  war? Was their currency a legal tender for all debts? How much did
  they issue? How much, if any, remained in the Confederate treasury
  at the close of the war?

  CASEY AND UNDERHILL.

_Answer._—1. According to the “Rise and Fall of the Confederate
Government,” by Jefferson Davis, the foreign debt of the Confederate
States at the close of the war was £2,200,000, or about $11,000,000.
Besides this, the debt at home, on the books of the Register of the
Treasury on Oct. 1 1864, amounted to $1,147,970,208. Davis estimates
that balances in the hands of absent officers would have reduced the
total public debt to $1,126,381,095, of which $541,340,090 consisted
of funded debt and the balance unfunded debt, or treasury notes. What
further debt was created between Oct. 1, 1864, and the downfall of
the Confederacy in April, 1865, it is not easy to ascertain. Judging
from the expenditure of the six months next preceding Oct. 1, 1864,
the debt must have been increased at least $450,000,000. Davis says:
“The appropriations called for by the different departments for the
six months ending June 30, 1865, amounted to $438,416,504,” which,
taken together with the amount of unexpended appropriations and the
small proportion raised by taxation, confirms our estimate, so that
the total home and foreign debt of the Confederacy at the close of
the war, omitting any claims for advances made by individual States,
must have been about $1,587,000,000. 2. The treasury notes of the
Confederacy were made receivable for all public debts or taxes
except export duty on cotton. The terms of at least one issue, as
given by Mr. Davis, “receivable for all debts or taxes except the
export duty on cotton,” would constitute them a legal tender. 3. In
December, 1863, this currency in circulation in those States amounted
to “more than $600,000,000.” A considerable part of this was funded
in Confederate bonds, but new issues or reissues swelled the amount
again to about the old figures before the war closed. 4. Just how
much specie remained in the hands of the Secretary of the Confederate
Treasury when Johnston surrendered is not known, but it must have
been a trifling sum; for when Jefferson Davis committed the treasury
chest to General Joe Johnston’s safe-keeping, according to that
officer’s statement on pages 408 and 409 of his “Narrative of the
Rebellion,” it contained but $39,000 in silver, a considerable part
of which he took and divided among his troops. The fleeing members of
the Cabinet, no doubt, got away with the most of the gold and foreign
bills.


SAN FRANCISCO TO AUSTRALIA.

  OSCEOLA, Neb.

  Will you please state the distance and rates of fare between San
  Francisco and Sydney? If not too much trouble give the same for
  all the principal ports in the Sandwich Islands, New Zealand, and
  Australia.

  J. M. LOGAN.

_Answer._—The following table gives the distances and rates of fare
for all ports in Sandwich Islands, Australia, and New Zealand touched
at by the Pacific Mail Steamship Company’s steamers:

  Miles.    San Francisco to     Cabin.  Steerage.

  2,100     Honolulu             $75.00   $30.00
  6,050     Auckland             200.00   100.00
  6,625     Wellington           230.00   120.00
  6,795     Lyttleton            235.00   122.50
  7,000     Port Chalmers        240.00   125.00
  7,200     Sydney               200.00   100.00
  7,740     Melbourne            210.00   105.00
  7,650     Brisbane             220.00   110.00
  7,500     Rockhampton          235.00   117.50
  8,245     Adelaide             223.75   117.50
  7,600     Hobart Town          232.00   118.00


THE DEMOCRATIC ROOSTER.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  Give the origin of the rooster as a Democratic emblem.

  A READER.

_Answer._—We are indebted to Mr. W. F. Slater, of Hyde Park, for the
following reply to this inquiry: During the Jackson and Van Buren
administrations the party used the hickory pole and broom as a
Democratic emblem of victory. In the memorable campaign of 1840 the
Indianapolis _Sentinel_ (Democratic) was published, with Mr. Nat
Bolton as editor, and George Pattison as assistant. In the town of
Greenfield resided Mr. Chapman, life-long Democrat, and at that time
the postmaster, but no connection with the Chapman that subsequently
published the _Sentinel_. Mr. Chapman wrote a desponding letter to
Pattison, and Pattison, in his answer, endeavored to encourage his
fellow-townsman, and wound up his letter with, “Crow, Chapman, crow!”
The letter fell into Whig hands and was published in the campaign
paper of the Whig party, _The Spirit of 1876_. In 1842 and 1844, when
the Whig party met with defeat, the rooster came into universal use
as the Democratic emblem of victory.


TO CHINA AND JAPAN.

  MARSHALLTOWN, Iowa.

  Please supplement your answer of last week giving distances
  and rates of fare from San Francisco to the Sandwich Islands,
  Australia, and New Zealand, by giving the distances and rates of
  fare to Japan, China, and East India ports.

  IOWAN.

_Answer._—The following table shows the distance, fares in American
gold, etc., per Occidental and Oriental Steamship Company’s vessels,
from San Francisco to points named:

  ———————+————————————————————+————————+——————————+———————
  Miles. | San Francisco to—  | Cabin. | Steer’ge | Chinese
  ———————+————————————————————+————————+——————————+———————
   4,800 | Yokohama, Japan    |$250.00 |  $85.00  | $51.00
   5,100 | Hiogo, Japan       | 268.00 |   75.00  |  58.00
   5,500 | Nagasaki, Japan    | 285.00 |  111.00  |  63.50
   6,000 | Shanghae, China    | 305.00 |  125.00  |  71.00
   6,400 | Hongkong, China    | 300.00 |  100.00  |  51.00
   7,850 | Singapore, India   | 380.00 |          |
   8,250 | Penang, India      | 400.00 |          |
   9,900 | Calcutta, India    | 450.00 |          |
  ———————+————————————————————+————————+——————————+———————

Children under 12 years, one-half rates; under 5 years, one-quarter
rates; under 2 years, free. Servants accompanying their employers,
two-thirds of cabin rate, without regard to age or sex. Round trip
tickets, good for twelve months, 12½ per cent from regular rates.


CORN CROPS OF ILLINOIS AND IOWA.

  AYR, Neb.

  To settle a dispute, please tell which State raises the most
  corn—Illinois or Iowa.

  J. A. SULLIVAN.

_Answer._—Illinois leads all the States in the amount of corn raised.
In 1882 the Illinois crop was 187,336,900 bushels, and the Iowa
crop was 178,487,600 bushels. According to the same authority, the
Statistician of the Agricultural Department, the average annual corn
crop of Illinois for the five years ending with 1879 was 260,230,740
bushels, and that of Iowa was 163,789,120 bushels. The corn crop of
Illinois in 1880, as given in the census, was 325,792,481, and that
of Iowa was 275,024,247 bushels.


BEE-SWARMING.

H. J. Dunlap, Esq., of Champaign, Ill., who has made bee-culture
a study, after a few words of comment on the brief answer given
to “Topsy’s” question on the swarming of bees, published in Our
Curiosity Shop three or four weeks ago, gives us his own views on
this subject as follows:

New brood is hatched early in the season—in case of plentiful stores
before the earliest blossoms—while the first swarm may not leave the
hive until July, or even later; the condition of the honey flowers
in bloom having much to do in determining the time. [In the Southern
States it often leaves in April or May, and in this latitude usually
in May or June.—ED]. The first swarm is composed of old and young
bees indiscriminately, and of drones. In from six to ten days a young
queen is hatched. Sometimes several hatch at the same time, but all
are destroyed except one, the queens engaging in deadly combat in
which one or the other is the victor. The bees destroy the remaining
queen cells as soon as a queen is hatched. In a day or two the virgin
queen flies out to meet the male, or drone, and after copulation
returns to her hive, where she usually remains until the next season,
when she leads out a swarm. In some seasons, when honey is plenty,
she may go out with a swarm, and even third swarms are thrown off,
but such seasons are almost certain to be poor ones for honey, the
swarms becoming so depleted in number that they are unable to avail
themselves of the later blossoms, even if these are well-stored with
honey. The second swarm thrown off will necessarily be composed
mostly of young bees, but the inference that swarming continues so
long as there are young queens to lead them out is erroneous.


DEATHS FROM CONSUMPTION.

  Please tell what States furnished the largest percentage of
  consumptives, according to population, and settle a dispute.

  B. F. FEATHER.

_Answer._—The following table shows the total population of States
reporting the greatest number of deaths from consumption in the last
census year, and the number of deaths per 10,000 inhabitants:

  States.          Population.     Died of      No. per
                                consumption.    10,000.

  New York         5,082,871       12,858         25
  Pennsylvania     4,282,891        8,073         19
  Massachusetts    1,783,085        5,207         30
  Ohio             3,198,062        5,912         18
  Illinois         3,077,871        5,146         16
  Tennessee        1,542,259        3,767         24

This shows that whereas the deaths from consumption in the census
year were 16 for every 10,000 inhabitants in Illinois, they were 25
per 10,000 in New York State, and 30 per 10,000 in Massachusetts,
the highest ratio in the country. Maine stood next with 29 per
10,000, while Rhode Island lost 25, New Hampshire 25, New Jersey 23,
Connecticut 21, California 21, Virginia 20, North Carolina 15, and
Michigan the same as Illinois, 16, while Florida lost not quite 10,
and Minnesota not quite 11 per 10,000.


RAILROAD RELINQUISHMENT TO SETTLERS.

  MELROSE, M. T.

  Two men had a hearing about a claim within the limits of the
  railroad land grant, and the General Land Office decided that
  neither could hold it. One of the parties procured from the
  Northern Pacific Railroad a relinquishment, which was sent to the
  General Land Office, and a patent was issued to this person. Now,
  had the Northern Pacific Railroad the right to relinquish its title
  in this way? Please give the law.

  DAVID EVANS.

_Answer._—By an act of Congress approved June 22, 1874, according to
the statement of “Copps’ American Settler’s Guide,” it is provided
that in the adjustment of all railroad land grants, whether made
directly to any State for railroad purposes, or to any corporation,
if any of the lands granted be found in the possession of an actual
settler, whose entry or filing has been allowed under the pre-emption
or homestead laws subsequent to the time at which, by the decision
of the Land Office, the right of said road was declared to have
attached to such lands, the grantees, upon a proper relinquishment
of the lands so entered or filed for, shall be entitled to select
an equal quantity of other lands in lieu thereof from any of the
public lands not mineral, and within the limits of the grant, not
otherwise appropriated at the date of selection. And any such entries
or filings thus relieved from conflict may be perfected into complete
titles as if such lands had not been granted. Lands so relinquished
are rated at only $1.25 per acre. An inducement is thus offered
to railroad companies to relinquish in favor of the settlers, and
receive other lands in lieu of those surrendered. Not only this, but
when the superior right of the company is ascertained, and it is
found that the claim of the settler is such that it would be admitted
were the railroad claim extinguished, the General Land Office will,
in all practicable cases, direct the attention of the officers of the
company to the fact, and request an explicit answer whether or not
the land will be relinquished. At the same time it is well for the
party interested to seek for himself the relief indicated, by direct
application to the railroad authorities, and thereby aid in securing
a speedy adjustment.


DEATHS FROM ACCIDENT.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  About how many persons die from injuries by railroad collisions and
  other accidents every year? Also, give the number of suicides.

  CRIPPLE.

_Answer._—The total number of deaths due to accidents, violence,
suicide, etc., as reported for the last decennial census, was 35,932,
divided as follows:

  Burns and scalds           4,786
  Exposure and neglect       1,299
  Homicide                   1,336
  Injuries by machinery        120
  Railroad accidents         2,349
  Suffocation                2,339
  Sunstroke                    557
  Drowned                    4,320
  Gunshot                    2,289
  Infanticide                   40
  Suicide by shooting          472
  Suicide by drowning          155
  Suicide by poison            340
  Suicide, other causes      1,550
  Deaths by other injuries  13,980

From the above, it appears that the total number of deaths from
suicide, 2,517, exceeded the total from railroad accidents, and that
the latter amounted to 65 in every 1,000 deaths from accidents and
violence.


SUBMARINE TORPEDOES.

  HARPER, Kan.

  How are torpedoes, for blowing up vessels, constructed and used?

  CHARLES G. BOONE.

_Answer._—There are several kinds of naval torpedoes. They may be
classed, as fixed—submarine mines—and locomotive. Of the first sort
there are two classes, viz., the self-acting and those which must
be exploded by the electric battery operated from the shore or some
other means of direct ignition.

An example of the self-acting sort may be described as follows: Take
a hollow iron cone; fill this in part with gunpowder, say 150 to 250
pounds, but not enough to overcome the buoyancy of the cone. In the
top of this charge of gunpowder bury an iron case containing lime,
and in it a thin glass tube filled with sulphuric acid. Connect
this tube or vial with an iron rod running through the top of the
torpedo cone, up to within a short distance of the surface of the
water. From this upright rod let other rods, called feelers, extend
horizontally in every direction; let the whole be anchored in the
channel to be defended, so that these feelers will be so near to
the surface that passing vessels will be likely to come in contact
with one or more of them; in which case the shock will break the
frail glass tube containing the sulphuric acid, which latter, acting
chemically on the lime, will instantly generate sufficient heat to
explode the charge and destroy the vessel. For a sample of the other
class of fixed torpedoes, imagine a submarine magazine filled with
gunpowder, or—better still for this purpose, gun-cotton, because
water does not injure it—planted in a channel, connected with the
shore by an insulated copper wire attached to a battery. Let a small
piece of wire be soldered to the metal case of the torpedo, and unite
this, in the priming chamber, with the shore wire by a fine piece of
platinum. The moment the operator on shore connects the wire with
the battery the current, meeting the resistance of this contracted
bridge of platinum, heats it to incandescence and explodes the
charge. By planting several parallel lines of such torpedoes across
a channel, at no great distance apart, in such a way that the mines
in one row stand opposite the open spaces in another, it is rendered
extremely hazardous for a hostile vessel to attempt to pass. Of the
locomotive submarine explosives, one of the most formidable is the
Whitehead fish torpedo, the construction of which is more or less a
secret, sold by the inventor to the English, Austrian, and Russian
navies. The shape of the case is, as the name implies, that of a
fish, and it is propelled by a screw driven by compressed air. From a
peculiar carriage on shore, or more frequently on board a vessel, it
is discharged in a direct line for the enemy’s ship, and is exploded
by impact. It is a terribly destructive engine when it happens to
strike, but its aim is uncertain. The American torpedo, of similar
description in many respects, Harvey’s, is believed to be a more
reliable and effective engine.

Finally there is the torpedo used to such good advantage in several
instances during our late war, particularly in the case of the
sinking of the rebel ram Albemarle. It is rigged on the end of a spar
carried in the bow of a launch, and sometimes on outriggers on either
side, and is exploded by contact with the vessel to be destroyed, at
some point several feet below the water-line.


ANCIENT VIRGINIA.

  LA JUNTA, Col.

  What were the original boundaries of Virginia, and how did it get
  its name?

  J. P. GRANGER.

_Answer._—There is no good ground for dispute over the question as
to how Virginia got its name. This name was given by Queen Elizabeth
at the request of Sir Walter Raleigh to the region discovered in
1584 by persons sent out by him. It was applied to what is now North
Carolina, and was extended, with the progress of exploration, over
the country northward as far as the present city of Bangor, Me.,
or to the 45th degree of north latitude, and southward to the 34th
parallel. One colony after another was carved out of the original
Virginia until it was reduced to the boundaries it had at the
time of the Revolutionary war. It claimed jurisdiction over all
the Northwest territory by virtue of its first charter, made to
the London company, and by conquest from Great Britain during the
war; but it ceded all its rights to the Federal Government in 1787,
reserving only 3,709,848 acres to reward Virginia troops.


AMERICAN TREATIES WITH CHINA.

  CHEBANSE, Ill.

  How long before the passage of our infamous anti-Chinese
  immigration law was it that our government forced its way into
  China at the cannon’s mouth?

  A SUBSCRIBER.

_Answer._—The first American treaty with China was made at Wang-hia,
a suburb of Macao, July 3, 1844, by the Hon. Caleb Cushing, Minister
Plenipotentiary for the United States, and Commissioner Ki-ying,
on the part of the Chinese. It was soon after the close of the
Anglo-Chinese war known as the “Opium war,” because it grew out
of the persistent smuggling of opium into China by the East India
Company, and resulted in the agreement of the Chinese Government to
admit opium as an article of legitimate commerce. It also resulted
in the opening of five ports to English trade. Thus the forcing of
the Chinese “at the cannon’s mouth” was done by the English, against
a sincere desire of the former both to keep out opium and to have
nothing more to do with Europeans that they could possibly help. The
negotiations between Mr. Cushing and Ki-ying were amicable and highly
creditable to both nations from first to last. Strange to say, to the
utter astonishment of the English, Mr. Cushing, with the arguments
of reason only, gained many important concessions not contained in
the British treaty, besides all that was conceded in that instrument.
The next treaty between the United States and China was signed at
Tientsin, China, June 15, 1858. It contained a number of important
additional concessions, all obtained without any violence or serious
warlike demonstration on the part of our own government, but
coincident with the English and French treaties extorted from the
Chinese by the bloody war that had been waged for the two preceding
years. Had not the English and French waged that war it is quite
certain that neither they nor the Americans would have gained any new
concessions, and they might have had to yield some of those granted
in the old treaties. But having been forced to make concessions to
their hated foes, it must be said that the Chinese Government yielded
to Americans equal rights and privileges in a manner which showed
plainly that they had no desire to withhold anything from a friendly
power which they had granted to their enemies. The first article of
the treaty recites, among other things: “There shall be, as there
always has been, peace and friendship between the United States and
the Ta-Tsing (Chinese) Empire, and between their people respectively.
They shall not insult or oppress each other,” etc. The next, known
as the Burlingame treaty, was negotiated at Washington and ratified
by the United States Senate July 16, 1868, when Mr. Anson Burlingame
was here at the head of the first Chinese Embassy to this country.
It was negotiated on the highest plane of American statesmanship,
and breathes throughout the spirit of true republicanism, the spirit
of the highest Christian civilization. It is sad to think that it
was too high for the majority of our politicians to stand on, and
has been lowered and narrowed to accommodate them in the present
treaty, negotiated in 1880, at the dictation of Denis Kearney and the
Sinophobists of California.


CATTLE IN UNITED STATES.

  ELLSWORTH, Kan.

  Will you please tell how many cattle there were in the United
  States, according to the last census; also, the number for four
  years past?

  WM. ASHMEAD.

_Answer._—The census gives the number of working oxen in the United
States in 1880 as 993,841; the milch cows as 12,443,120; other
cattle as 22,488,550; total, 35,925,511. The Statistician of the
Agricultural Department gives the numbers for the past four years as
shown below:

    Jan. 1, 1879—
  Milch cows               11,826,400
  Oxen and other cattle    21,408,100

    Jan. 1, 1880—
  Milch cows               12,027,000
  Oxen and other cattle    21,231,000

    Jan. 1, 1881—
  Milch cows               12,368,653
  Oxen and other cattle    20,937,702

    Jan. 1, 1882—
  Milch cows               12,611,632
  Oxen and other cattle    23,280,238


THE GERMAN PATRIOT, BLUM.

  MAZOMANIE, Wis.

  Tell us something of Robert Blum, the German statesman, who was
  shot in Vienna in 1848.

  CARL FEHLANDT.

_Answer._—He was born at Cologne in 1807. He was well educated,
served for a time in the army, which he left in 1830 to connect
himself with the theater at Cologne, of which he became in time a
director. Much of his time was given to literature and politics. In
the latter he espoused the cause of liberalism. This was particularly
the case after he moved to Leipsic, where he was first a director of
the theater, then a bookseller and publisher. Here he founded the
Schiller Society of Leipsic, was connected with the German Catholic
movement, and was finally elected Vice President of the Provisional
Assembly at Frankfort in 1848. In the National Assembly he became
leader of the Left, or Radicals. He joined the popular movement in
1848, took a prominent part in the insurrection that broke out at
Vienna at the time of the struggle for Hungarian independence, headed
by Kossuth, and, being arrested, he was summarily shot, Nov. 9, 1848.


SIR JOHN FRANKLIN’S LAST RECORD.

  CHEBANSE, Ill.

  When, where, and by whom was the cairn discovered in which was the
  last record of Dr. John Franklin?

  A SUBSCRIBER.

_Answer._—The cairn containing the written record left by the
Franklin exploring party was discovered at Point Victory on the coast
of King William’s Island. This discovery was made in 1859 (fourteen
years after Franklin’s death), by Lieutenant Hobson of the British
yacht Fox, purchased and fitted out by Lady Franklin, and commanded
by Captain Leopold McClintock. The principal facts stated in the
record are that her Majesty’s ships Terror and Erebus spent the
winter of 1845-6 at Beechey Island, off the southwest coast of North
Devon, having ascended Wellington Channel to latitude 77 deg., and
returned by the west side of Cornwallis Island. Lieutenant Gore and
Charles F. De Voeux had left the ships with six men, on an exploring
expedition, May 24, 1847, and on the 28th left this written statement
of their journeyings. Franklin had sailed westward to longitude 98
deg., then up Wellington Channel—the course specially commended to
him, but upon trying to reach the American coast he was prevented
by the masses of ice sweeping southward through McClintock Channel.
The record concludes with these words, in the handwriting of Captain
Fitz James: “April 25, 1848—H. M. ships Terror and Erebus were
deserted on 22d April, five leagues n. n. w. of this, having been
beset since 12th September, 1846. The officers and crews, consisting
of 105 souls, under the command of Captain F. R. M. Crozier, landed
here in lat. 69 deg. 37 min. 42 sec. n., long. 98 deg. 41 min. w.
Sir John Franklin died on the 11th June, 1847; and the total loss
by deaths in the expedition has been to this date 9 officers and
15 men.” Captain Crozier added the important statement: “We shall
start on to-morrow, 26th April, 1848, for Back’s Fish River.” This
record proved the identity of Sir John Franklin’s party with a party
seen by the Esquimaux pressing southward along Fish River to reach
the settlements of the Hudson Bay Company. Later many skeletons
were found on the south and west coasts of King William’s Island.
It is certain, according to the recent reports of Captain Hall and
Lieutenant Schwatka, that all of the party perished from hunger and
exposure.


STEPHEN GIRARD.

James White, Fairfield, Pa.—Stephen Girard was born near Bordeaux,
France, May 24, 1750; took to a seafaring life, became master of a
sailing vessel, then owner of several ships in the American coasting
and West India trade, in which business he amassed a fortune, the
greater part of which was left to found and endow Girard College
for Orphans, near Philadelphia, and other charitable institutions.
He was regarded, at the time of his death, as the wealthiest man in
the United States, although, compared with the money kings of the
present time, he had but a moderate fortune, probably not to exceed
$9,000,000. No one knows what William H. Vanderbilt or Jay Gould is
worth, but it is safe to say that it is not less in either case than
$150,000,000, and some say more than $200,000,000.


ELEVATION OF WESTERN SIGNAL STATIONS.

  FAIRMOUNT, Ill.

  Please give in Our Curiosity Shop the elevation above sea level of
  Huron, D.T., St. Paul, Minn., Madison, Wis., and Chicago.

  E. HALLADAY.

_Answer._—The best we can do is to give the elevations of the
barometers of the United States Signal Service above sea-level at
the several points specified, as computed for that service. That
these are not certainly exact is admitted by the Chief of the Signal
Service, who says, on page 1,178 of his report for 1881: “When the
elevations of these planes above mean sea-level have been determined
by the Coast and Geodetic Survey, it is expected that we shall be
able to greatly improve on the elevations at present adopted.” The
Signal Service barometer at Huron, D. T., stands at 1,300 feet above
mean sea-level—marked (?) or doubtful. The barometer at St. Paul is
810.9 feet, at Madison 949.2 feet, at Chicago 660.9 feet, above sea
level. The elevation of these barometers above the ground varies
between thirty and seventy-five feet. As to your other question you
are mistaken; Huron still appears in the “Weather Reports” printed in
The Inter Ocean.


VALUES OF FOREIGN COINS.

  HOUGHTON, Mich.

  Can you not oblige us with a list of foreign coins and their values
  in this country?

  WILLIAM J. WREN.

_Answer._—The following table gives a list of foreign coins and their
values, as proclaimed by the United States Treasury Department for
the guidance of Custom House officers:

  Countries.       Standard monetary unit.                Value in
                                                         U. S. cur.

  Austria          Florin, silver                          .40.6

  Belgium          Franc, gold and silver                  .19.3
                     5,10, and 20 franc coins.

  Bolivia          Boliviano, silver                       .82.3

  Brazil           Milris of 1,000 reis, gold              .54.5

  Canada           Dollar, gold                           1.00

  Central America  Peso, silver                            .83.6

  Chili            Peso, gold                              .91.2
                     Condor, doubloon, and escudo.

  Denmark          Crown, gold                             .26.8
                     10 and 20 crown pieces.

  Ecqaudor         Peso, silver                            .82.3

  Egypt            Pound of 100 piasters, gold            4.97.4
                     5, 10, 25, and 50 piastres.

  France           Franc, gold and silver                  .19.3
                     5, 10, and 20 franc pieces.

  Great Britain    Pound sterling, gold                   4.86.6½
                     Sovereign and half sovereign.

  Greece           Drachma, gold and silver                .19.3
                     5, 10, 20, 50 and 100 drachmas.

  German Empire    Mark, gold                              .23.8
                     5, 10, and 20 marks.

  India            Rupee of 16 annas, silver               .39.7

  Italy            Lira, gold and silver                   .19.3
                     5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 lire.

  Japan            Yen, gold and silver                    .99.7
                     1, 2, 3, 10, and 20 yen.

  Liberia          Dollar, gold                           1.00.

  Mexico           Dollar, or peso, silver                 .89.4
                     Dollar, 5, 10, 25, and 50 centavo.

  Netherlands      Florin, gold and silver                 .40.2

  Norway           Crown, gold                             .26.8
                     10 and 20 crowns.

  Peru             Sol, silver                             .83.6

  Portugal         Milreis, 1,000 reis, gold              1.08.
                     2, 5, and 10 milreis.

  Russia           Ruble of 100 copecks, silver            .66.9
                     Ruble, ¼, and ½ rouble.

  Sandwich Islands Dollar, gold                           1.00.

  Spain            Peseta of 100 centimes gold and silver  .19.3
                     5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 pesetas.

  Sweden           Crown, gold                             .26.8

  Switzerland      Franc, gold and silver                  .19.3
                     5, 10, and 20 francs.

  Tripoli          Mahbub. 20 piasters, silver             .74.3

  Turkey           Piaster, gold                           .04.4
                     25, 50, 100, 250, and 500 piasters.

  United States    Peso, silver                            .83.6
    of Colombia


THE SOUTH AND PROTECTIVE TARIFF.

  JONESBORO, Ark.

  How is the South, and, particularly, how are Southern farmers,
  benefited by the tariff?

  S. W. MOREHEAD.

_Answer._—Just as other American farmers are. First, by escaping
direct taxation for the support of the General Government, a form
of taxation that always bears on farmers and the other industrial
classes heavily, as illustrated in direct taxation for State and
county purposes. The Southern politicians who framed the Constitution
of the Southern Confederacy, a majority of them, ignored the
protectionist policy of Washington, Madison, Clay, Lowndes, Bell,
and other Southern statesmen of different political parties, and, as
Jefferson Davis puts it, in his “Rise and Fall of the Confederacy,”
“protective duties for the benefit of special branches of industry
were altogether prohibited.” A tariff for revenue only, export
duties, and direct taxation were relied on to supply the exchequer of
the Confederacy. What does Mr. Davis say of the result as regards the
last of these sources? On page 495 of Volume I. he writes: “Within
six months after the passage of the war tax of Aug. 19, 1861, the
popular aversion to internal taxation by the General Government
had so influenced the legislation of the several States that only
in South Carolina, Mississippi, and Texas were the taxes actually
collected from the people. The quotas of the remaining States had
been raised by the issue of bonds and State Treasury notes. The
public debt of the country was thus actually increased instead of
being diminished by the taxation imposed by Congress.” Where did
most of the money come from that was raised by the Confederacy? Off
the agricultural products of the South. As to the foreign loan,
Davis says: “Each bond, at the option of the holder, was convertible
at its nominal amount into cotton at the rate of sixpence sterling
for each pound of cotton—say 4,000 pounds of cotton for each bond
of a hundred pounds sterling.” The farmer was paid for the cotton
in Confederate currency or bonds, as a rule, and any other cotton
exported from the country was compelled to pay an export duty to
help pay the interest on the foreign bonds. But not only does the
policy of American protection tend to keep the amount raised by
direct taxation down to a minimum (as now, when, except the internal
revenue tax on whisky and tobacco, nearly the entire revenue of the
Federal Government is collected off of imports), but it levies the
tariff mainly on such articles as can be produced in this country,
so compelling consumers of Southern cotton, sugar, rice, tobacco,
etc., to pay better prices for these articles, or foreign competitors
to reduce their profits when selling to American consumers; while
it admits, coffee, tea, and other home necessities that we cannot
produce, free of duty. It lays a duty on iron and other ores, and so
encourages the Tennessee, Georgia, and Alabama miner to delve for the
wealth beneath his feet. It taxes cotton goods, and so holds out an
extra inducement over all that nature has done to encourage the South
to erect cotton factories. The same is true in a thousand other lines
of manufacture. In general, it attracts capital into the South to
engage in mining and manufacturing; it keeps money at home; it builds
up home markets; it develops natural resources; it quickens the
inventive genius of the nation, and it diversifies industries, and
so provides occupations adapted to the various talents of different
persons. This last is what the South needs more, in proportion,
than any other section of the Union. Diversity of occupation, like
diversity of crops, is essential to the realization of the best
results. In many cases the most expert mechanics would make inferior
farmers. The girl who “loves dearly to attend cotton-looms” (as a
female operative in the weaving department of the Southern Exposition
at Louisville lately exclaimed) would not stay on a farm. Diversity
of industry affords opportunity for every worker to make the most
of his abilities. It is the safety-valve of labor, which prevents
any one occupation from being overgorged with laborers. It is the
great equalizer of wages. The South is only beginning to realize the
importance of home manufactures. Georgia is alive to this matter; so
are some portions of Kentucky. Other Southern States are awakening to
it. If it be true that in some parts of the North the manufacturers
are strong enough to stand without protection, it is not yet true of
the same industries in the South, and the latter should demand that
the tariff be maintained until she has acquired like strength. She
has the cotton, iron, sugar, cheaper labor, and on account of the
climate it costs the laborers less to live there than in the North.
Why should she not rival France, of similar climate, in manufactures?
Capitalists are asking “why not;” and capital is pouring into the
South faster than ever before. It would be suicidal to drive this
capital back. The South will be stupid if she exerts herself to keep
her children shut up to agricultural pursuits and continues to spend
more than half the value of her surplus products in sending them to
market and bringing them back in a manufactured condition (as she
always has done) instead of manufacturing them at home.


I AM DYING, EGYPT, DYING.

  EVANSTON, Ill.

  Who was the author of the touching poem commencing, “I am dying,
  Egypt, dying?” It is said that he was an army officer.

  J. H.

_Answer._—It was William Haines Lytle, who was born in Cincinnati,
Ohio, in 1826. He belonged to a cluster of brilliant young writers
whose early ambition was to build up a school of Western literature,
but who were drawn into the whirl of more active life, which left
little time for courting the muses. On the breaking out of the late
war he went into the army, serving as a Colonel in Western Virginia
in 1861. He was wounded at Perryville, Ky., in October, 1862, was
promoted for gallant services, and, finally, was killed at the
battle of Chickamauga, Sept. 20, 1863. He was greatly beloved by his
fellow officers for his noble social qualities as well as for his
martial bearing; and nothing could be more unjust, according to the
testimony of those who knew him well, than the story recently started
by a flippant penny-a-liner, that he wrote the poem above referred
to, properly entitled “The Death of Mark Antony,” on the walls of
a guard-house in St. Louis, in which he was held under arrest over
night for disorderly conduct on his way home from the theater, where
he had seen Booth in Shakespeare’s great drama of “Antony and
Cleopatra.” That the poem was suggested to him by witnessing Booth’s
representation of this play is probably true: and it is asserted
by some that he had written it, in part at least, some time before
the eve of his death, but the following version of the peculiar
circumstances under which this greatly admired lyric was completed
and transmitted to the world corresponds with the traditions of the
army, and is probably true. John M. Balthes, of Clifton, Ill., who
was once a fellow-townsman of General Lytle, at Zanesville, Ohio,
writing to a fellow-soldier of that gallant officer, says:

“I send you the following beautiful lines, written by him in the
middle of the night, just before the next day’s battle, in which he
lost his life. The General being strongly impressed, or having a
premonition that he should lose his life in the battle that was so
soon to open, sat absorbed and alone in his tent, when an officer
coming in admonished him that he needed rest before the serious
business planned for the next day. Thereupon General Lytle handed him
these verses, remarking that they would be the last he should ever
write.” This poem was published in THE SUNDAY INTER OCEAN of Oct.
7, almost precisely as given by Mr. Balthes, and as it appears in
“Famous Single and Fugitive Poems,” by Rossiter Johnson.


SPECIAL PARTNERS—CONSTITUTIONAL AMENDMENTS.

A. D. Bird, Tecumseh, Neb.—1. In limited partnerships the special
partner’s liability for the indebtedness of the firm is limited to
their total interest in the firm, whereas the other partners are
each liable for the whole indebtedness of the firm. In corporations
“limited” stockholders are liable only to the total amount of their
stock, or some specific amount over that. For a fuller answer see
page 87 of Curiosity Shop for 1882, in book form. 2. The twelfth
amendment to the Constitution of the United States, which terminated
the old rule that the candidate receiving the greatest number of
votes for President should be President, and the one receiving the
next greatest number for President should be Vice President, and
requiring electors to name in their ballots the person voted for as
President, and, in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice
President, was adopted in 1804.


SILK FROM OSAGE-ORANGE LEAVES.

  GALESBURG, Ill.

  Will silk-worms fed with the leaves of the Osage orange thrive as
  well and produce as fine a quality of silk as if fed on the leaves
  of the white mulberry?

  FARMER’S WIFE.

_Answer._—They seem to thrive well, and they produce fine-looking
cocoons; but as to the value of these latter compared with those
produced from mulberry leaves, it is not yet time to speak
positively. The strength, fineness, and other elements of value have
not been fully tested and pronounced upon by experts. Miss Nellie
Lincoln Rossiter, of Philadelphia, who has written a little hand-book
on the raising of silk-worms, says that there is no _apparent_
difference between the silk crops from morette, a species of white
mulberry, and Osage orange leaves. It would be well for persons
interested in this question to correspond with the Woman’s National
Silk Association of Philadelphia. An interesting experiment in
raising silk-worms has been successfully carried on the past season
by the Misses Sarah Dewey and Alice Coykendall, at Canton, Ill.
They procured the eggs from Philadelphia, with instructions for the
management of them, and an exchange says: “They now have 3,500 worms
in all stages of development, from those just hatched to those which
have their cocoons fully formed. They are kept in an upstairs room
on perforated paper, over which fresh leaves of the Osage orange are
spread each morning. The ladies are enthusiastic over their success,
which certainly seems assured. They will be able to find a ready
market for their cocoons at Philadelphia at remunerative prices.”


AMERICAN KNIGHTS—SONS OF LIBERTY.

  MINNEAPOLIS, Minn.

  Give some of the facts as to the origin and acts of the disloyal
  orders known during the war for the Union as “American Knights,”
  “Sons of Liberty,” etc.; and of the trial of Dodd for conspiring
  against the government.

  JAS. BREWSTER.

_Answer._—The treasonable organization known during the late war, at
one time as the “Mutual Protection Society,” again as the “Circle of
Honor,” or the “Circle,” or “Knights of the Mighty Host,” but more
widely as “Knights of the Golden Circle,” first developed itself
in the West in 1862, about the time of the first conscription, or
draft of troops, which it was designed to obstruct and resist. An
association under the last of these names had existed for some
years at the South being one of the chief means used to foment the
rebellion before the outbreak. Because of some exposures of the
signs, rituals, etc., of the Knights of the Golden Circle, Sterling
Price, the Confederate general, had instituted as its successor in
Missouri a secret political order, known as the “Corps de Belgique,”
in honor of his chief coadjutor, Charles L. Hunt then Belgian Consul
at St. Louis. Its special object was to beat up recruits for Price
and otherwise co-operate with him in his design of overrunning
Missouri. This was afterward merged into another secret order,
called the “Order of American Knights,” commonly known as the “O.
A. K.,” organized in the autumn of 1863 by Clement L. Vallandigham,
of Ohio, and P. C. Wright, of New York. It is believed that it was
founded by Vallandigham in consultation with Jefferson Davis and
other arch-rebels at Richmond, during his banishment within the rebel
lines. At least, members of the order in Indiana boasted that the
ritual was prepared by Davis himself, and Mary Ann Pitman, at one
time attached to General Forrest’s command as a rebel spy, declared
that Davis was a member of the order. In Indiana, in May, 1864, owing
to the names of some of the leaders and the signs and passwords of
the order having got into the possession of the Federal authorities,
its name was finally changed to the “Order of the Sons of Liberty,”
or “Knights of the Order of the Sons of Liberty,” and a ritual
was instituted. These soon became general. Local branches of the
organization used other names outside their lodges, such as “Peace
Organization” in Illinois, “Star Organization” in Kentucky, “American
Organization” in Missouri, “McClellan Minute Men” in New York,
“Democratic Invincible Club” in Chicago, “Democratic Reading-room” in
Louisville, and so on.

This order had a Supreme Council for the United States at large, of
which the chief officers were a Supreme Commander, a Secretary and
a Treasurer. There was a Grand Council for each State, whose chief
officers were a Grand Commander, a Deputy Grand Commander, a Grand
Secretary, and a Grand Treasurer, and a certain number of Major
Generals, one for each of its “military districts.” There was also a
“Parent Temple” in each county and subordinate temples in townships.
The constitution of the order declared that “the Supreme Commander
shall be Commander-in-chief of all military forces belonging to
the order in the various States, when called into actual service.”
There were four Major Generals in Indiana, each commanding “a
military district and its army.” In Illinois, where its organization
was at one time very complete, the members in each Congressional
district constituted a brigade, under a “Brigadier General.” Those
of each county a “regiment,” commanded by a “Colonel,” and those
of each township a “company.” In Indiana companies were subdivided
into “squads.” The McClellan Minute Men of New York were similarly
organized.

The first Supreme Commander was P. C. Wright, editor of the New York
_News_, who was subsequently incarcerated in Fort Lafayette, New York
harbor, when he was succeeded by Vallandigham. Robert Holloway, of
Illinois, is said to have acted as Supreme Commander in the latter’s
absence in Canada. Charles L. Hunt, Grand Commander for Missouri,
Charles E. Dunn, Deputy Grand Commander, and Green B. Smith,
Secretary, being placed under arrest, divulged facts confirmatory
of the above. H. H. Dodd, the Grand Commander for Indiana, was
arrested and tried at Indianapolis before a military commission
“for conspiring against the government,” “violations of the laws of
war,” and other charges. He was finally turned over to the civil
authorities and liberated.

Vallandigham declared in a speech at Dayton, Ohio, in the summer of
1863, that the order numbered 500,000 men; others claimed 800,000,
and some still more. Statements of its officers at different times,
represented its numbers in Indiana as 75,000 to 125,000; in Illinois
as 100,000 to 140,000; in Ohio as 80,000 to 108,000; in Michigan
and New York as about 20,000 each, and so on. In March, 1864, it
was represented that the total force capable of being mobilized for
effective service was 340,000. Green B. Smith and other witnesses
testified to having purchased and shipped arms to various points
to arm the order. Another witness, once a member of the order
in Indiana, testified that there were 6,000 muskets and 60,000
revolvers, besides private arms in possession of the order in that
State.

The members were bound by the most rigorous oaths. Its “declaration
of principles” declared that it was the imperative duty of its
members to resist the functionaries of the Federal Government,
“and, if need be, expel them by force of arms.” The witnesses,
former members, testified that the duties of members were: 1. To aid
soldiers to desert and harbor and protect them. 2. To discourage
enlistments and resist the draft. 3. To circulate disloyal and
treasonable publications. 4. To communicate and give assistance to
the enemy. 5. To recruit for the Confederate army. 6. To furnish the
rebels with arms and ammunition. 7. To co-operate with the enemy
in raids and invasions. 8. To harass loyal men and destroy their
property when so ordered to do. 9. To assassinate officers of the
government when so directed to do. 10. To establish a Northwestern
Confederacy.

The above statements are compiled from the reports of the Hon.
J. Holt, Judge Advocate General, to Secretary Stanton on “Secret
Societies,” and other State papers. Unusual space has been given
to this question because it has been asked repeatedly, and our
attention is called to the fact that it is not treated in the popular
cyclopedias and histories.


CHIEF CITIES OF FRANCE AND ENGLAND.

  RUSHVILLE, Ill.

  What is the population of each of the principal cities of France?

  JAMES P. CLARKE.

_Answer._—The population of each of the principal cities of France
and England in 1881 is given in the “Statesman’s Year Book” as in the
table below:

  Paris            2,269,023
  Lyons              376,613
  Marseilles         360,099
  Bordeaux           221,305
  Lille              178,144
  Toulouse           140,289
  Nantes             124,319
  St. Etienne        123,813
  Rouen              105,906
  Le Havre           105,867
  Rheims              93,823
  Roubaix             91,757
  Amiens              74,170
  Nancy               73,255
  Toulon              70,103
  Angers              68,041
  Nice                66,279
  Brest               66,110
  Limoges             63,765
  Nimes               63,552

  London       [12]4,764,312
  Glasgow        [13]647,095
  Liverpool          552,425
  Dublin         [14]418,152
  Birmingham         400,757
  Manchester         393,676
  Leeds              309,126
  Sheffield          284,410
  Edinburgh          236,002
  Bristol            206,503
  Bradford           180,459
  Salford            176,223
  Wolverhampton      164,303
  Hull               161,519
  Oldham             152,511
  Newcastle-on-Tyne  145,228
  Dundee             140,239
  Brighton           128,407
  Portsmouth         127,953


LIQUID GLUE AND CHINESE CEMENT.

  BLACK OAK, Mo.

  Please tell us how to make “Spaulding’s prepared glue” or some
  substitute for it.

  D. P. STUBLEFIELD.

_Answer._—The formula for making Spaulding’s prepared glue is not
available. The following (Dumoulin’s) is quite as good: Take soft
water, 1 quart; best pale glue, 2 pounds; dissolve in a covered
vessel by the heat of a water bath or in a vessel immersed in
boiling water; cool, and add, gradually, of nitric acid (specific
gravity 1.335) 7 ounces; when cold put it into bottles. It is very
strong and does not gelatinize.

The following formula, known as “Chinese cement,” produces a cement
for porcelain, glass, fancy work, jewelry, etc., so strong that wood
or porcelain can be joined together so firmly that they will break
anywhere else rather than where cemented: Take of finest pale orange
shell-lac (broken small) 4 ounces; strongest rectified spirits 3
ounces, and digest them together in a corked bottle in a warm place
until dissolved. It should have about the consistence of molasses.


THE MAN OF ROSS.

  GREENVILLE, Ill.

  Who was the “Man of Ross?”

  IDA E. WHITE.

_Answer._—The “Man of Ross” is a title given to John Kyrle, of Ross
parish, Hereford County, Eng., because of his remarkable spirit of
enterprise and great benevolence. Although only an untitled, private
gentleman of moderate fortune, he did far more for the good of his
community than many a wealthy lord of the manor. Pope appreciated the
true nobility of Kyrle, and has done full honor to him in the third
epistle of his “Moral Essays,” “On the Use of Riches.” Coleridge,
too, has paid a beautiful tribute to his memory in the lines:

    “Richer than miser o’er his countless hoards,
    Nobler than kings or kings’ polluted lords,
    Here dwelt the Man of Ross. O, traveler, hear!
    Departed merit claims a reverent tear.”


EASTERN CENTRAL ARKANSAS.

  CLARENDON, Ark.

Seeing an Inquirer, in the Curiosity Shop, asks information in regard
to Arkansas, I will say that the Eastern Central portion of the State
is nearly level, and very fertile. All fruits, vegetables, cereals,
tobacco, cotton, sorghum, sweet potatoes—in fact anything one may
plant—gives large returns. Owing to this locality lying in the great
cotton belt, and to the large quantities of cotton produced, the
usual price per bushel of Indian corn is $1; oats, 90c, and oats will
yield from forty to sixty bushels per acre, with the rude implements
and tillage here in vogue—a one-horse cast-iron plow, and a small
tree top for a harrow. After oats and wheat are harvested the same
land is frequently planted in corn, or sown with millet, or Hungarian
grass, thus producing two crops a year. Land here is cheap, water is
soft and pure, and timber abundant. The rivers abound in fish, and
the immense forests in game. I came from Indiana. I have lived here
twelve years. Have never seen a case of consumption in the State.

  DR. H. C. YOUNG,
  Formerly Surgeon U. S. N.


PSEUDONYMS OF AUTHORS.

  AUBURN, Ill.

  I should like to have a list of the noms de plume of modern authors
  of reputation.

  CHARLES HERSHMAN.

_Answer._—The following is as long a list as there is room for here;
although it contains but a small proportion of the over 5,000
pseudonyms known to literature:

  Pseudonyms and real names.                        Born.   Died.

  Algernon Sidney—Gideon Granger                     1767    1822
  Amy Lothrop—Miss Anna B. Warner                    1825
  An American Girl Abroad—Miss Trafton
  Artemus Ward—Charles F. Browne                     1836    1867
  Barney Cornwall—Bryan Waller Procter               1790
  Boz—Charles Dickens                                1812    1870
  Christopher Crowfield—Mrs. H. B. Stowe             1812
  Chrystal Croftangry—Sir W. Scott                   1771    1832
  C. L. I. O. (Clio)—Joseph Addison                  1672    1719
  Cornelius O’Dowd—Chas. Jas. Lever                  1806    1872
  Country Parson—The Rev. A. K. H. Boyd              1825
  Currer Bell—Charlotte Bronte (Mrs. Nichols)        1815    1855
  Diedrich Knickerbocker—Washington Irving           1783    1859
  E. D. E. N—Mrs. Emma D. E. (Nevette) Southworth    1818
  Edward Search (2)—Abraham Tucker                   1705    1774
  Edward Search (1)—Wm. Hazlitt                      1778    1830
  Elia—Chas. Lamb                                    1775    1834
  Eli Perkins—Matthew D. Landon
  Elizabeth Wetherell—Susan Warner                   1818
  Ellis Bell—Emily Bronte                            1819    1848
  Ettrick Shepherd—James Hogg                        1772    1835
  Fanny Fern—Sarah Parton                            1811    1872
  Father Prout—Francis Mahony                        1805    1866
  Figaro—Mariano Jose de Larra                       1809    1837
  Gail Hamilton—Miss Abigail Hamilton Dodge          1838
  Gamaliel Smith—Jeremy Bentham                      1748    1832
  Gath—George Alfred Townsend                        1833
  Geoffrey Crayon—Washington Irving                  1783    1859
  George Eliot—Mrs. Mary Ann (Evans) Lewes Cross     1820    1880
  George Fitzdoodle—Wm. Makepeace Thackeray          1811    1863
  Georges Sand—Mme. Dudevant                         1804    1876
  Grace Greenwood—Mrs. Sara J. Lippincott            1825
  Horace Hornem—George Gordon, Lord Byron            1788    1824
  Hosea Biglow—James R. Lowell                       1819
  Ik Marvel—Donald Grant Mitchell                    1822
  Jean Paul—Jean Paul F. Richter                     1763    1825
  Jedediah Cleishbotham—Sir W. Scott                 1771    1832
  Jennie June—Mrs. J. C. Croly                       1840
  John Chalkhill—Izaak Walton                        1593    1683
  Jonathan Oldstyle—Washington Irving                1783    1859
  Josh Billings—Henry W. Shaw                        1818
  Joshua Coffin—Henry W. Longfellow                  1807    1881
  Junius—Probably Sir Philip Francis                 1740    1818
  Laertes—G. A. Townsend                             1833
  Launcelot Langstaff—Washington Irving              1783    1859
  Launcelot Langstaff—William Irving                 1766    1821
  Launcelot Langstaff—Jas. Kirke Paulding            1779    1860
  L. E. L.—Letitia Elizabeth Landon                  1802    1839
  Little Thomas—Thomas Moore                         1779    1852
  Luise Muhlbach—Mme. Clara Mundt                    1814    1873
  Malachi—Sir W. Scott                               1771    1832
  Malachi Malagrowther—Sir W. Scott                  1771    1832
  Malakoff—Samuel Johnson, LL. D.                    1709    1784
  Marion Harland—Mary V. (Hawes) Terhune             1835
  Mark Twain—Samuel L. Clemens                       1835
  M. Quad—Chas. B. Lewis
  Mrs. Partington—B. P. Shillaber                    1814
  Old Bachelor—George W. Curtis                      1824
  Oliver Optic—William Taylor Adams                  1822
  Owen Meredith—Edward R. Bulwer, Lord Lytton        1831
  Paul Creyton—John T. Trowbridge                    1817
  Parson Lot—The Rev. Charles Kingsley               1819
  Saxe Holm—Miss Rush Ellis                          1858
  Theophilus South—Edward Chitty                     1807
  Timothy Titcomb—J. G. Holland                      1819    1881


CHICAGO NEWSPAPER CIRCULATION.

  AURORA, Ill.

  To settle a dispute, state which of the Chicago newspapers has the
  largest circulation.

  CONOVER.

_Answer._—The only criterion of newspaper circulation which there
is absolutely no means of successfully disputing is the amount of
postage paid on papers sent to actual subscribers. Below is given the
amounts of postage paid on such circulation by each of the Chicago
newspapers here named during the fiscal year ending June, 30, 1882:

  THE INTER OCEAN  $19,609.30
  The _News_             7,289.14
  The _Times_            6,581.10
  The _Tribune_          5,644.54
  The _Herald_           1,443.68

For circulation of papers outside of the mails there is nothing that
can be regarded as an impartial standard of comparison; nothing which
affords the reading and advertising public such unequivocal testimony
as the above, but every intelligent person will naturally conclude
that the proportions of circulation through the mails and outside of
the mails will not differ very greatly.


TO POLISH SEA-SHELLS.

  CRESTON, Iowa.

  Please inform us through Our Curiosity Shop how to polish
  sea-shells and prepare them for sale.

  SUBSCRIBER.

_Answer._—According to Cooley, one of the highest authorities on
processes employed in the arts and manufactures, the surfaces of
certain shells which have a natural polish should be first cleansed
by rubbing with a rag dipped in hydrochloric acid (obtainable at any
drug store) till the dull outer skin is removed. They must then be
promptly washed in warm water, dried in hot sawdust, and polished
with chamois leather. But shells destitute of natural polish may
be either varnished or rubbed with a mixture of tripoli powder and
turpentine, applied by means of a “wash-leather” (split sheepskin
dressed with oil), and afterward with fine tripoli alone, and finally
a little olive oil, the surface being brought up with vigorous use of
the chamois leather. But there are shells which must first be boiled
in a strong solution of potash, then ground on wheels, sometimes
all the way through the outer stratum, to show an underlying one,
after which they are polished with hydrochloric acid and putty
powder. This last process better be left to men who make a business
of shell-grinding; for it is said that “shell-grinders are almost
all cripples in their hands,” owing to the dangerous nature of this
operation.


STATES WITH COMPULSORY EDUCATION.

  STECOAH, N. C.

  Name the States and Territories which have compulsory education
  laws; and show how their attendance and non-attendance compare with
  the same in other States and Territories.

  J. L. CRISP.

_Answer._—Arizona, California, Connecticut, District of Columbia,
Illinois, Kansas, Massachusetts, Michigan, New Hampshire, New
Jersey, New York, Ohio, Vermont, Wisconsin, and Wyoming have
compulsory education laws, requiring every male child between certain
years—usually 8 to 14—to attend school not less than a specified
period—usually twelve weeks each year. The Illinois law did not come
into effect until the present school year, and in several other
States these laws were not passed in time to affect the statistics of
1880, so the following table gives the total number of children of
school age in none but such States as had compulsory attendance laws
before 1880. It gives not the average daily attendance, but the total
enrollment of pupils in the public schools:

                 Children of
  States.        school age.  Enrollment.

  California        215,978      158,765
  Connecticut       140,235      119,694
  Massachusetts     307,321      309,777
  Michigan          506,221      362,556
  New Jersey        330,685      204,961
  New York        1,641,173    1,031,593
  Ohio            1,043,320      747,138

The table below gives the corresponding statistics for an equal
number of States not having such laws, as nearly adjacent as possible:

                 Children of
  States.        school age.  Enrollment.

  Oregon             59,615       37,533
  Maine             214,656      149,827
  Rhode Island       52,273       44,780
  Pennsylvania    1,370,000      937,310
  Delaware           35,459       27,823
  Indiana           703,558      511,283
  Iowa              586,556      426,057

This comparison sheds very uncertain light upon the question as to
the effect of compulsory attendance laws, because the school age
period is different in different States, and it does not show the
number of pupils in private schools. It would be far more interesting
in this connection if it included only all children of the ages
within the compulsory period in each State, and gave the number of
such children enrolled in schools of any sort before and after the
passage of the law. Nevertheless, these tables do indicate plainly
enough that such laws are not strictly enforced in any State, and
are, comparatively speaking, a dead letter in others.


BASHFULNESS WORSE THAN FEAR.

  OREGON, Ill.

  What brave man was it that said he had suffered far more from
  bashfulness than from fear?

  SUBSCRIBER.

_Answer._—It was “John Brown, of Ossawatomie,” the hero of the
Harper’s Ferry plot to emancipate as many as possible of the slaves
of Virginia and Maryland, and lead them on an exodus into Canada.
Being asked, on the way to the scaffold, if he felt any fear, he
replied: “It has been a characteristic of me from infancy not to
suffer from physical fear. I have suffered a thousand times more from
bashfulness than from fear.”


CHOKE-BORE SHOTGUNS.

  PECATONICA, Ill.

  Please explain the difference between “full choke” and “modified
  choke” shotguns.

  SPORTSMAN.

_Answer._—In a full choke shot-gun the bore is a perfect cylinder to
within a few inches from the muzzle, where it swells inward slightly
all around, and then opens out in the last six or seven inches to
about the same diameter as in front of the choke. In a “modified
choke” gun the barrel tapers from the shell chamber to the choke
curve. In a “taper bore choke” the barrel tapers regularly from the
shell chamber to the muzzle.


NIGHT GLASSES.

  HARPER, Kansas.

  What is a night glass? Is it true that a person can see as plainly
  with one of these, in fair weather, at night, as he can without one
  in daylight?

  C. G. BOONE.

_Answer._—A night glass is simply a small terrestrial telescope,
or spy-glass, ordinarily in the form of a large opera-glass, with
an unusually large lens in the end toward the object to be viewed,
called the object-glass, which serves to concentrate a large amount
of light, and so render objects seen at night much more distinct than
when viewed by either the naked eye or an ordinary spy-glass. Since
it is a principle in optics that “it is impossible, by any optical
arrangement whatever, to obtain an image whose brightest part shall
surpass the brightest part of the object,” it is obvious that nothing
seen through a night-glass, even in the clearest night, can appear as
distinct as in daylight.


AMERICAN HISTORIANS.

  WANDA, Ill.

  Will you please publish a list of the principal American historians?

  S.

_Answer._—Assuming that by “American historians” you mean historians
born in America, we give the following list, naming first those
who wrote chiefly of our own country, and afterward those who have
written mainly of other countries: J. S. C. Abbott, b. 1805; d. 1877;
George Bancroft, 1800; Richard Hildreth, 1807-1865; C. E. A. Gayarre,
1805; Francis Parkman, 1823; John C. Ridpath, 1840; John D. G. Shea,
1824; Jared Sparks, 1789-1866; James F. Cooper, 1789-1851; Hubert
H. Bancroft, and Thomas H. Burton. W. H. Prescott, 1796-1859; John
Lathrop Motley, 1814-1877, and Royal Robbins, 1788-1861.


SANDPAPER.

  SHENANDOAH, Iowa.

  Please describe the process of making sandpaper.

  H. S. GALT.

_Answer._—Common window glass—that having a green tint is best—is
powdered and sifted through sieves of varying fineness, for coarse
and fine sandpaper. Then any coarse paper is covered with thin glue
and the powdered glass is sifted upon it. After standing a day or
two, the refuse sand is shaken off, and the paper is ready for use.


ALABASTER.

  CLINTON, Ill.

  Where is alabaster quarried and manufactured?

  OLD PILGRIM.

_Answer._—Alabaster, or plaster of paris, is made in large quantities
at Grand Rapids, Mich., where there are extensive beds of gypsum, the
stone from which it is produced. Vases and other ornamental articles
can be cut from the finest quality of this stone; but generally such
articles are produced in Europe, where labor is cheaper and the
class of workmen accustomed to this branch of art is numerous. The
chief supply of European gypsum for fine arts is obtained at Sienna
and other places in Tuscany, and manufactured at Florence, Milan,
Leghorn, and Volterra.


RAILROADS ENTERING CHICAGO.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  Please state the total number of railroads entering Chicago on
  their own tracks or others, and oblige

  SEVERAL READERS.

_Answer._—Hardly two persons would agree as to “the number of
railroads entering Chicago on their own tracks or others,” for the
reason that one person would count all the distinct roads named
in the several coupons of every through ticket from any part of
the United States, Canada, or Mexico to this city, while others
would count only the roads chartered in Illinois and adjacent
States running under separate managements, and entering Chicago
over their own traces or leased right of way. The latter number
about thirty-eight, the former amount to several hundred. There
are twenty-seven great railway systems centering at Chicago and
controlled mainly from this point, which embrace about 25,000 miles
of track.


HARVARD, YALE, COLUMBIA.

  WEST LEBANON, Ind.

  Please give a comparison of Harvard, Yale, and Columbia Colleges in
  wealth, number of students, and number of graduates.

  A SUBSCRIBER.

_Answer._—According to the report of the Bureau of Education for
1880, these institutions compare, as regards wealth, as follows:

                          Productive    Income       Income
  Colleges—                funds.    from funds.  fr. tuition.

  Harvard                $3,959,556    $236,889      $122,835
  Yale                    1,293,078      79,943       102,912
  Columbia                4,816,257     320,565        24,200

Besides the above, there is a scientific school connected with each
of the above colleges with property, as follows:

                          Prod’tive      Income       Income
  Scientific Dept.—        funds      fr. funds    fr. tuit’n

  Lawrence Scientific
    School (Harvard)       $729,623     $46,482        $2,505

  Sheffield Scientific
    School (Yale)           265,775      28,157        15,850

  School of Mines
    (Columbia)                                         36,500

As respects students enrolled and graduates of all departments, in
the year above given, these institutions compared as in the totals
below:

  Number of       Number of      Degrees
  Colleges—      Students.     conferred.

  Harvard            974           264
  Yale               952           232
  Columbia           577           415

The degrees enumerated were all conferred “in course,” honorary
degrees being omitted from this statement.


THE MAID OF THE MIST.

  DANVILLE, Ill.

  Are you not mistaken as to the time when the Maid of the Mist ran
  through the great whirlpool in the Niagara River? Can you not give
  a fuller description than appeared in Our Curiosity Shop of Aug. 16?

  SUBSCRIBER.

_Answer._—The date here called in question is the one given for
this feat in Clemens Petersen’s article on Niagara in “Johnson’s
New Universal Cyclopedia,” but in THE DAILY INTER OCEAN of Sept.
1 we gave an account from the lips of DeWitt C. McMurtry, now of
Philadelphia, who claims to be the only survivor of that perilous
passage. He says the trip was made June 29 1859. He gives the
dimensions of the stanch little steamer at “about 150 feet over all
and 16 feet beam.” She was a side-wheeler, with new and powerful
engines, usually carrying 125 or 130 pounds pressure of steam, but
set at this time to blow off at 228 pounds. The run was made to
evade the payment of a mortgage held by Judge Addington, of Buffalo,
and under an offer from some Toronto parties to pay $25,000 for the
Maid of the Mist if delivered at Queenstown, on the Canada side,
at the mouth of the river. Joel Robinson, the captain, was offered
$500, the engineer, a Mr. Jones, and the fireman, Mr. McMurtry, each
$100, to undertake this task. The captain had himself lashed in the
wheelhouse, and the other two were shut in below under battened
hatches. The distance from the last landing above the whirlpool
to Queenstown is just five miles, one mile of which is through the
whirlpool-torrent. This distance was made in seven and three-quarter
minutes, only two of which were spent in the rapids. The boat was
dashed about at a terrible rate. “When she first struck the rapids,”
says McMurtry, “our boat leaped downward perhaps thirty feet. Then
she was hurled clear out of the water. Down she would go, as if she
would never stop, when suddenly she would right herself and, with a
bound which seemed almost human, leap out of the water. The current
runs forty-five miles an hour and the waves are twenty feet high.
Jones and I were almost killed by the quickly succeeding shocks. I
felt my strength rapidly oozing away as I clung to the hand-rails
for dear life. There was barely time to catch my breath between
concussions. Suddenly the current struck her sideways, she swung
around, and shot down the stream. We had escaped the whirlpool. When
I got out at Queenstown the water was waist high, the boat had been
so racked and wrenched in her passage.” Jones died soon afterward.
Robinson survived several years longer. According to this witness no
one perished in the passage, as is stated in some narratives of the
affair.


FEMALE SUFFRAGE IN NEW JERSEY.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  What State was it that permitted women to vote ninety years ago?

  J. M. SNOW.

_Answer._—It was New Jersey; which organized as an independent State
two days before the declaration of independence, with a constitution
that allowed universal suffrage, male and female, without regard to
color. This constitution was not altered until 1844, when, among
other changes, the suffrage was restricted to males; largely because
of the apathy shown by women, especially those of the better class,
in regard to the exercise of the ballot.


UNION AND REBEL PRISONERS

  SWAN, Iowa.

  Give the number of prisoners taken on both sides during the late
  war. State how many died while prisoners; and, if possible, tell
  how many Union soldiers once in Southern prisons still survive. How
  many graves in National Cemeteries?

  A PRISONER OF WAR.

_Answer._—The number of Union soldiers captured by the Confederates
during the late war was 212,608. The number of Confederate prisoners
taken was 476,169. The number of Union soldiers who died while
prisoners was 29,725, or little more than one in seven of all
captured. The number of Confederates who died while prisoners was
26,774, or very nearly one in eighteen. The total number of graves
in the National cemeteries is 315,555, only 172,409 of which have
been identified. There is no means of learning how many who were once
Union prisoners still survive.


BATTLE OF SOLFERINO.

  CAMBRIDGE, Wis.

  In what war was the battle of Solferino fought; and what gave this
  place so much importance?

  R. D. THOMPSON.

_Answer._—The battle of Solferino was fought in 1859 between the
French, under the Emperor Louis Napoleon, and the Sardinians, under
Victor Emanuel on the side of the victors, and the Austrians, the
oppressors of Italy, led by the Emperor Francis Joseph. Solferino is
a place of no importance in itself, being but a village of some 1,400
inhabitants, situated in the province of Brescia, North Italy. Its
position, with its famous tower, called the “Spy of Italy,” because
it commands a view of the whole broad plain of Lombardy, gives it
great strategic importance; and in this war, which was, in fact, for
the independence and unity of Italy, the battle of Magenta, twenty
days earlier, in which the Austrians were driven from the field with
a loss of 9,713 killed and about 11,000 wounded and missing, and this
decisive victory at Solferino, in which the allies lost about 18,000
killed and wounded and the Austrians 20,000, besides 6,000 prisoners
and 30 cannon, resulted in the treaty of Villafranca, ceding Lombardy
to Sardinia and virtually terminating Austrian interference in
Italian affairs; so paving the way to the ultimate unification of
Italy, which quickly followed.


RESUMPTION OF SPECIE PAYMENT.

  BLAIR, Neb.

  Was the acts for the resumption of specie payments a Republican or
  Democratic measure? Please give the vote on the passage of the bill.

  C. C. D.

_Answer._—Resumption was advised by the Secretary of the Treasury
under President Grant, was earnestly recommended in the President’s
message, was brought forward in Congress by a Republican, was
reported with the recommendation that it pass from the Finance
Committee of the Senate, by its Chairman, Senator Sherman, Dec.
21, 1874, when a majority of the Senate and the committee were
Republicans; and passed the Senate the same day, by a vote of 32 to
14. All who voted in the negative were Democrats, except Tipton and
Hamilton, of Texas, both Independents. The bill passed the House
on June 7, 1875, by the following vote: Yeas, 136; nays, 98; not
voting, 54. The nays were all Democrats, except Clarke, Crutchfield,
Dawes, Field, Gooch, Hagans, B. W. Harris, J. R. Hawley, E. R. Hoar,
G. F. Hoar, Lawson, Niles, L. C. Parker, M. Sayler, H. J. Scudder,
Sherwood, W. A. Smith, W. Townsend, C. W. Willard, and Woodworth, in
all 20, Republicans. All who voted yea were Republicans.


ORIGIN OF THE DEMOCRATIC PARTY.

  TURNER, Ill.

  When did the Democratic party originate, and what were its
  principal doctrines when it was in power?

  L. S. M.

_Answer._—We first read of a Democratic party in 1807, with such
men as Thomas Jefferson and James Madison for its leaders. It is
sometimes referred to by historians as the “Democratic Republican”
party, and its adherents were quite as frequently termed Republicans
as Democrats. Not until the first Democratic convention, in 1832, did
what is now generally understood as the simon pure Democratic party
assume positive shape. Thence forward it rapidly developed into the
defender of slavery; the opponent of National banks and protective
tariff; the advocate and administrator of the doctrine, “To the
victors belong the spoils,” or rotation in office; first vigorously
espoused and put into practice by General Jackson; and finally the
champion of State sovereignty and apologist and abettor of secession.
For a synopsis of the present political salmagundi, or olla podrida,
denominated Democracy, and for the doctrines of the Republican party
see Our Curiosity Shop for 1882, page 134.


WILL CARLETON, THE POET.

  JUNCTION CITY, Kan.

  Please give us a sketch of Will Carleton, author of “Farm Ballads,”
  and other poems.

  LADY READER.

_Answer._—Will Carleton was born in Hudson, Mich., Oct. 21, 1845.
His parents, John H. and Celeste E. Carleton, were of English
descent. They removed to Michigan from the East at an early day,
where the father cleared the farm upon which he afterward lived
for forty years. He was a man of great natural force of character,
with a talent for extemporaneous speaking, and he soon became a
man of influence, filling many offices of trust in the community,
and contributing powerfully to the rapid success of the Methodist
Church in Southern Michigan, of which he was a devoted member. He
died in 1872. The mother is still living and resides with her son
in Brooklyn, N. Y. She is a woman of decided force of character and
sweetness of heart, and is beloved by all who know her. Her only
other son having died on his way home, after a long imprisonment in
the South during the late war, and her daughters being dead, the
subject of this sketch is the only one of her five children now
surviving. The boyhood of Will Carleton was passed in farm labor and
study. At the district school he was particularly fond of grammar,
and manifested a spirit of criticism that at times got him into
discussions with his teachers which disturbed their serenity of
temper. Frequently when the day for “speaking pieces” came around
he would surprise his fellow pupils with original bits of humor,
which, although intended for good-natured satires, ended more than
once in schoolboy fights. Later he walked five miles daily to attend
high school in town. At 16 he taught a country school of fifty-two
pupils, and any allusions he makes to “boarding ’round” are born of
experience. He graduated at Hillsdale College in 1869 with the degree
of A. B., and for two years devoted himself to editorial work, being
during the last of the two editor of the Detroit _Weekly Tribune_.
He then returned to Hillsdale to reside, while giving more time to
preparations for a literary life, and occasionally filling lecturing
and reading engagements.

What may properly be called Mr. Carleton’s first literary success
was a political satire entitled “Fax,” written during his junior
vacation in the summer of 1868, at Aurora, Ill., and delivered before
literary clubs during the political campaign of that year. Several
thousand copies of it were published and widely circulated. His
graduation poem, at Hillsdale, the next summer, was entitled “Rifts
in the Clouds;” afterward incorporated in “Farm Legends.” Among his
other early poems is one read on Decoration Day, 1870, entitled
“Cover Them Over,” which was copied extensively at the time, and has
since been recited on many other such occasions. The poems which
first brought him into general notice throughout the country and
abroad were his “Farm Ballads,” which having first, many of them,
appeared in _Harpers’ Weekly_ and other periodicals, were published
by Harper & Bros., in 1873. “Farm Legends” followed, in 1875; “Young
Folks’ Centennial Rhymes,” in 1876, and “Farm Festivals,” in 1881.
In 1878 he visited Europe, spending much time among the peasantry
of England, Ireland, and Scotland, and visiting the continent. The
same year he removed to Chicago, making that the center of a large
lecturing circuit, covering most of the Western States. Wherever he
went large audiences received him with cordial welcome and tokens of
approbation. In 1880 he removed to Boston, and in 1882 to Brooklyn,
N. Y., his present home, near the center of the Eastern lecture
circuit. Mr. Carleton contributes to several periodicals, lectures
from two to five evenings a week, and is meanwhile preparing another
book for the press, which will appear soon. His former volumes have
sold to the extent of over 200,000 copies, and the demand is well
maintained.


NUMBERS IN VARIOUS OCCUPATIONS.

  PARSONS, Kan.

  Give the different occupations of the American people, and numbers
  engaged in each.

  I. J. UZZELL.

_Answer._—It will take too much space to name all the occupations
designated in the United States census of 1880; the following are the
principal ones:

    In Agriculture—

  Farmers and planters                           4,225,945
  Agricultural laborers                          3,323,876
  Dairymen and dairywomen                            8,948
  Gardeners, nursery and vine-growers               51,482
  Stock-drovers                                      3,449
  Stock-herders                                     24,098
  Stock-raisers                                     16,528
  Florists                                           4,550
  All others                                        11,617
                                                 —————————
      Total in agriculture                       7,670,493

    In Manufacturing and Mining—

  Blacksmiths                                      172,726
  Boot and shoemakers                              194,079
  Butchers                                          76,241
  Cabinetmakers                                     50,654
  Carpenters and joiners                           373,143
  Carriage and wagon makers                         49,881
  Cigarmakers                                       56,599
  Cotton-mill operators                            169,771
  Engineers and firemen                             79,625
  Fishermen and oystermen                           41,352
  Glassworks operators                              17,934
  Gold and silver workers                           28,405
  Harness and saddle-makers                         39,960
  Iron and steel operatives                        114,539
  Leather-curriers, tanners, etc.                   29,842
  Lumbermen and raftsmen                            30,651
  Machinists                                       101,130
  Manufacturers                                     44,019
  Marble and stone cutters                          32,842
  Masons, brick and stone                          102,473
  Mill operatives, not specified                    30,836
  Millers                                           53,440
  Milliners, dressmakers and seamstr’ses           285,401
  Miners                                           234,228
  Painters and varnishers                          128,556
  Paper-mill operatives                             21,430
  Plasterers                                        22,083
  Plumbers and gas-fitters                          19,383
  Printers, lithographers, and stereo-typers        72,726
  Saw and planing mill operatives                   77,050
  Ship carpenters, caulkers, riggers, and smiths    17,452
  Silk mill operatives                              18,071
  Tailors and tailoresses                          133,756
  Tinners and tinware workers                       42,818
  Tobacco factory operatives                        20,446
  Wheelwrights                                      15,592
  Woolen mill operatives                            88,010
  All others in mines and factories                754,888
                                                 —————————
      Total                                      3,837,112

In Trade and Transportation—

  Clerks in stores                                 353,444
  Draymen, hackmen, and teamsters                  177,586
  Employes of railroads not clerks                 236,058
  Telegraph officials and employes                  22,809
  Sailors                                           60,070
  Salesmen and saleswomen                           72,279
  Saloon-keepers and bar-tenders, besides
    13,074 restaurant keepers                       68,461
  Traders in cigars and tobacco                     11,866
  Traders in clothing                               10,073
  Traders in coal and wood                          10,871
  Traders in drugs and medicines                    27,704
  Traders in dry goods, fancy goods, etc.           45,831
  Traders in groceries                             101,849
  Traders in iron, tin, and copper wares            15,076
  Traders in liquors and wines                      13,500
  Traders in live stock                             12,596
  Traders in lumber                                 11,263
  Traders in produce and provisions                 35,129
  Traders in real estate                            11,253
  Traders in sewing machines                         6,577
  Traders and dealers not specified                112,842
  Undertakers                                        5,113
  All others                                       387,006
                                                 —————————
      Total in trade and transportation          1,810,256

In Professional and Personal Services—

  Barbers and laundresses                           44,851
  Clergymen                                         64,698
  Dentists                                          12,314
  Domestic servants                              1,075,653
  Employes of hotels and restaurants                77,413
  Hostlers                                          31,697
  Hotel keepers                                     32,453
  Journalists                                       12,308
  Laborers not specified                         1,859,223
  Launderers and laundresses                       121,942
  Lawyers                                           64,137
  Musicians                                         30,477
  Officials of Federal and State governments        57,081
  Clerks of Federal and State governments           16,849
  Employes                                          31,401
  Physicians and surgeons                           85,671
  Soldiers of U. S. army and navy                   24,161
  Teachers and scientific persons                  227,710
  Other professions                              2,204,199
                                                 —————————
      Total in professions and transportation    4,074,238

The total number of persons in the United States reported as employed
in gainful occupations in 1880 was 17,392,099, out of a total
population of 50,155,783, being 34.68 per cent of the population
of all ages, and 47.31 per cent of the population over 10 years of
age. Of these 14,744,942 were males and 2,647,157 were females. Of
the males 825,187 were between 10 and 15 years of age, and of the
females, 293,169.


ISLANDS of THE UNITED STATES.

  BRISTOL, Ill.

  Please give the number and dimensions of the islands of the United
  States, and state their condition as to soil, water, atmosphere,
  vegetation, etc.; also, whether they are generally inhabited.

  C. S. HOPPER.

_Answer._—This is a very interesting question, or series of
questions, but the full answer would fill a volume. The coast of the
State of Michigan alone is gemmed with no fewer than 179 islands
of all sizes, from Isle Royale, which forms an entire county of
more than fifty miles in length by ten in breadth, to islets of
less than an acre in surface. Their total area aggregates 404,730
acres. In “Rand & McNally’s Atlas of the World” all the islands of
noticeable magnitude are laid down, and by this authority it appears
that Maine has 40 such islands; Massachusetts, 39; Rhode Island, 24;
Connecticut, 9; New York, 22; New Jersey, 2; Delaware, 6; Maryland,
16; Virginia, 7; North Carolina, 10; South Carolina, 10; Georgia, 11;
Florida, 79; Alabama, 4; Mississippi, 7: Louisiana, 24; Texas, 8;
Ohio, 13; Michigan, 179; Wisconsin, 31, California, 14; Washington
Territory, 26. Alaska Territory embraces more than 200 islands, many
of which are of great value as fishing stations. There are hundreds
of petty islets not located except in the charts of the United States
Coast Survey. Many of them, like the islands in the Western rivers,
are not known by names but only by numbers. But a small number of the
more important islands in the above list are inhabited; less than
100 in all. The soil is of all varieties, from the fertile fields of
Port Royal, Hilton Head, and Edisto, South Carolina, the home of the
famous “sea island cotton,” and the rich dark loam of Long Island,
New York, to the bleak rocks and barren sands of Mt. Desert, and the
arid isles on the coast of California.


PRE-EMPTION CLAIM QUERIES.

  ST. LAWRENCE, Dak.

  1. What is necessary to constitute “continuous residence” on a
  pre-emption claim? 2. What more does the law require of a single
  man to “prove up” than of the head or a family?

  SUBSCRIBER.

_Answer._—1. The courts have repeatedly decided that “the sufficiency
of residence and improvement is a question of fact to be decided
from the circumstances of each case.” In the case of _Copley_
versus _Rell_ it was ruled that “where, from the nature of the land
entered under the pre-emption law, it would appear that the claimant
has selected it for speculative purposes rather than for purposes
of improvement and cultivation, the evidences of good faith and
_occupation_ should be of the most satisfactory character.” And
again, in the case of _Porter_ versus _Johnson_, it was held that
what constitutes residence within the meaning of the law “is simply
a question of good faith, and each case must be considered upon its
own merits.” In the case of _Boyse_ versus _Goss_, it was held that
“the statute requires inhabitancy on the land pre-empted and this
means actual residence or a home.” In case of _Southern Pacific
Railroad_ versus _Newton_, it was held that “occupation and use of
land for purposes other than cultivation, etc., do not constitute a
pre-emption claim.” While the above rulings distinctly reveal the
intent of the government to exact all that is essential to actual
settlement and the maintenance of a home upon the land, there are
other rulings which indicate that the law will be construed liberally
so long as the above essentials are preserved. For example, it has
been decided that “a party while having an actual residence on his
claims, may work elsewhere for other people a few weeks at a time.”
Again, “where a party is very poor, a dug-out in the side of a hill
or a sod-house is a satisfactory residence, and four pre-emptors may
combine to erect and occupy a house on the corner common to their
claims, provided each pre-emptor resides in his own part of the
house. Should one of them be unmarried he may board in the family
of a married pre-emptor.” 2. The law makes no difference between
married and unmarried pre-emptors. In construing it, as regards what
constitutes residence, the last ruling above quoted indicates that
the government is disposed to make some allowance for the unfortunate
circumstances of a young man who has not found any girl willing to
share his dug-out sod-house or tepee and cook his corn-dodgers and
potatoes for the privileges of wifehood, including a dower interest
in the estate. Married and unmarried pre-emptors must each make a
final affidavit, declaring that they have complied with the law in
every particular, are not disqualified by owning 320 acres of land
elsewhere in any State or Territory of the United States, or by
other reasons specified, and must file pre-emptor’s proofs in the
form of sworn answers to questions furnished them on printed blanks,
which must be accompanied by sworn testimony of two witnesses, taken
separately, in the form of answers to questions stated in another
set of printed blanks prepared by the Commissioner of the General
Land Office, all designed to attest that the law as to continuous
residence, cultivation, etc., has been complied with in good faith.


A FATAL FEINT.

  PRINCETON, Ill.

  Who was the young man who when walking on the brink of Niagara
  River, some years ago, in company with his intended bride and her
  little sister, accidentally tossed the latter into the rapids, and
  perished in the effort to save her? What was the child’s name, and
  how did it all happen?

  JAMES.

_Answer._—It is related of a Mr. Addington, a son of Judge Addington,
of Buffalo, that when standing on Luna Island, just above the Falls
of Niagara, with a Miss De Forrest and her little sister, he seized
the latter playfully, and, holding her over the brink, threatened
to toss her into the river. The child, in a spasm of terror, sprang
from his arms and fell into the edge of the fatal current. Instantly
young Addington bounded after her, succeeded in seizing her, and
caught a frail bush for support. Had this held they might both have
been saved, but it gave way, and man and child were carried over the
falls. The common traditions represent that Mr. Addington and Miss
De Forrest, who was a very lovely young lady, were engaged to be
married, and that in consequence of the terrible fate of her lover
and sister she became insane. This was in 1844, or thereabouts.


TARANTULAS.

  KINGMAN, Kan.

  To settle a dispute, please give a description of the tarantula,
  and tell where it is found.

  A READER.

_Answer._—There are several varieties of tarantulas. The one from
which they all take this name, the “lycosa tarantula,” is the
largest of European spiders, named from Taranto, Italy, where they
are very numerous. Its body is from one and a half to two inches
long, ashy brown above, thorax marked with gray and abdomen with
three-cornered spots and curved streaks bordered with white, with a
patch of saffron-color below all, crossed by a black band. It has
one spiracle, or breathing aperture, on each side, one pulmonary
sac, and eight eyes. It does not spin a web to snare its prey, but
captures it by running it down, and it lives in holes lined with a
silk-like substance. Its bite is no more severe than that of some
kinds of wasps, and is certainly not nearly so dangerous to life
as it is fabled to be. The notion that its bite produced a sort of
delirium and was curable only by dancing to lively music until the
sufferer fell from sheer exhaustion was a superstition. For a good
illustration of this ugly insect see the cut accompanying the word
“tarantula” in Webster’s Unabridged Dictionary.

There is a variety of tarantula in our Southern States, called
“lycosa Carolinensis” by naturalists, which is even larger than its
European namesake, being about two inches long, and having legs
spreading at least four inches. It has whitish legs, white sides,
whitish dots and lines on the belly, and is of a mouse color on top
and black or dark colored underneath. Like the Italian tarantula, it
spins no web, takes its prey by pursuit, and lives in holes lined
with a sort of silk. It is peculiar in carrying its young on its
back, and it seldom bites.

There are certain spiders of the genus mygale in the Southwestern
States, which are sometimes improperly called tarantulas.


PERRY’S VICTORY ON LAKE ERIE.

  EVANSTON, Ill.

  Can you give us the old American naval song of 1812, in which
  perry, pear cider, is made to pun with the name of Perry, the hero
  of Lake Erie.

  A READER.

_Answer._—A correspondent, the Rev. W. P. Jones, of Mt. Morris, Ill.,
a boy at the time of that victory, recalls so much of the song as is
given below. It must be remembered that Captain Barclay commanded
the British squadron and General Proctor the British land forces in
Canada.

        Bold Barclay one day
        To Proctor did say,
    “I’m tired of Jamaica and sherry;
        Come, let us go down
        To this new floating town,
    And get some American Perry.”

Finding that the liquor flowed more freely than it was wanted, and
was too hot to suit his taste, he cries out, in the last stanza, in
his vain attempt to fly:

        “Your liquor’s too hot;
        Keep it still in the pot!
    Oh, cork your American Perry!”

But there was no such thing as corking Perry until he had captured
the entire British squadron, consisting of two ships, two schooners,
a brig, and a sloop, with all on board, including forty-one killed
and ninety-four wounded.


THE TWO U. S. CONSTITUTIONS.

  BELMONT, Iowa.

  Please point out the difference between the first Constitution of
  the United States, under which the Revolutionary war was fought,
  and the present Constitution.

  O. T. K.

_Answer._—The Articles of Confederation conferred upon Congress none
but delegated powers and recognized the absolute sovereignty of the
States. Aside from the right to make war and peace, regulate foreign
intercourse, receive and send embassadors, control the coinage of
money, and settle disputed boundaries, Congress had no power to act
without the consent of nine of the States, each casting one ballot.
It could not levy taxes, and before 1787 the war debt had destroyed
the financial reputation of the United States abroad. The States were
divided in their interests, and at the last Colonial Congress but
eight of the States sent delegates. Not the least of the weaknesses
of the confederation was the non-provision for a chief magistrate, or
for a national judiciary. To meet these needs it was found necessary
to frame a new constitution, systematically organizing a permanent
form of government. This document arranges the powers of government
under three heads—legislative, executive, and judicial—and places
the supreme power in the people of the whole country, instead of
vainly endeavoring to maintain a multitude of independent States. It
replaced a disjointed confederacy of jealous States with a Nation.


CHAPLAINS IN ARMY AND NAVY.

  GIBSON, Ill.

  How old must a man be to be ineligible to the office of chaplain in
  the United States navy? How old to be ineligible to a chaplaincy in
  the army? How many chaplaincies are there in the army and navy and
  what is the rank and pay?

  CONSTANT READER.

_Answer._—A chaplain in the navy cannot be less than 21 nor more
than 35 years of age at the time of his appointment. Limits of age
of new appointees in the army are not specified in the statute.
The President may retire a chaplain unconditionally after forty
years’ service, or after he is 62 years of age. The President is
authorized, by and with the consent of the Senate, to appoint thirty
post chaplains and a chaplain for each of the cavalry and two
infantry regiments of colored troops in the army, and not to exceed
twenty-four chaplains in the navy. The rank and pay of chaplains in
the navy are stated on page 88 of Curiosity Shop for 1882. Chaplains
in the army have the rank of captain of infantry, without command,
and are on the same footing with other officers of the army as
to terms of office, retirement, and pensions. The pay of an army
chaplain is $1,500 a year for the first five years’ service, $1,650
for the next five years, $1,800 for the next five, $1,950 for the
next five, and $2,100 after twenty years’ service. It should be borne
in mind that the duty of chaplains of colored troops and of post
chaplains includes instruction of the enlisted men in the common
English branches of education.


POSTAL-LAW QUERIES.

  NEPONSET, Ill.

  1. When were the salaries of postmasters changed from a percentage
  on stamps sold to a percentage on stamps canceled? 2. What is the
  postage on newspapers to Great Britain? 3. Can a supplement be sent
  without extra charge?

  SUBSCRIBER.

_Answer._—1. Under the postal law approved Jan. 23, 1874, the
compensation of postmasters of the first, second, and third classes
consisted of annual salaries, assigned in even hundreds of dollars,
to be ascertained and fixed by the Postmaster General from their
respective quarterly returns for four quarters immediately preceding
the adjustment or readjustment, by adding to the whole amount of
box rents, not exceeding $2,000 per annum, commissions, also not to
exceed $2,000 per annum, on the postal revenues of the office. All
postmasters whose salaries, computed by this law, did not amount to
$1,000, constituted a fourth class, whose compensation was the box
rents collected at their offices and commissions on other postal
revenues of their offices at the rate of 60 per cent on the first
$100 or less per quarter, 50 per cent on the next $300 or less,
and 40 per cent on the excess above $400 per quarter. To swell the
revenues of their offices, postmasters of the fourth-class, and some
of those of the third and second-classes, went into the large cities
and sold stamps to mercantile firms and other heavy dealers, in
some cases even sharing commissions with them. This abuse led to a
revision of the law in the act of June 17, 1878, so that commissions
should be allowed only “on stamps canceled as postages on matter
actually mailed” at the offices in question. 2. The postage on
newspapers to Great Britain and most of her colonies, the world over,
is 1 cent for every two ounces or fraction thereof. Better inquire
at postoffice for postal rates, or consult the United States Postal
Guide, which can be seen at every postoffice. 3. That depends on the
weight.


FARM AREAS AND VALUES.

  ORD, Neb.

  Oblige some of your readers by giving the cultivated area of the
  United States; the number and value of farms, farm implements,
  stock, etc. Also specify the States and Territories having over
  500,000 acres each under cultivation.

  HENRY P. MAIDEN.

_Answer._—The total number of improved acres in the United States,
according to the census of 1880, was 284,771,042, embraced in
4,008,907 farms. The value of farms, including lands, fences, and
buildings, was $10,197,096,776; value of live stock, $1,500,464,609;
cost of building and repairing fences, $77,763,473; cost of
fertilizers purchased, $28,586,397. Estimated value of all farm
productions (sold, consumed, or on hand), $2,213,402,564.

The following States and Territories had each more than 500,000 acres
under cultivation;

  Alabama         6,375,706
  Arkansas        3,595,603
  California     10,669,698
  Colorado          616,169
  Connecticut     1,642,188
  Dakota          1,150,413
  Delaware          746,958
  Florida           947,640
  Georgia         8,204,720
  Illinois       26,115,154
  Indiana        13,933,738
  Iowa           19,866,541
  Kansas         10,739,566
  Kentucky       10,731,683
  Louisiana       2,739,972
  Maine           3,484,908
  Maryland        3,342,700
  Mass’ch’setts   2,128,311
  Michigan        8,296,862
  Minnesota       7,246,693
  Mississippi     5,216,937
  Missouri       16,745,031
  Nebraska        5,504,702
  N. Hampshire    2,308,112
  New Jersey      2,096,297
  New York       17,717,862
  N. Carolina     6,481,151
  Ohio           18,081,091
  Oregon          2,198,645
  Pennsylvan’a   13,423,007
  S. Carolina     4,132,000
  Tennessee       8,496,556
  Texas          12,650,314
  Vermont         3,286,461
  Virginia        8,510,113
  W. Virginia     3,792,327
  Wisconsin       9,162,528

Illinois leads the column with nearly double the cultivated area of
the Keystone State; Iowa comes next, and Ohio, New York, Missouri,
Indiana, Pennsylvania, and Texas, in the order here given, come
trudging after. The next census will make marked changes in the above
list.


THE GOOSE HANGS HIGH.

BLUFFDALE, Ill.—Some one asks in Our Curiosity Shop as to the origin
of the saying, “All things are lovely, and the goose hangs high.”
This is it: In the autumn, during the warm, hazy days of Indian
summer the wild geese fly very high, so high that they cannot be
seen, but their cry, which is a “haunk,” is plainly heard. Therefore
it was, and is, a saying in the West, “All things are lovely, and the
goose ‘haunks’ high,” a sure indication of continued fine weather. It
is not “the goose hangs high,” which is a corruption of language, and
is, moreover, nonsense.

  S. G. R.


ARCTIC EXPLORATION.

  SHERWOOD, Wis.

  Mention all the attempts made to explore the arctic regions, and
  tell where we can find a full account of these expeditions.

  WILLIAM R. BISHOP.

_Answer._—No one work contains a full account of all the toils and
sufferings, the thrilling scenes and exciting experiences of arctic
exploration. The books and charts on this subject would make a
good-sized library. As respects the northeast passage, they include
narratives of the expeditions of Willoughby and Chancellor (English,
1553), Burroughs (English, 1556), Pet and Jackman (English, 1580),
William Barentz (Dutch, 1594-96), Henry Hudson (English, 1608, and
Dutch, 1609), Wood (Dutch, 1676). Behring (Russian, 1741), Shalaroff
(Russian), who with his crew perished of starvation, Wiggans
(English, 1784), Billings (Russian, 1787), and finally, Professor
Adolf Eric Nordenskjold (Swedish), who, after two other expeditions
(severally in 1875 and 1876), in 1878-9 succeeded in sailing from
the North Atlantic eastward, through the Arctic Ocean and Behring
Straits, into the Pacific, thus triumphantly completing the discovery
of the “northeast passage.”

The search for the “northwest passage” has engaged nearly two hundred
and fifty expeditions, of various nationalities. It would be useless
to enumerate them all. The first attempts were made by Sebastian
Cabot (English, 1498), and Martin Frobisher (English, 1576); Captain
John Davis, after whom Davis’ Strait is named (English, 1585-88);
Henry Hudson, after whom Hudson’s Bay is named (English, 1610);
Button (English, 1615), and Bylot and Baffin, after the latter of
whom Baffin’s Bay takes its name (English, 1615-16). Little more
in the way of discovery in this direction was realized, although
occasional attempts were made by Jens Munk, a Danish navigator, Fox,
James, and others, until 1818, when Ross and Parry, under direction
and support of the British Admiralty, entered upon a series of
expeditions extending over more than a decade, by which a large
addition was made to the knowledge of the geography of this region
as far west as long 110 deg west, in Melville Sound, and north to
latitude 82 deg. 45 min., and the magnetic pole was discovered.
Dease, Simpson, Dr. John Rae, and other explorers followed. Then
in 1845, came the memorable expedition of Sir John Franklin, whose
party perished to the last man, but not until they had left records,
since recovered, of discoveries showing that Sir John, had he been
spared to return, was prepared to claim the honor of discovering
the northwest passage. But as these records were not discovered by
McClintock’s expedition (English) until 1859, and McClure (English),
who went out via Behring’s Straits in search of Franklin in 1850,
returned in 1852, after having brought his ship to Melville Island
and his ship’s crew through from Behring’s Straits to Baffin’s Bay,
had already received the award for the discovery of this long-sought
passage. Besides the above, which are only the principal British
expeditions, there are the American ones, under Dr. De Haven, 1850;
Dr. Kane, 1853; Dr. Hayes, 1861; and Captain Hall, 1860, 1864, and
1870, full of interest, and resulting in important geographical and
scientific discoveries; the Austrian Arctic Expedition of 1872-74,
resulting in the discovery of Franz Joseph Land; the British
Expedition, under Captain Nares, 1875-76; the Jeannette Expedition of
1879-80, which resulted in the melancholy death of Captain De Long
and so many of his companions by starvation. Written and illustrated
accounts of nearly all the above explorations have been published,
and many of them can be found in the catalogues of the leading
American publishing houses.


THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE.

  ZANESVILLE, Ohio.

  When was the Declaration of Independence first proposed, and when
  was it finally adopted? Give the hour in the day as nearly as you
  can, the order of proceedings, and the scenes that followed.

  GEORGE M. HOFFMAN.

_Answer._—That enthusiastic little rebel, Rhode Island, was the
first of the colonies to declare itself “free from all dependence
on the crown of Great Britain.” This she did on May 4, 1776. The
Assembly of Virginia in the same month instructed her delegates
to the Continental Congress to present to that body a proposition
“affirming the independence of the colonies from Great Britain.” In
compliance with these instructions Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia, on
June 7, 1776, introduced his famous resolutions: “That these united
colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States;
that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown; and
that all political connection between them and the State of Great
Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved. That it is expedient
forthwith to take the most effectual measures for forming foreign
alliances. That a plan of confederation be prepared and transmitted
to the respective colonies for their consideration and approbation.”
John Adams seconded these resolutions, and an animated discussion
ensued. On June 8 a committee, consisting of Thomas Jefferson, John
Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert R. Livingston,
was appointed to draw up a declaration of independence embodying
the sense of Lee’s resolutions. On July 2 Lee’s resolutions were
passed by the vote of twelve of the thirteen colonies, the New York
delegates refraining from voting for want of instructions from their
province. On July 3 the formal declaration, almost precisely as
written by Thomas Jefferson, was presented by the committee above
named, and was debated with great spirit, John Adams being the chief
speaker on the part of the committee. The discussion was resumed on
the morning of the 4th, and at 2 o’clock in the afternoon, after one
or two slight modifications, it was adopted. The announcement was
hailed with the liveliest enthusiasm. “Ring! ring!” shouted the lad
stationed below to give the signal to the old bellman in the State
House tower; and he did ring until the whole city shouted for joy.
The King’s arms were wrenched from the Court House and burned in
the streets; bonfires were lighted, the city illuminated, and the
exultation was prolonged far into the night. In New York City the
populace hurled the leaden statue of George III. from its pedestal
and molded it into bullets, and in all the great cities similar
demonstrations of enthusiasm were exhibited. Washington had the
declaration read at the head of every brigade of the army, and the
soldiers pledged fealty to the cause of independence.


INVENTOR OF THE LIFE-BOAT.

  JOLIET, Ill.

  Who invented the life-boat, and when did he do it?

  JAMES.

_Answer._—It is not easy to determine this question. Many writers
give the credit to Mr. Henry Greathead, of Shields, Eng.; others give
it to Lionel Lukin, a coach-builder, of London; others to William
Wouldhave, parish clerk of St. Hilda’s Church, South Shields, Eng.
Now that the Royal National Life-boat Institution of Great Britain
alone has 271 life-boats in its service, and more than 900 lives
annually, on the average, are saved, mainly by these boats, when
the life-saving institutions of other countries are using them with
most gratifying results, it is not strange that the honor of this
invention is zealously contested. The facts seem to be these: The
first patent for a life-boat was granted in England, in 1785, to
Lionel Lukin. It was not satisfactory for several reasons, but was
improved by Admiral Graves, of the Royal Navy, and Henry Greathead, a
boatbuilder of Shields. This was improved by George Palmer, a member
of the National Life-boat Institution, and remained the favorite boat
in the service until 1851, when in response to the offer by the Duke
of Northumberland of a prize of 100 guineas, about 100 models of
improved life-boats were exhibited, and the prize was awarded to Mr.
James Beeching, of Yarmouth. This boat, improved by Mr. R. Peake, of
the Royal Dockyard, Woolwich, was adopted by the National Life-boat
Institution, and is still its favorite model. Undoubtedly Greathead
has received more credit for this invention than any one else. He
received the gold medals of the Society of Arts and the Royal Humane
Society. He received £1,200 from Parliament in 1802, and a purse of
100 guineas from Lloyd’s. He obtained patents and honorable awards
in foreign countries and made large sums by furnishing boats for
life-saving service for Great Britain and other lands. Nevertheless,
the honor of inventing the self-righting life-boat is strenuously
claimed for William Wouldhave, particularly by his fellow-townsmen
and parishioners of South Shields. The story is that soon after a
wreck, accompanied with a terrible loss of life, which occurred at
Tynemouth in September, 1789, Mr. Wouldhave noticed a wooden dish
floating on the surface of a well, which, on being accidentally
struck by his finger, when he was assisting a woman to raise a skeel
of water, turned bottom upward, and instantly righted itself again.
Capsizing it again several times, he noted that it always righted
itself. He discovered the self-righting principle then and there, and
soon after made a model life-boat of tin, which he offered to exhibit
to the ship-owners and mariners of South Shields as a suitable boat
for rescuing persons from wrecks. The affair was greatly talked
about, and a committee consisting of gentlemen connected with the
merchant marine was appointed to test the model and any others
that might be offered for inspection. Greathead, the boatbuilder
above mentioned, exhibited a model at this time, and upon testing
the merits of the boats Wouldhave’s proved to be self-righting and
unsinkable by any water it might ship. Greathead’s model failed in
these respects, though in others it was pronounced a good sea-boat.
Mr. Greathead, however, was what Mr. Wouldhave was not, a shrewd
business man. He made improvements in his model, adopting some of the
features of Lukin’s patent above mentioned and some of Wouldhave’s,
and it was not long before he had introduced it into actual service,
not only in Great Britain, but elsewhere. Hence his name has become
famous as the inventor of the life-boat, while Wouldhave’s name was
known to few but his townsmen as the actual and original inventor.
The first model made by Wouldhave is now in the Free Library Museum
at South Shields. His tombstone, in St. Hilda’s Church-yard, bears a
life-boat carved on it, and above the gaselier in the church a model
life-boat is suspended in memory of him.


“BULLS” AND “BEARS.”

  JONESBORO, Ark.

  Explain how “bulls” and “bears” operate to affect the prices of
  stocks and provisions.

  S. W. MOREHEAD.

_Answer._—The means used to “bull” and “bear,” or raise and depress,
the prices of stocks, grain, provisions, etc., are innumerable,
varying with the needs of the times, but influenced much more by
the combinations of capitalists and brokers. The “bulls” magnify
every circumstance favorable to the appreciation of the stocks they
hold or have agreed to take at a given time, while those who have
contracted to deliver such stocks, or who for any reason wish to buy,
do all in their power to depreciate them, and are therefore nicknamed
“bears.” Any one who has ever witnessed a bull and bear fight will
not question the appropriateness of these terms as applied to the
combatants in the exciting wars among the kings of the stock board.
The bulls struggle to toss the stocks higher; the bears squeeze and
tug to force the prices down. The former resort to all kinds of
expedients to induce small holders to cling fast to their stocks
instead of putting them on the market. They persuade them by direct
appeals, or by circulating encouraging reports, that these stocks
are bound to rise rapidly in value; and they often combine to buy
up the stock of the few who persist in selling, so as to “corner”
the market. Not content with fair means, they sometimes enter into
combinations with one another, and employ third parties to buy and
sell stocks of the same description on ’Change, in such a way as to
create the impression that there is a greater demand for them than
there really is, when in fact the sales are never consummated, or
merely amount to an exchange among themselves. Often, when neither
the foreign nor home news was favorable to their purposes, false
reports have been telegraphed through the country by interested
parties, to affect the stock board. Similar methods are pursued on
boards of trade.


ORIGIN OF POSTOFFICES.

  WAUKESHA, Wis.

  What country first established a postal system for transmitting the
  mail? When was postal communication established in America? Give us
  a few facts on this subject.

  J. J. S.

_Answer._—Couriers for carrying royal or government dispatches
are mentioned in histories of the earliest times. Royal posts
existed in Assyria, Persia, Greece, and Rome. The name postoffice
originated in the posts, or stations, at intervals along the roads
of the Roman Empire, where couriers were kept in readiness to start
on the instant. But such posts were not used for transmitting
private letters. The first postal system for commercial and private
correspondence appears to have been established between the Hanse
Towns early in the thirteenth century. In the reign of the Emperor
Maximilian I., of Germany, letter posts were established by the
Princes of Thurn and Taxis, connecting the chief cities of Austria
and Lombardy, and later, 1516, the same princes connected Vienna
and Brussels in the same way. Maximilian’s successor, Charles V.,
encouraged still further extension of this private postal system by
repeated enfeoffments or special franchises, until all the great
commercial centers of his vast empire, from Vienna to Madrid,
from the Adriatic to the North Sea, and intervening places, were
brought into regular postal communication. Far back in the twelfth
century the University of Paris, whose students, gathered from
all civilized nations, numbered not long after this over 25,000,
employed foot-runners to carry letters for its members to all parts
of Europe. But not until 1524 was permission granted to the royal
French posts to carry other letters than those for the government and
the nobility. London merchants established a postal communication of
their own with France and other continental countries as early as the
fifteenth century, and it is evident that, although the royal post of
England established in the thirteenth century was intended and long
restricted to the transmission of government dispatches only, it had
gradually become a vehicle for private correspondence. In 1581 Thomas
Randolph was appointed the “Chief Postmaster” for England, with
authority to establish and supervise post-houses and regulate the
fees charged by postmen, but apparently without authority to receive
and handle mail matter, which was left largely to the discretion of
the postmen themselves. Not until the time of James I. of England
was a postmaster for foreign parts appointed, and steps taken by the
government to establish regular running posts, going day and night,
for the transmission of letters for the general public. In 1635 such
a mail was established to run weekly between London and Edinburgh,
and soon eight other lines were instituted.

In this country, Massachusetts provided by legislation for the postal
system as early as 1639, and Virginia in 1657. A monthly post between
Boston and New York was instituted in 1672. In the beginning, letters
arriving in this country from beyond the seas were delivered on
board the ship. Letters not called for were left by the captain at
a coffee-house near the wharf, where they were spread on a table or
shelf, awaiting call. Persons calling not only took charge of their
own letters, but of those of acquaintances in their neighborhood,
either delivering them in person or leaving them at the minister’s
or some magistrate’s office to be inquired for, or announced in
church. These coffee-houses gradually grew into common use for
letters between cities and the interiors, until regular posts were
instituted. One of the first acts of the Continental Congress was the
establishment of a general postoffice department, and the appointment
of Benjamin Franklin, who had enjoyed large experience in the British
colonial postal service, as the first Postmaster General.


FINANCIAL CONDITION OF FRANCE.

  HAMILTON, N. M.

  What is the financial condition of France as compared with other
  European countries? Is she prepared to cope with Great Britain in
  case of a war between them?

  E. L. EASDALE.

_Answer._—France is carrying a larger national debt than any
other nation. It amounted at the close of the fiscal year 1882 to
$4,683,840,000—nearly a billion dollars more than that of Great
Britain. Besides this, like our own States and minor political
divisions, the departments and municipalities of France are carrying
local debts amounting in the aggregate to an immense sum. The debt
of Paris in September, 1880, was 2,295,000,000 francs, or about
$450,000,000. The national debt is well distributed among the
people, there being in 1881 as many as 4,617,900 holders, receiving
851,909,901 francs annually for interest. So long as this interest,
or “rente,” is paid promptly these holders are, for the most part,
content with the government; but should the latter plunge the country
into a costly war, rendering it necessary to suspend payment of the
interest, and jeopardizing resumption of such payments, a popular
revolution would in all probability ensue. This enormous national
debt will indisputably prove a source of weakness to the government
and the nation In the event of a foreign war. The imperial debt of
Germany in 1882 was only $120,197,528. Add to this the debt proper
of Prussia, $493,821,812, and that of the other constituent states
of the empire, $735,608,892, and the total was $1,349,728,232. The
imperial debt of Austro-Hungary the same year was $1,107,978,118,
which, added to the Austrian debt proper, $176,914,016, and the
Hungarian debt proper, $400,532,142, made a total of $1,685,424,276.
The public debt of Italy in 1882 was $2,042,000,000; of Spain,
$1,826,613,093; of Great Britain, $3,814,500,000; of Russia,
$4,314,607,500; of the United States, $1,918,312,294.

Undoubtedly the industrial condition of France is better than that
of any other European country, except Great Britain, Belgium, and
Holland. The French people have been accumulating wealth at a
remarkable rate since the Franco-German war, and in this respect
France is stronger than her great continental neighbors.

The following table, compiled from Mulhall’s “Balance Sheet of
the World,” shows the estimated capital or wealth of a few of the
principal nations of Europe in 1880:

  Nations—         Total wealth.

  Great Britain   $44,800,000,000
  France           37,085,000,000
  Germany          30,375,000,000
  Russia           17,700,000,000
  Austria          15,250,000,000
  Italy             9,300,000,000
  Spain             6,865,000,000
  Holland           5,650,000,000


The next table gives the per capita, or rate of wealth for each
inhabitant, less the per capita of the public debt:

                    Per capita of
  Nations—               wealth.

  Great Britain            $1,185
  France                      900
  Germany                     650
  Russia                      180
  Austria                     335
  Italy                       235
  Spain                       255
  Holland                   1,310

So much for the financial condition of France. As regards her ability
to cope with England in the event of war, it is largely a matter of
opinion. One hazards little in predicting that, if her people stand
united, France is almost impregnable at home to any assault from
Great Britain. So is the latter against any attack from the former,
except in Ireland. On the sea England’s navy is far more than a match
for that of France, whom she would easily strip of all her colonial
possessions; but France, with a few Alabamas, could quite as easily
drive Great Britain’s merchant marine from the high seas, and injure
her commerce even more than the Confederates did ours during the
recent rebellion.


BAROMETRICAL QUERIES.

  WILBER, Kan.

  1. What causes the mercury to sink in a barometer before a
  storm? 2. How do persons foretell the state of the weather from
  the movements of the barometer? 3. How far ahead can storms be
  predicted?

  F. J. ELLIOTT.

_Answer._—The sinking of the mercury in the tube of a barometer is
due to the lightness of the atmosphere, which is indicative, in most
cases, of humidity, or aqueous vapor, in the air. The construction
of a mercurial barometer may be stated in a few words. A glass tube,
about 33 inches in length, open at one end, is filled with mercury,
and while the unsealed end is covered, is inverted in a basin of
mercury. As soon as the cover is removed the mercury in the tube
will flow out until it stands about thirty inches above the mercury
in the basin. At that point the pressure of the air upon the liquid
in the basin is equal to the pressure of the liquid in the tube (the
space in the upper part of the tube being a vacuum) and the flow
ceases. When the air becomes heavier its pressure upon the basin
will be greater and force the mercury in the tube higher; if the air
becomes lighter the mercury in the tube will sink. The barometer
therefore shows directly only the weight of the atmosphere, but
thereby indirectly the future state of the weather is indicated. 2.
This is explained in “Our Curiosity Shop” for 1881, pages 144-5.
3. How far ahead the changes of weather can be predicted depends
upon so many other considerations besides that of the mere weight
of the atmosphere, varying in different seasons of the year and
different localities, that no answer suited to all can be given.
In some instances storms have been predicted from observations of
the barometer alone as much as thirty-six to forty hours before
their arrival. The United States Signal Service bases its weather
predictions not only on barometric phenomena, but on telegraphic
reports from a multitude of stations of the temperature, humidity,
clouds, direction, force and rate of motion of the winds, etc. In
some cases it has given notice of storms starting in the Rocky
Mountains and traveling eastward sixty hours before their arrival on
the Atlantic seaboard.


EXEMPTIONS OF PRE-EMPTIONS AND HOMESTEADS.

  PLANKINGTON, D. T.

  Can a judgment rendered in Iowa eight or ten years ago attach to
  a pre-emption after the latter is proved and title taken from the
  government?

  C. P. WILTON.

_Answer._—It is expressly declared in the homestead law that “no
lands acquired under the provisions of this chapter shall in any
event become liable to the satisfaction of any debt contracted prior
to the issuing of the patent therefor.” There is no such provision
in the pre-emption law. Lands acquired under the latter law are
protected from previous judgments only by the State or Territorial
homestead and exemption laws.


BEST PEDESTRIAN RECORD FOR 100 MILES.

  OREGON. Ill.

  Oblige a reader and settle a dispute by stating whether 100 miles
  has ever been made by any walker or runner in a day of ten hours.
  Also give the quickest time for 100 miles, walking, and the same
  distance running.

  H. W. FARAGHER.

_Answer._—The best record for 100 miles walking, in this country,
is 18 hours, 53 minutes, 4 seconds, by D. O’Leary, of Chicago; the
best in England is 18 hours, 8 minutes, 15 seconds, by William Howes,
London. The best record for 100 miles running, in this country, is 13
hours, 26 minutes, 30 seconds; the best in England is 13 hours, 47
minutes, and 50 seconds.


AGASSIZ, THE NATURALIST.

  SPENCER, Iowa.

  Please give a biographical sketch of Professor Agassiz.

  R. A. COATS.

_Answer._—Louis John Rudolf Agassiz, the son of a Swiss Protestant
clergyman, was born near Lake Neuchatel, May 28, 1807. After
completing his academical course, he studied medicine at Zurich,
Heidelberg, and Munich, preparatory to becoming a physician.
Meanwhile Spix and Martins had returned from Brazil with a valuable
collection of fossil fishes; and when, in 1826, the death of Spix
made it necessary to select some one to continue the classification
of his specimens, the choice fell upon Agassiz, who had already shown
great ability in zoological research. Thus suddenly, at the age
of 18, he began what was to be his life-long study. His next work
was the study of the fresh water fishes of Central Europe, of which
he published a history in 1839. In 1834 he paid his first visit to
England, drawn thither by the tempting field of investigation in the
fossils of the Devonian rocks. At about this time Agassiz commenced a
new classification of fishes, based upon the character of the skin.
Four years later he accepted a professorship at Neuchatel; and while
there published his works on “Fishes of Central Europe.” “Mollusca,”
and “Glaciers.” The last named work was the result of his study with
Charpentier, during the year 1840. In 1847 he came to the United
States, and became Professor of Zoology and Geology in Harvard.
His life in this country was characterized by increased vigor as a
writer. Failing health made a change of climate necessary in 1865,
and with his wife and a company of assistants he visited Brazil.
Later he explored the Southern Atlantic and Pacific shores of North
America, gathering much valuable material for future study. His last
great work was the establishment of a school for the study of marine
zoology, on the island of Penikese, the gift of Mr. John Anderson,
of New York, who also donated $50,000 as a permanent endowment.
Professor Agassiz’s death occurred Dec. 14, 1873.


POSTMASTERS GENERAL AND THE CABINET.

  FAIRBURY, Ill.

  State who was the first Postmaster General of the United States,
  and who was the first Postmaster General admitted to a seat in the
  Cabinet.

  E. E. MCDOWELL.

_Answer._—From the organization of the Federal Government down
to the year 1829, the Postmasters General were not recognized as
members of the Cabinet. The first Postmaster General under the
present Constitution was Samuel Osgood, of Massachusetts, appointed
by President Washington, Sept. 26, 1789. He was regarded as the head
of a bureau. On the accession of President Jackson he nominated
William T. Barry, of Kentucky, to the office of Postmaster General,
and invited him to a seat in the Cabinet, since when the head of the
Postoffice Department has been considered a member of the Cabinet


TO DISTINGUISH SEX OF FOWLS.

  KEARNEY, Neb.

  Is it possible to distinguish the sex of fowls by the noises they
  make?

  SUBSCRIBER.

_Answer._—An experienced poultry-raiser gives the following rules,
which he says a close observer can soon learn to apply without
mistake: The drake wheezes, the duck quacks. The Guinea cock and hen
both have a peculiar, disagreeable chatter, but the hen sometimes
says “buckwheat” or “go back” which the cock never does. The peacock
can be distinguished, even when only a few months old, by the foxy
red pinion feathers of his wings. In the case of turkeys, the
breastbone of the cock is turned out at the front point, while that
of the hen is straight. As to geese, the gabble of the common, the
Embden and the Toulouse ganders is faster, finer, and higher than
that of the goose, which is a slow, low bass; and the screech of
the gander is fine, loud, and clear, while that of the goose is a
rough bass. Both gander and goose of the English gray geese have a
coarse screech and gabble, but the screech of the goose is lazy and
seems to be partly broken, making two sounds, while the gander gives
one clear, loud screech without any break in it. The screech of the
African gander is loud and hoarse, while that of the goose is clear
and stops abruptly, as if bitten off at the end. The Chinese gander
gives one loud, clear screech, but that of the goose seems to be
broken, making two different sounds, as if the first were made by
forcing her breath out and the other by drawing it back.


INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE.

  ST. PAUL, Minn.

  What is meant by “an international date line?”

  CONSTANT READER.

_Answer._—Every person traveling around the world from west to east,
with his watch or chronometer set to the time of the place at which
he started, will note that the sun comes to his meridian, or noon,
four minutes earlier than his chronometer time for every degree
passed over, one hour for every 15 degrees, and twenty-four hours for
360 degrees, the total circuit of the earth. In other words, every
one who completes such a journey gains a day, and to dispose of this
superfluous day so as to make his reckoning correspond with that of
his starting place, he must call the day on which he gets back (or
on which he passes some certain point or meridian line) and the next
following day of the week and month by the same name and date; thus
having two Mondays, for example, together. On the other hand, every
person traveling from east to west loses a day in making a complete
circuit of the earth, and to correct his calendar must skip one day
of some week.

Suppose it were universally agreed that this correction of the
navigator’s reckoning should be made at the 180th degree of
longitude west and east from Greenwich, Eng., then this would be
the international date line. Unfortunately, now, there is no such
universally accepted line, although most merchant vessels of all
nations do make the correction at the meridian above named. So it
often happens that sailors in the Pacific Ocean, because their
vessels reach the 180th meridian coming eastward on Sunday enjoy
two Sundays together, and going westward have two weeks without any
intervening Sunday. It has been proposed to fix by international
agreement upon this or some other line for this correction of
dates so as to make all ship calendars agree, but thus far a silly
national pride and other insufficient reasons have prevented such an
agreement. The meridian of Rome, as the center from which Christian
civilization was disseminated both towards the East and West, has
been proposed by some. It has the advantage of being nearly upon
the meridian of the most of the great observatories of Europe—those
of Modena, Verona, Naples, Palermo, Padua, Venice, Munich, Leipsic,
Prague, Berlin, Gotha, Copenhagen, Uraniburg, and Christiana. This
would locate the 180th degree of longitude in Behring Straits.

If such a line could be determined, and local calendars the world
over be made to correspond, it would dispose of such absurdities in
reckoning as exist now, when it is a fact that during five hours of
every day there are three different dates in use in different parts
of the world. For example: From 5:10 o’clock a. m. to 10:10 o’clock
a. m. of to-day, Sept. 17, 1883, at Chicago, the inhabitants of the
Navigator Islands, in the Pacific, are in the early part of their
Sept. 18, while those of the Philippine Islands, about sixty degrees
further west, adhering to their old calendar, are finishing Sept.
16. That is to say, from the time any given day of the week and
month begins at the earliest place of reckoning to the time it ends
at the latest place is about fifty-three hours. This is accounted
for by the fact that places discovered and receiving civilization by
Eastern communication from Europe, and those receiving it by Western
communication, took their dates from opposite directions without
allowing for the day lost in circumnavigating the globe in the one
direction and the day gained in circumnavigating it in the other. The
Philippine Islands were discovered by Magellan, sailing westward, and
conquered by a Spanish expedition dispatched from the west coast of
Mexico, which accounts for the use there of a dating later by a day
than that of the neighboring island of Hong Kong, on the China coast,
and the Japanese islands; in fact, the latest dating of any place on
the globe.


CERTAIN RIGHTS OF MARRIED WOMEN.

  FORT WORTH, Texas.

  Is there any State in the Union where a man is not compelled to
  divide his property with his wife in case they separate? 2. What is
  the proper pronunciation of “dude?”

  E. G. HOWARD.

_Answer._—All States, except California and Indiana, give the wife
a dower right in her husband’s property. In case of voluntary
separation, she may agree to waive a part, or all, of her right; or
the husband may concede more than her dower right, and in case the
agreement is reduced to writing and properly acknowledged, it is
binding upon both parties, the separation being in other respects
in conformity with law. In case of a divorce for the wife’s fault,
she loses her dower right. If it is for the husband’s fault, the
court will maintain her dower rights and also award her alimony
proportioned to her husband’s income, to be paid by him at stated
periods. 2. Pronounce it dood.


QUERIES ABOUT NEBRASKA.

  TABOR, Iowa,

  Please inform one of your readers what portion of Nebraska is
  open to homesteaders. Please give some facts in regard to water
  and drought. I am told there are valuable lands, well watered,
  in Custer County. Any facts concerning the lands of Central and
  Western Nebraska will be gladly received.

  HOME-SEEKER.

_Answer._—Most of Nebraska between Ft. Kearney and the western State
line is open to homesteaders, but perhaps the greatest immigration
at this time is to the Niobrara Valley. The Platte Valley is also
very fertile. The agricultural country extends 180 miles west of the
Missouri River, and produces great harvests of grain, flax, hemp,
and all vegetables: while south of latitude 42 degrees the common
small fruits grow in abundance. When Central Kansas and Nebraska
are settled, what is now generally regarded as the “great corn
belt” will be under cultivation. The portion of the State devoted
to grazing comprises 23,000,000 acres, generally well watered, with
Ogallala as a center. Except in the valleys, the water lies from
100 to 200 feet below the surface of the ground, and is obtained
by boring. The sandy tracts are subject to drought, but where the
subsoil is dry clay the ground is usually moist. Custer County is
settling rapidly, although it has the reputation of being sandy, and
adapted for the most part only to grazing. The mean temperature of
the State is in winter from 22 to 30 degrees, and in summer from 70
to 74 degrees. The rainfall (greatest in May and June) averages about
thirty inches in all but the extreme northwestern corner of the State.


FEUDALISM.

  TOLONO, Ill.

  Please give the definition of feudalism?

  H. B. HASKELL.

_Answer._—Feudalism is the state of society in which all landed
property is considered as belonging to the crown. It is apportioned
by the Kings to the nobles, as feudatories, upon condition that
they render annually a certain amount of military service. These
proprietors may, in turn, partition their lands to sub-tenants in
consideration of like military service.

Feudal proprietors at first held their lands from a superior for
life; later as an inheritance. The great feudatories lived in
fortified castles, surrounded by villages of peasants who tilled
their lands. In all matters of jurisprudence they exercised supreme
authority over their dependents. To other feudatory lords each might
stand in the relation of friend or foe, though he met with them as
peers in the periodical councils of the realm. Among the services
required from their dependents or vassals, were military service,
when called upon, contribution toward the expenses of war, toward
ransom of their lord if taken captive, toward marriage expenses of
his son, and dowry of his daughter.


ADELINA PATTI.

  KANKAKEE, ILL.

  Decide whether Adelina Patti is a native of this country, and
  settle a dispute. Also, please tell her true maiden name and the
  main facts of her life.

  Cymbeline.

_Answer._—Adelina Patti’s real name before her marriage was Adele
Juana Maria Patti. She is a native of Spain, being born at Madrid
April 9, 1843. She inherited her talent to some degree from her
mother, Mme. Barilli Patti, a prima donna of no mean reputation. It
is stated that she sang “Norma” at the Grand Theater, Madrid, on the
evening before Adele’s birth, and, as she lost much of the power and
sweetness of her voice after that event, she always maintained that
it had gone from her into the child. Adele has been claimed as an
American, because the family came to this country the next year after
her birth, and her brilliant fame dawned upon her in New York City.
At the age of 9 she made her first appearance before the public, and
made the tour of Canada with Strakosch and Ole Bull. She made her
debut in New York City March 3, 1854, at Paul Jullien’s concert, in
the City Assembly rooms. Then she accompanied Gottschalk, the great
pianist, to the West Indies. It was at this time that she sung in
costume with Signor Barilli at Havana the duet in the “Barber of
Seville” with such effect that the audience became excited to such a
pitch and clamored so wildly for her to reappear that she ran away in
a fright, and nothing could persuade her to return. Returning to New
York she was more popular than ever. It was in November of 1859 that
the managers of the Academy of Music, New York, after a long period
of unprofitable engagements which threatened to end in financial
ruin, brought forward Adelina Patti as Lucia. The result was an
immense success. From that time she was the pet of the metropolis.

She made her debut in London as Amina in “La Somnambula” in 1861. In
England and on the Continent she soon won her way to the first rank
among prima donnas. Devotees of the opera, of all ranks, showered
favors upon her. The Emperor of Russia, in 1870, conferred on her
the Order of Merit. Her voice is an unusually high soprano of
rich, bell-like quality, and remarkable evenness of tone, to which
qualities she adds purity of style and high artistic finish. Equally
at home in the tenderness of deep passion and the sprightly vivacity
of light comedy, she has also sung with success in oratorio. She was
married in London July 29, 1868, to the Marquis de Caux, an almost
impecunious scion of the old French nobility. It was an unhappy
alliance and has ended in a divorce granted by the French courts to
the Marquis, in 1876. According to French law she is not entitled to
marry, but, nevertheless, she now claims to be legally married to
Nicolini.


VOTING—RIGHTS AND RESTRICTIONS.

  MOUND, La.

  1. Are there not States where citizens over 21 years of age are
  not permitted to vote without a property qualification? 2. If so,
  has the representation of such States in Congress been reduced
  in proportion, as would seem to be required by the United States
  Constitution? 3. Do the peeresses entitled to seats in the English
  House of Lords ever occupy them and vote as members of that body?

  W. R. JOHNSTON.

_Answer._—1. Yes, and we gave their names in these columns recently.
Rhode Island is the most exacting one of them. 2. No. 3. Yes.


COLUMBIA RIVER.

  ONARGA, Ill.

  To settle a dispute, please state the precise place where the
  Columbia River rises. Also give its length, and tell how far it is
  navigable.

  HUGH E. SUTTON.

_Answer._—The Columbia River rises in a trivial lake on the Western
slope of the Rocky Mountains, in latitude 50 deg. 31 min. north, and
longitude 116 deg. west of Greenwich. It is a swift, tortuous stream,
cutting its way through many wild, deep gorges, or canons, and
obstructed by numerous rapids and falls, until it reaches the foot of
the Cascades, a series of rapids where it makes its way through the
Cascade Mountains. Here the scene on either hand is most impressive,
rising in places to the height of sublimity. From where the Clarke
River fork enters to the sea the Columbia forms the boundary between
Oregon and Washington Territory. Its total length is variously
estimated, the best authorities making it between 1,400 and 1,450
miles. It is navigable for sea-going vessels of 300 tons burden to
the head of tide water, at the foot of the Cascades, 160 miles, and
steamboats ply on it above this, both below and above the narrow
known as the Dalles, in all 485 miles more.


THE POET LOWELL.

  POPLAR CREEK, Ill.

  Please give an account of the life of James Russell Lowell.

  H. L. WILSON.

_Answer._—During the war with Mexico there appeared a series of
humorous poems by Hosea Biglow, aimed against the war and slavery,
which made not a little stir, not only in literary circles but in
all classes of society. The real author was James Russell Lowell, a
native of Boston, and already known as a poet through his “Legend
of Brittany,” published in 1844. In 1854 he succeeded Longfellow
as Professor of Modern Languages at Harvard. During 1857-62 he was
editor of the “Atlantic Monthly,” and 1863-72 of the “North American
Review.” In 1869 he published a volume of poems and in 1870 a
second volume, followed in 1871 by “My Study Windows.” Four years
ago he became United States Minister to the Court of St. James. In
literature Mr. Lowell has attained to well-deserved distinction on
both sides of the Atlantic, and as a diplomatist he has acquitted
himself with honor.


HALLOWEEN.

  LANSING, Mich.

  Give the origin and history of Halloween and describe some of the
  sports.

  A READER.

_Answer._—For the origin and history of Halloween see Our Curiosity
Shop for 1880, page 31. Some of the most common of the sports
connected with it are these: If you go down the cellar stairs
backwards or into a dark room, holding a lighted candle in one hand
and a looking-glass in the other, the face of your “destiny” will
appear over your left shoulder. Walk around the house three times
with a broom over your right shoulder, and you will see the same
person, or go down cellar backwards combing your hair and carrying
a candle. These things must be done at exactly midnight. Let some
one of a company “name” a number of apples, and drop them in a
pail of water. Let each of the others try to take one out with the
teeth alone, and so decide his or her fate. For other sports and
superstitions associated with Halloween see “Chambers’ Book of Days.”


MARINE HISTORY—“OLD-TIMERS.”

  FRANKFORT, Mich.

In answer to H. H. H., of Chicago, who asks in Our Curiosity Shop
which is the oldest lake craft now in service, I will say: The
oldest lake craft now in service is said to be the Racine, built at
Cleveland in 1844; the next is Genesee Chief, 1846. Among some of the
other old-timers still in service are the barge Seminole, 38 years
old; Pilgrim, 35 years; Two Brothers, 37 years; Reindeer, 35 years;
schooners Arcturus, 30 years; Cascade, 30 years; Elbe, 30 years;
Sonora, 29 years; Clipper City, 29 years; Vermont, 30 years; Pilot,
35 years; Harriet Ross, age unknown. The oldest American vessel
now coasting on the ocean is the bark Amethyst, built in 1822. The
following will prove of interest to old Chicagoans, who will no
doubt recollect the circumstances: The first craft built in Chicago
was the sloop Clarisa, 1836; the first steamboats, James Allen, 213
tons; G. W. Dole, 162 tons burden, built in 1838. The first sail
arrival at Chicago was the schooner General Tracy, from Detroit,
in 1803. The first steamer arrival was the Superior, with United
States troops, in 1832. The first tugboat in Chicago harbor was the
Archimedes, a side-wheeler, exploded in 1852. The schooner Illinois
was the first sail craft to enter the Chicago River over the bar,
July 14, 1834. The schooners La-Grange, United States, Oregon, and
Illinois were some of the pioneer packet vessels sailing between
Buffalo and Chicago in 1830, carrying passengers and freight. The
little steamer called Chicago plied on the river, and in 1836 carried
the Governor and party up to Bridgeport, where the first shovelful of
sand was dug for the canal.

In connection with the above, to show what a vessel can do in her
time, I will mention as an example: The old packet ship Great
Western, built over forty years ago, plying between New York and
Liverpool, 1,800 tons burden. This vessel sailed twenty-nine years in
the packet line without losing one of her crew; also during 116 trips
she never lost a sail or spar. She has carried 30,000 passengers from
Europe to America; 200 marriages, and 1,500 births occurred on board
of her. Ten years ago she was sent to the Pacific Ocean, being a very
successful craft. She caught fire and burned to the water’s edge in
San Francisco during the past summer. For marine history of United
States, see my articles in THE DAILY INTER OCEAN, May 10, 1882, July
28, etc.

  CHARLES BURMEISTER.


TO POSTMASTERS.

  FAIRMOUNT, Minn.

  What is the object of the little patch of leather, open at the top,
  riveted to the inside of some of the United States mail-bags, not
  far from the top? I have inquired of several persons, including
  postmasters at one or two places, but none of them seem to know.
  Only about one in three or four mail-bags have it.

  A FRIEND.

_Answer._—The small pouch you refer to is a pocket for any memorandum
the postmaster may wish to send with the bag. In case a mail-bag
anywhere in the Northwest needs repairs it should be sent to the
Chicago Postoffice, which has a repair shop connected with it. The
postmaster sending such a bag should put in this pouch a memorandum
showing from what office it is sent. This is but one of many
instances in which it serves a good purpose. It is to be found only
in the new mail-bags.


STRONG DRINK OF THE HEBREWS.

  VICTORIA, Neb.

  We read that in the time of Samuel there were people who drank
  no wine or any strong drink. Are we to suppose that they had any
  stronger drink than fermented wine? Had they any distilled spirits?

  READER.

_Answer._—By “strong drink” in the Old Testament we are not to
understand distilled spirits, for alcohol was not discovered until
the present era. The term refers to three beverages of the Jews—date
honey, date or palm wine unfermented, and palm wine rendered
intoxicating by fermentation, or by the admixture of stupifying
ingredients while boiling. The latter was preferred, as fermentation
made the wine bitter and harsh.


THE FATHERS ON PROTECTIVE TARIFF.

  DAVENPORT, Iowa.

  On what authority does Our Curiosity Shop class Washington,
  Jefferson, Madison, Monroe, and, still more strange to say, General
  Jackson with the advocates of protective tariff?

  FREE TRADER.

_Answer._—The first Congress that assembled under our present
Constitution passed the first tariff. In the preamble to that act
it is expressly affirmed that such tariff was necessary “to pay
the public debt, provide revenue, etc., and for the protection
and encouragement of American manufactures.” The necessity of
such protection was urged in the messages of Presidents George
Washington, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison James Monroe, John Q.
Adams, and Andrew Jackson. In his annual message of Dec. 15, 1802,
among other proper objects of government, Jefferson enumerates the
following; “To foster our fisheries as nurseries of navigation and
for the nurture of man; and to _protect the manufactures_ adapted
to our circumstances.” In his annual message of 1806, apprehending
a surplus revenue, he says; “To what other objects shall these
surpluses be appropriated, and the whole surplus of impost after
the entire discharge of the public debt? Shall we suppress the
impost (or tariff) and give that advantage to foreign over domestic
manufactures?” He then suggests that on a few articles the impost
might be wisely suppressed, but in regard to the great mass of them
he says; “The patriotism of the people would prefer its continuance
and application to the great purposes of public education, roads,
rivers, canals, and other objects of public improvement.” In his
message of Nov. 8, 1808, after referring with gratification to the
increase of “internal manufactures and improvements,” he expresses
the hope that such establishments of manufacturing industry “formed
and forming, will, under the auspices of cheaper materials and
substance, the freedom of labor from taxation with us, and of
_protecting duties_ and _prohibitions_, become permanent.” Says
President Monroe, in his inaugural address of March 5, 1817; “Our
manufactures will likewise require the systematic and fostering care
of the government. Possessing, as we do, all the raw materials,
the fruit of our own soil and industry, we ought not to depend, in
the degree we have done, on supplies from other countries. It is
important, too, that the capital which nourishes our manufactures
should be domestic, as its influences in that case, instead
of exhausting, as it may do in foreign hands, would be felt
advantageously for agriculture and every other branch or industry.
Equally important is it to provide at home a market for our raw
materials, as by extending the competition it will enhance the price
and protect the cultivator against the casualties incident to foreign
markets.”

In his message of Dec. 7, 1830, General Jackson says: “The power to
impose duties on imports originally belonged to the several States.
The right to adjust these duties, with the view to the encouragement
of domestic branches of industry, is so completely incidental to
that power, that it is difficult to suppose the existence of the
one without the other.” He proceeds to say that the denial of the
right of the Federal Government “to exercise this power for the
purpose of protection would he to present the anomaly of a people
stripped of the right to foster their own industry, and to counteract
the most selfish and destructive policy which might be adopted by
foreign nations. This surely cannot be the case. This indispensable
power, thus surrendered by the States, must be within the scope of
the authority on the subject expressly delegated to Congress. In
this conclusion I am confirmed as well by the opinions of Presidents
Washington, Jefferson, Madison, and Monroe, who have each repeatedly
recommended the exercise of this right under the Constitution, as by
the uniform practice of Congress, the continued acquiescence of the
States, and the general understanding of the people.” In a letter to
Dr. Coleman, of North Carolina, dated at Washington City, April 20,
1824, General Jackson wrote: “If we omit or refuse to use the gifts
which Providence has extended to us, we deserve not the continuation
of His blessing. He has filled our mountains and our plains with
minerals—with lead, iron, and copper—and given us a climate and soil
for the growing of hemp and wool. These being the great materials of
our National defense, they ought to have extended to them adequate
protection; that our manufacturers and laborers may be placed in a
fair competition with those of Europe, and that we have within our
country a supply of those leading and important articles so essential
to war. I will ask what is the real situation of the agriculturist?
Where has the American farmer a market for his surplus produce?
Except for cotton he has neither a foreign nor a home market. Common
sense at once points out the remedy. Take from agriculture in the
United States 600,000 men, women, and children and you will at once
give a market for more breadstuffs than all Europe now furnishes us.
In short, sir, we have been too long subject to the policy of British
merchants. It is time we should become a little more Americanized,
and instead of feeding paupers and laborers of England, feed our own,
or else in a short time, by continuing our present policy, we shall
be rendered paupers ourselves.” In consonance with these sentiments,
Jackson, together with Martin Van Buren and Silas Wright, the
leaders of the Northern Democracy, and the great mass of the Jackson
representatives from the free States, voted for the tariff of 1828,
the highest protective tariff ever levied in this country before the
war of the rebellion. In the next subsequent decade the Democratic
party, led by the cotton States, and determined to defeat the Whig
party led by the great Protectionist, Henry Clay, espoused free trade.


DON CARLOS.

  KINGMAN, Kan.

  Who and what was Don Carlos?

  A READER.

_Answer._—1. There was a Don Carlos in the sixteenth century. He was
the son of Philip II., of Spain; was born at Valladolid in 1545, and
recognized as heir to the throne in 1560. But owing to his dullness
at school, and distaste for study, the King deemed him unfit to reign
over his subjects, and invited the Prince’s cousin, the Archduke
Rudolf, to Spain, intending to educate him for the throne. Jealous
of this usurper, Don Carlos conceived a strong dislike to all the
King’s counselors, whom he plotted to destroy. But having foolishly
divulged to his confessor that he intended to murder some one, that
some one was suspected to be the King. The stupid Prince was tried
and convicted of high treason, and left to the mercy of the King.
Philip declared that he could make no exception in favor of such an
ungrateful son, but there is found no formal record of any sentence
of death. Don Carlos died soon afterward, at the age of 23. 2. The
Don Carlos who has of late years been causing so much trouble in
Spain, as a pretender to the throne, is the eldest son of the brother
of King Fernando VII. His wife is Princess Marguerite, of Bourbon,
daughter of Duke Carlos III., of Parma. He is a brother of the
ex-Queen Isabella, and uncle to the present King.


EDUCATION AND CHRISTIAN BENEVOLENCE.

  WEXFORD, Mich.

  What proportion of the benevolent and educational institutions in
  the United States are built and operated by Christians, and what by
  infidels?

  F. J. HALL.

_Answer._—In the report of the United States Commissioner of
Education for 1880 the following statistics of schools in the United
States not under State control are given: One hundred and sixty-two
commercial and business colleges, generally self-supporting, and
unconnected with, or not dependent on, Christian or other benevolent
organizations or private benevolence. There were 232 kindergartens,
most of which were private schools and self-supporting. Such as were
charity schools, like the free kindergartens of certain cities, were
supported, for the most part, by Christian benevolence. There were
1,264 “schools of secondary instruction,” such as seminaries and
academies; 355 asylums for orphans, 142 theological schools, and
227 “institutions for the superior instruction of women.” Most of
all four classes of schools were and still are under the direction
of Roman Catholics, Protestants or Hebrews. Of the 364 universities
and colleges, only eighty are marked non-sectarian, and to these
institutions are attached nearly all the 310 theological, law, and
medical schools. There are forty-nine schools of science, (mining,
engineering, agriculture, etc.), endowed with the National land
grants, apportioned to the several States under act of 1862, the
States providing in nearly every instance the grounds, buildings,
apparatus, etc., and supplementing the income of the endowment
fund. Even many of these schools, such as Purdue University,
Indiana, Illinois Industrial University, and others, are indebted to
private individuals, or county and city subscriptions for handsome
contributions in money, lands, etc. Then there are thirty-five
schools and collegiate departments of science not endowed by
the National land grants or State grants, but almost wholly the
product of private benefactions, the benefactors in nearly all
cases being pronounced Christian philanthropists. The benefactions
to educational institutions of the United States, (mostly
denominational), in the years ending with 1880, amounted to about
$60,000,000.

If by “infidels,” you intend persons who disclaim all faith in
Christianity, then it is doubtful if any of the above institutions
were founded or are sustained to any degree worthy of mention, by
an infidel. Even Girard, the founder of Girard College was not an
out and out atheist or deist, though he was bitterly opposed to all
existing sects, and had a strong aversion to the clergy of every
denomination.


GENERAL E. R. S. CANBY.

  ANN ARBOR, Mich.

  Tell us something about General Canby.

  A. B. D.

_Answer._—Edward Richard Spriggs Canby LL. D., was born in Kentucky
in 1807, graduated at West Point in 1839, and spent the remainder of
his life on the warpath. His first post was in Florida (1839-42),
but he was little known until the war with Mexico, when he fought
with such valor at Cherubusco and the City of Mexico as to win the
brevets of major and lieutenant colonel. From 1849 to 1861 he served
on the Pacific coast, in Washington, and Utah Territory, and against
the Navajoes, and at the outbreak of the civil war took command in
New Mexico, where he was brevetted brigadier general at Valverde. Two
years later he was commander of the expedition which captured Mobile,
and there won the title of brevet major general. Soon afterward
Generals R. Taylor and E. K. Smith surrendered to him. In 1866 he was
made a brigadier general in the regular army.

In 1869, having served in several important commissions, and being
worn out, he voluntarily consented to take charge of the Department
of Columbia; and there he was treacherously shot by the chief “Jack,”
April 11, 1873, while trying to arrange for the removal of the Modocs
from Northern California.


“PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOXES.”

  BLUNT, D.T.

  Please explain in the Curiosity Shop the meaning of the expression
  “Precession of the Equinoxes,” and how the climate of the earth is
  affected by this phenomenon?

  ARTHUR SNOW.

_Answer._—As the plane of the earth’s orbit crosses the equator at an
angle of about 23½ degrees, the attractive force of the sun, moon,
and planets, constantly exerted upon the earth, has a tendency to
tilt the pole away from the sun and to draw the equator toward it. As
a consequence, the sun crosses the equator each time a little farther
west than the point where it crossed the last time preceding, and
where it would have crossed on its return if there were no disturbing
force. Originally it was said that the equinoctial point, or place of
crossing, went forward to meet the sun, and hence this phenomenon was
called the precession of the equinoxes. But, from the fact that the
equinoctial point really falls backwards on the celestial equator,
toward the west, each time about 50 seconds of a degree, it is now
very frequently termed the recession of the equinoxes. In consequence
of this recession the seasons begin a little earlier each year,
and it is estimated that in 12,800 years they will be reversed, our
summer occurring when the sun is in the constellation that he now
traverses in winter time. It requires about 25,000 years for the sun
to complete one circuit of precession of the equinoxes.


COMET OF 1812 AND 1813.

  LAKE FOREST, Ill.

  Is it true that the comet now coming into view is the same as the
  one of 1812? When will it become plainly visible to the naked eye,
  and when will it be nearest the sun?

  STAR-GAZER.

_Answer._—It is generally admitted that the comet discovered by
Professor Brooks on the 5th of September last, and now visible, with
the aid of a good opera or field glass, in the constellation Draco,
between the “Great Dipper,” in Ursa Major, and the “Northern Cross,”
in the Constellation Cygnus, is identical with the comet of 1812,
which was believed by the superstitious to prognosticate our last
war with Great Britain. It will reach perihelion, or the point in
its orbit nearest the sun, Jan. 25. It will increase in brightness
rapidly from the first of December, and be plainly visible to the
naked eye by the middle of that month. At its brightest it will
be brighter than in 1812, but it will not equal at any time the
magnificent comet of 1882. The period, as calculated in 1812, was
70.6 years. As the interval between its perihelion time, Sept. 15,
1812, and its perihelion passage, Jan. 25, 1884, will be but 71.5
years, it is not strange astronomers—considering the imperfections
of astronomical science and art then as compared with the state of
astronomy now—are not surprised at this small error in this comet’s
calculated orbital period.


LONGEVITY OF THE CIRCASSIAN RACE.

  _Garden City_, Kan.

  Is it a fact that the longevity of our race is on the increase? If
  so, what are the data from which this conclusion is reached? Is our
  physical strength on the increase, and what is the evidence? It has
  been agreed to leave these questions to you. One of the parties
  to the dispute is an ex-judge of the Supreme Court of one of the
  greatest States in the Union.

  J. W. HOLMES, M. D.

_Answer._—The above questions having been referred to one of the
highest medical authorities in the West, a member of a State Board of
Health, he replies as follows:

“It is a fact that the longevity of our race [i. e., the Caucasian
or white race] is on the increase. Statistics published by the
British Registrar show that during the last 150 years the average
length of human life in the British Islands has been increased by
nearly one-third. It is also true that the physique of the race is
improving. I am sorry that I have not time to look up references for
you; but any reasonably well-equipped life-insurance agent should be
able to furnish them readily for the first question; and the _Journal
of Anthropology_ would supply evidence enough for the second. Dr.
Nathan Allen, of Lowell, Mass., has made the subject a special study.”


RAILROADS IN ILLINOIS.

  COOPERSTOWN, Ill.

  How many companies are there owning railroads in Illinois?

  E. P. R.

_Answer._—According to the commissioner’s report for 1880-81, there
were during the year fifty-four railroad companies operating
roads in Illinois. Poor’s “Manual” gives the names of sixty-five
companies operating roads in the State in 1882. It is difficult to
state how many companies own these roads, for every year many of
them change hands by lease or sale. There are more companies owning
roads than there are operating companies. For instance, during the
years 1880-81 six railroads were merged into the Wabash system,
another was purchased by the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railroad
Company, and still another was leased for an indefinite period by
the Cincinnati, Indianapolis, St. Louis and Chicago. Probably the
next annual report of the Railroad and Warehouse Commission will show
exactly how many proprietary companies are still in existence. We
have no data for an answer to your other question.


FOREIGN IMMIGRATION.

  MOUNT VERNON, Iowa.

  From what countries is most of the immigration to the United
  States? What proportion of the immigrants can read and write? Are
  any of them well educated? What was the immigration last year?

  F. P. F.

_Answer._—During the sixty years included between 1820 and 1880, the
following countries were represented in the immigration to the United
States, as here shown:

  England                   894,444
  Ireland                 3,065,761
  Scotland                  159,547
  Wales                      17,893
  Netherlands                44,319
  Poland                     14,831
  Portugal                    9,062
  Russia                     38,316
  Austria-Hungary            65,588
  Belgium                    23,267
  Denmark                    48,620
  France                    313,716
  Germany                 3,002,027
  Greece                        385
  Spain                      28,091
  Sweden and Norway         306,092
  Switzerland                83,709
  Turkey                        619
  Italy                      70,181
  All other countries     1,161,875

Most of the immigrants from Sweden and Norway, Germany, Austria,
Denmark, Netherlands, and Scotland, are able to read and write; the
majority of the others are illiterate. Many are very well educated,
having enjoyed college privileges, and the advantages of travel. The
total number of immigrants during 1882, was 788,992.


BASE OF THE METRICAL SYSTEM.

  OMAHA, Neb.

  Is it true that the unit of the metrical system is exactly the
  ten-millionth part of a quadrant of the earth, measured on a
  meridian? Please answer and settle a controversy.

  AARON.

_Answer._—It is not true. After all the pains taken by scientists to
obtain the exact measure of a quadrant of a meridian of the earth,
it is now conceded that this problem is still unsolved. In the
latter part of last century, certain French astronomers and geodetic
surveyors persuaded the French Academy of Sciences that they had
succeeded in measuring so much of such an arc as enabled them to
accurately determine the whole arc by geometrical calculations. In
this belief what is now known as the metric system of measures was
constructed, and under the French Republic, in 1795, the existing
standards of French measures were adopted, based on the meter, the
ten-millionth part of the earth’s meridian quadrant as thus computed.
According to this a meter is 39.368 American inches, or 39.37 English
inches. But while later surveys have failed to determine the quadrant
with absolute certainty, it is conceded that they have demonstrated
the inaccuracy of the earlier surveys and computations, and what is
now generally accepted as a very close approximation to an exact
measure shows that the standard French meter falls short of the
ten-millionth part of the earth’s meridional quadrant by its 1-5,400
part. That is, according to the progress of more extended geodetic
measurements, brought down to 1875, the earth’s meridional quadrant
exceeds 10,000,000 meters by about 1,850 meters. Nevertheless the
International Bureau of Weights and Measures very wisely adheres to
the original standard meter, represented by the platinum meter of the
French archives as the fundamental unit of the metric system.


EXECUTING FOR WITCHCRAFT.

  OSHKOSH, Wis.

  Will our Curiosity Shop please tell us the facts about witchcraft
  at Salem and elsewhere. Respecting Salem witchcraft, give causes,
  number killed, cruelties practiced, and names and characters of the
  men upholding the persecutions?

  H. F. FEHLANDT.

_Answer._—The Salem witchcraft was only one of the results of the
superstition, as old almost as man himself, that certain persons,
through intimate connection with the spirit world, possess superhuman
influence for evil over their fellow-men. The early Christians
inherited the idea from their pagan forefathers, and in 1484 Pope
Innocent issued a bull directing the inquisitors to search out
and punish all guilty of such crimes. For nearly three centuries
following the delusion reigned, so that in Germany alone more than
10,000 persons were executed in consequence of this bull, and in
England, during the 150 years following the reign of Elizabeth, over
30,000 persons were sacrificed to this wild superstition. In fact
witches were hung in the latter country as late as 1716, and in
Scotland until 1722. Under these circumstances it is not strange that
Englishmen in America partook of the fanatical excitement, and when
in 1688 four children of John Goodwin, a respectable man in North
Boston, began to show strange symptoms, immediately after receiving
abuse from a disreputable Irish woman, the people should at once
attribute them to witchcraft; the more so since three Bostonians
had been hung already for that offense, and lately a book had been
published in defense of the popular belief. Four years later the
excitement culminated at Salem. The first alleged victims were in
the family of Samuel Parris, a clergyman. His daughter, niece, and
two other girls began to show symptoms like those of the Goodwin
children, and accused Tituba, an Indian squaw in the family, of
bewitching them, though she stoutly protested her Innocence. Soon
the number of bewitched increased, and likewise the number of
accused. The excitement grew, being constantly fanned by those
who should have been foremost in checking it. None were safe from
accusation, and many, to save their own lives, accused their dearest
friends and relatives. When Sir William Phipps became Governor of
Massachusetts, in May, 1692, his first act was the appointment of a
court for Suffolk, Essex, and Middlesex, consisting of seven judges:
William Stoughton, the Lieutenant Governor; Chief Justice Nathaniel
Saltonstal, who refused to act, and was replaced by Jonathan Curwin;
John Richards, Bartholomew Gedney, Wait Winthrop, Samuel Sewall, and
Peter Sergeant. Cotton Mather and Samuel Parris were among the chief
Instigators of the prosecutions that followed. Under this tribunal
twenty persons were hung, fifty or more tortured into confession of
guilt; the jails were filled, and hundreds more were under suspicion,
when the reason of the community awoke to a realization of the
injustice and barbarity of such proceedings, and fanaticism was soon
succeeded by bitter remorse. There is not space here to enumerate
many of the tortures employed to extort confessions. The lash, the
stocks, binding the sufferers in painful postures, as with neck and
heels together; starvation and thirst, and other barbarities were
exercised, until hundreds falsely accused themselves, their friends
and neighbors, and even their dearest relatives, to obtain release.


AN ARMY LEGION.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  Please state how many men the Austrian and Belgic legions enlisted
  for the service of Maximilian I. of Mexico, contained. I would like
  to know somewhere near the number, whether it was 500 or 5,000 men.

  CHARLES SEYMOUR.

_Answer._—It is impossible to give a definite answer to this
question. The military term “legion” was not a very definite term,
as regards numbers, even in the case of the old Roman legion, where
it corresponded somewhat to the modern “army corps.” Sometimes it
numbered 3,000 men and at others 6,000 or more. In 1792 the whole
army of the United States was officially designated the “Legion of
the United States” the Infantry regiments being styled “sub-legions.”
This was not a popular organization and nomenclature with army men,
and was soon abandoned. The term has been applied in modern times
to divisions in the German, French, and other European armies,
variously organized, and numbering from 2,500 to 5,000 men. It would
be impossible, without reference to official records of Maximilian’s
government, to say what number of Belgians and Austrians were
enlisted in his service; but it was less than 10,000 all told, and
most likely, judging from facts in our possession, not more than
7,000.


RAPHAEL’S SUPREME MADONNA.

  WINCHESTER, Ill.

  Where was the Sistine Madonna executed? Where and by whom was it
  taken to Dresden?

  MAGGIE HUSTON.

_Answer._—The “Madonna di San Sisto” was executed by Raphael as an
altar-piece for the Church of St. Sixtus at Piacenza, in Northern
Italy. It is perhaps the most widely known of Raphael’s works, and
universally regarded one of his supreme efforts. Mrs. Jameson,
renowned as an art critic, says of it; “For myself, I have seen my
ideal once, and once only, there where Raphael—inspired, if ever a
painter was inspired—projected on the space before him that wonderful
creature which we style the Madonna di San Sisto.” It was painted
between 1517 and 1520. We are not positive as to when and by whom
it was removed to Dresden, but think it was during the reign of
Frederick Augustus II., King of Saxony from 1797 to 1854. This King
did more than any of his predecessors to embellish Dresden.


AUTHOR OF “THE FLAG OF OUR UNION.”

  STANBERRY, Mo.

  Will your Curiosity Shop give a short sketch of the author of the
  poem entitled, “The Flag of Our Union”?

  J. M. H.

_Answer._—George P. Morris was a native of Pennsylvania, born
in 1802. From early manhood he followed journalism, and was the
originator of the two newspapers, _The Mirror_ and _The National
Press_. For several years he was associated with N. P. Willis, and,
under their united efforts, the _Mirror_ became a leading literary,
magazine, having among its contributors Poe, Bryant, Halleck, and
Paulding. In 1853 Morris and Willis edited “Prose and Poetry of
Europe and America.” His reputation, however, chiefly rests upon his
original poems, and of these the most familiar are “Woodman, Spare
that Tree,” and “The Flag of Our Union.”


PENSIONS OF SOLDIERS OF 1812.

  HAZELHURST, Miss.

  Are the soldiers of 1812 entitled to pensions or land warrants? If
  so, how may they obtain them?

  H. J. BRAINARD.

_Answer._—By the act of Congress, approved March 9, 1878, any soldier
of the war of 1812, or his widow, is entitled to a pension of $8 a
month, provided he is not already receiving that amount, or more, as
a pension; or, if receiving a pension of less amount, he is entitled
to enough more to raise it to $8 per month. In addition he may claim
160 acres as a land warrant, granted to all soldiers who fought in
the American army before 1855. For further information write to the
Commissioner of Pensions, W. W. Dudley, Washington, D. C.


COUNTY LICENSES FOR DRAM-SHOPS.

  HAMILTON, Iowa.

  Can whisky be sold in Illinois outside of the corporate limits of a
  city by the drink? Are they not limited, under government license,
  to quantities of one gallon or more?

  READER.

_Answer._—Spirituous liquors cannot be legally sold in quantities
of less than one gallon in any part of Illinois without a license,
either from city, incorporated town, or village or county
authorities. Counties are empowered to license dram-shops outside of
incorporated cities, towns, etc.


CERTAIN CANADIAN AND AMERICAN CITIES.

  RIVERTON, Iowa.

  1. What is the population of the four largest cities of Canada and
  the four largest cities of the United States next the Canadian
  border? 2. If a man having a family takes a homestead claim must he
  forfeit his claim if his family refuse to accompany him?

  SUBSCRIBER.

_Answer._—1. In Canada: Montreal, 140,863; Toronto, 86,455; Quebec,
62,446, and Hamilton, 35,065. In the United States: Cleveland,
155,946; Buffalo, 149,500; Detroit, 116,340; Toledo, 50,143. 2. No.


M. TAINE, THE AUTHOR.

  OMAHA, Neb.

  Can you give me some information regarding M. Taine, author of a
  “History of English Literature?” 2. Where does Louis Kossuth reside?

  DON QUIXOTE.

_Answer._—Hippolyte Adolphe Taine, one of the foremost essayists and
critics of our time, was born at Vouziers in Ardennes, France, April
21, 1828. After completing his education at the College Bourbon
and the normal school of Paris, he published several works which
attracted attention, and marked him as a polemic writer of power. In
1864 he was given the professorship of æsthetics in the School of
Fine Art, Paris. Besides his controversial writings he has published
several works on art and literature. 2. In Turin, Italy.


FATHER TAYLOR.

  VESPER, Wis.

  Please give a short sketch of, “Father Taylor,” the sailor-preacher
  in Boston.

  S. BOYNTON.

_Answer._—Edward T. Taylor, better known as “Father Taylor,” was
a sailor during the war of 1812, and first acted a preacher while
a prisoner at Dartmoor, England. In 1819 he was ordained by the
American M. E. Church, and in 1828 was appointed to the Seamen’s
Bethel, in Boston. Warm-hearted and quick-witted, he won the hearts
of the rough men there, and from them received his “title.” He
revisited England in 1832, and traveled in Palestine in 1842. During
the famine of 1846 in Ireland he was chaplain in the United States
relief frigate. He was born in 1794, in Virginia, and died in 1871.


LONDON.

  COLUMBUS, Wis.

  Please give us the derivation of the word “London.”

  WILL SMITH.

_Answer._—There is a fable that London was founded by Brute, a
descendant of Æneas, and called New Troy, or Troy-novant, until the
time of Lud, who surrounded it with walls and named it Caer Lud,
or Lud’s town. But Haydn’s “Dictionary of Dates” contradicts this
statement, and writes the old name Llyndin, meaning “the town on the
lake.” The name is evidently of Celtic origin. It is claimed by some
that there was a city on that same spot 1107 B. C., and it is known
that the Romans found a city there called Londinium, A. D. 61.


THE HULLS—ALEXANDER HAMILTON.

  LAWLER, Iowa.

  1. Was General Hull, who surrendered at Detroit, a relative of
  Commodore Hull, of the United States frigate Constitution? 2. Of
  what nationality was Alexander Hamilton?

  D. HALL.

_Answer._—l. The distinguished revolutionary soldier, General William
Hull, who was afterward condemned for surrendering to the British at
Detroit early in the war of 1812-15, was an uncle of the naval hero
who commanded the Constitution for a time. 2. Alexander Hamilton
was born on the British West India island, Nevis, one of the lesser
Antilles.


OLD POSTAL RATES.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  Will you please inform us what the postal rates have been since the
  foundation of the system, and particularly the rates to Europe? If
  not convenient to give the latter for the whole period, give them
  for twenty years ago.

  J. M.

_Answer._—A detailed reply to this question cannot fail to interest
the readers of Our Curiosity Shop, since it will enable them to
appreciate more fully the strides of progress made in interstate
communication since this government was formed. It is impossible
to fully estimate the service cheap postage on letters, newspapers
magazines, and books, and of late on seeds, samples of merchandise,
etc., has rendered in the marvelous intellectual, moral, and
material development of this country. The postal service is one
of the most beneficent, as it is one of the most potent, forces
in the control of the Federal Government. As a bond of union
between the States its influence is of inestimable value. It is a
life-long school of patriotism, minifying and almost annihilating
the alienating force of distances, keeping the links of friendship
bright and strong between old friends scattered throughout the land,
familiarizing voters with the condition of all parts of the country,
and fostering the common good in innumerable ways.

From the organization of the Postoffice Department, in 1786, to 1816
the rates on domestic letters (or letters for any place within the
United States) were as follows: “For each piece of paper of which a
single letter, or letter packet, may be composed,” under 40 miles, 8
cents; under 90 miles, 10 cents; under 150 miles, 12½ cents; under
300 miles, 17 cents; under 500 miles, 20 cents; over 500 miles 25
cents.

In 1816 the following schedule went into force: For a single letter
carried not over 30 miles, 6¼ cents; less than 80 miles, 10 cents;
less than 150 miles, 12½ cents; less than 400 miles, 18¾ cents; over
400 miles, 25 cents. Provisions for mailing newspapers were made
as follows: Newspapers, under 100 miles or within the State where
published, 1 cent; over 100 miles and out of the State, 1½ cents.

By the act of March 3, 1845, the rates were modified as follows: For
each letter weighing less than half an ounce, if carried less than
300 miles, 5 cents; over 300 miles, 10 cents; each additional half
ounce, double rates; drop letters delivered from the office where
posted, 2 cents. The newspaper rates were: For papers containing
less than 1,900 square inches, 1 cent each, if delivered within the
State where printed and mailed, or out of the State but within 100
miles of publication office; for any greater distance, 1½ cents each;
if conveyed less than 30 miles, free. Papers measuring over 1,900
square inches were charged magazine postage. Magazines, pamphlets,
and other printed works were charged 2½ cents for the first ounce,
and 1 cent for each additional ounce or fraction of an ounce, for
any distance whatever. Bound books were unmailable. Carriage by
private individuals on mail carriages, or by express, thenceforward,
was prohibited. Two years later transient newspaper rates were
raised to 3 cents, and prepayment was required; postage on unsealed
circulars was raised from 2 cents to 3; newspaper postage to Oregon
and California was placed at 4½ cents, and letters, via Chagres and
Panama, 40 cents; between post towns in California, 12½ cents.

In 1849 the postage on transient newspapers was reduced to ordinary
rates, but prepayment was maintained.

In 1851 the single letter was defined by weight instead of by piece,
at a half ounce or under, and rates were greatly cheapened, as
follows: For a single letter under 3,000 miles, 3 cents, if prepaid;
otherwise, 5 cents; over 3,000 miles, 6 cents, or 12 cents. The
postage on newspapers, which had been almost prohibitory in the early
days, and had been maintained at high rates until this time, was now
(1851) greatly reduced, as will be seen by comparing the following
quarterly charges with the charges per copy given above:

Weekly newspapers, to actual subscribers in the county, free; under
50 miles and out of county where published, 5 cents a quarter; over
50 and under 300 miles, 10 cents; over 300 and under 1,000 miles,
15 cents; over 1,000 and under 2,000, 20 cents; over 2,000 and
under 4,000, 25 cents; over 4,000, 30 cents. Postage on transient
newspapers and circulars was also proportionately reduced, and books
under 32 ounces were admitted to mail at 1 cent an ounce if prepaid,
if not prepaid 2 cents.

Slight changes were made in 1852 and 1855, but it was reserved for
the Congress of 1863 to make the next great step forward by making
the rate of postage on all domestic letters uniform throughout the
Union, at 3 cents for each half ounce or fraction thereof. At the
same time the quarterly postage on newspapers and periodicals sent
to subscribers, and not exceeding 4 cents, was made uniform for all
distances, at the following rates; Weekly, 5 cents; semi-weekly,
10 cents; tri-weekly, 15 cents; six times a week, 30 cents; seven
times, 35 cents. But in 1868 the law was so amended as to allow
weekly newspapers to go to regular subscribers in the county free.
No modification of domestic letter rates occurred after this until
the new postal law of this year, which went into effect Oct. 1,
reducing the single letter rate to 2 cents. An important change as
to newspapers and periodicals was made in 1872, requiring prepayment
in advance either at the mailing or the delivery office. In 1874 it
was made payable at mailing office exclusively, and a still more
important change was made in the reduction of the rate on such matter
to only 2 cents per pound or fraction thereof.

Stamps and stamped envelopes were first introduced in 1851, the
registry of valuable letters in 1855, the carrier delivery system in
1863, the money-order system Nov. 1, 1864, the postal-cards, at 1
cent each, in 1872.

The foreign postal rates not being subject to the will of this
government only, but being a matter of international agreement, will
be treated in a separate article.


STEAM PLOWS.

  WEBSTER CITY, Iowa.

  When and where were steam plows first used? How are they
  constructed, and how many acres will they plow per hour?

  H. C. B.

_Answer._—An apparatus for steam plowing was first patented in the
United States Nov. 19, 1833, by E. C. Bellinger, of South Carolina.
It was not received with sufficient favor by farmers or planters to
encourage the manufacture of the machines. In England, Francis Moor
took out a patent as early as 1769 for an engine to plow, harrow, and
do other farm work without the aid of horses. Several other attempts
at inventing steam plows were made, but all to no practical purpose,
until 1810, when a Major Pratt patented a steam-plowing apparatus,
employing two engines stationed on opposite headlands, and drawing
plows by means of endless chains or ropes. An improved form of
this machine was patented by Mr. Heathcote, M. P., in 1832, which
is said to be the first that was ever worked successfully in the
field. Alexander McRea made improvements on Mr. Heathcote’s machine
in 1846 and 1849; still the practical results were insignificant
until in 1854, when John Fowler, also of England, brought forward an
improvement on the plans of Bellinger, Pratt, and others, since which
time various changes and additions have been made, and steam plowing
has gone into successful practice on many of the large estates of
Great Britain and in the East and West Indies; about 1,500 steam
plows being now in use in England alone.

Many attempts to invent a successful traction engine for steam
plowing have been made, particularly by Mr. J. Boydell, of England,
in 1846, Mr. Calloway and Mr. Pukis, of England, in 1851, and in this
country by Joseph W. Fawkes, by Henry Corning in 1850, David Russell
in 1855, B. Crawford in 1857, Judd Stevens in 1858, particularly, by
Thomas H. Burbridge, of St. Louis, in 1858, and Mr. W. R. Hinsdale,
of New York, about 1870, who invented a gang of three plows to go
with Messrs. Aveling and Porter’s traction engine, imported from
England by the late Mr. A. T. Stewart, to be used on his estate at
Garden City, Long Island.

The plan called cable traction, invented in part by Pratt, in
part by Bellinger, and improved by Fowler, has been operated with
greater success than any other. It consists of a single locomotive
engine, of from twelve to fourteen-horse power, with a windlass
under the boiler, around which passes a single steel-wire cable,
which, by means of hinged clips, lays hold of the cable with a grip
proportioned to the strain. This continuous cable, twice the width
of the plat to be plowed, passes around a sheave, or pulley-block,
fastened to a self-acting anchor placed on the opposite side of the
field from the engine. This “anchor” consists of a low truck on four
wheels, with sharp, disk edges, which cut so deep into the soil that
it will not drag when the traction is applied. A box loaded with
stones, or some other weight, on the outer side of this truck keeps
it from tilting when the power is applied to the plows. A sheave
on the truck gives motion to a drum which winds up another cable
attached to a post or anchor in the direction in which the furrows
are to succeed each other, so that the machine warps itself along
the headland on which it is stationed just as fast as the plowing
progresses, keeping at all times directly opposite to the locomotive
engine, which is moving down the opposite headland in the same
direction. The plows are attached to a balance frame, the especial
invention of Mr. Fowler, and are in duplicate, pointing to each
other, so that when the set at one end of the frame is at work the
opposite set is carried along the cable in the air. The plow frame is
hauled from one side of the field to the other, between the engine
and the movable anchor, by reversing the action of the windlass. It
is adapted to turning from two to eight furrows at once, according
to the power of the engine and toughness of the soil. The amount of
ground plowed by such a machine varies from three to eight acres a
day for a three-furrow gang, according to depth of furrow from twelve
inches to four inches. An eight-furrow gang will do a little more
than twice this amount of work per day.

For various reasons steam plowing is not practiced to any noticeable
extent in the United States, but it is probable that as the
advantages of this mode of turning up the soil to a depth not
practicable by animal draft, become better understood, and other
changes transpire, it will go into successful operation here as it
has done in England.


THE “BAD LANDS.”

  ELDORA, Iowa.

  Where is the district of country called the “Bad Lands?” Is it true
  that it is very remarkable for fossil remains, and that wood or any
  animal substance, if left there for a short time, becomes petrified?

  A. J. P.

_Answer._—The “Bad Lands,” or “Mauvaises Terres,” of the old French
fur-traders’ dialect, are an extensive barren tract in Dakota,
Wyoming, and Northwestern Nebraska, between the North Fork of the
Platte and the South Fork of the Cheyenne River—west, south, and
southeast of the Black Hills. It lies mostly between the 103d and
105th degrees of longitude, with an area as yet not perfectly
defined, but estimated to cover about 60,000 square miles. There are
similar lands in the Green River region of which Fort Bridger is the
center, and in southeastern Oregon. The following description applies
directly to the district named in the question, so commonly known in
the Northwest as the “Bad Lands.” They belong to the Miocene period,
geologically speaking. “The surface materials are for the most part
white and yellowish indurated clays, sands, marls, and occasional
thin beds of lime and sandstone.” It is fitly described as one of
the most wonderful regions of the globe. It is held by geologists
that during the geological period above named a vast fresh water lake
system covered this portion of our continent, when the comparatively
soft materials which compose the present surface were deposited. As
these lakes drained off, after the subsidence of the plains further
east, resulting in the formation of the Missouri Valley, the original
lake beds were worn into canyons that wind in every conceivable
direction. Here and there abrupt, almost perpendicular portions of
the ancient beds remain in all imaginable forms, some resembling the
ruins of abandoned cities. “Towers, spires, cathedrals, obelisks,
pyramids and monuments” of various shapes appear on every side, as
far as the eye can range. Says Dr. Hayden, the earliest explorer of
this region, “Not unfrequently the rising or setting sun will light
up these grand old ruins with a wild, strange beauty, reminding
one of a city illuminated in the night, as seen from some high
point. The harder layers project from the sides of the canyons with
such regularity that they appear like seats of some vast weird
amphitheater.” Through all this country rainfall is very light, the
earth absorbs the most of what rain does fall, and water and grass
are very scanty. The surface-rock is so soft that it disintegrates
rapidly, covering the lower grounds in many places to a depth of
several feet with a soft, powdery soil unsuited to vegetation, into
which animals sink as in snow, while when wet it becomes a stiff mud
of impassable depth. The fitness of the Dakota name for this region,
signifying a land hard to travel over, cannot be called in question.
These lands are plainly unsuited for agriculture, and with rare
exceptions, here and there, are of little value for grazing purposes.
But they are one of the most astonishing treasuries of fossil remains
to be found anywhere. The soft clayey deposits are in some places
literally filled with the bones of extinct species of the horse,
rhinoceros, elephant, hog, camel, a deer that strongly resembled a
hog, saber-toothed lions, and other marvelous creatures, which have
rendered this section of the earth a study of the highest interest
to geologists of all lands. Fossil trees and shrubs and fruits
abound here. All these petrifactions are the result, in part, of
conditions that do not now exist in the same degree, and required no
one can tell how long. The soft clays of this region and the climate
are still peculiarly conducive to petrifying animal and vegetable
substances, but this process requires many years to convert such
substances to stone.


GRAIN PRICES AND ENGLISH CORN LAWS.

  LISTOWEL, Can.

  What was the price of grain in England for a few years preceding
  and following the repeal of the corn laws?

  H. MARTINSON.

_Answer._—From 1835 to 1855 the average prices in England of wheat,
barley, and oats, per imperial quarter of eight bushels, were as
follows. The corn laws were repealed in 1846.

              Wheat,   Barley,     Oats,
  Years.      s.  d.    s.  d.    s.  d.

  1835        39  4    29  11     22   0
  1836        48  6    32  10     23   1
  1837        55 10    30   4     23   1
  1838        64  7    31   9     22   5
  1839        70  8    39   6     25  11
  1840        66  4    36   5     25   8
  1841        64  4    32  10     22   5
  1842        47  3    27   6     19   3
  1843        50  1    29   6     18   4
  1844        51  3    33   8     20   7
  1845        50 10    31   8     22   6
  1846        54  8    32   8     23   8
  1847        69  9    44   2     28   8
  1848        50  6    31   6     20   6
  1849        44  3    27   9     17   6
  1850        40  3    23   6     16   5
  1851        38  6    24   9     18   7
  1852        40  9    28   6     19   1
  1853        53  3    33   2     21   0
  1854        72  5    36   0     27  11
  1855        74  8    34   9     27   5

Reckoning the pound sterling at its present value at the United
States Custom House, it appears from the above table that an imperial
bushel of wheat was worth $1.18⅓ in England in 1839, $1.51 in 1845
(the year before the corn laws were repealed), $2.10 in 1847, owing
to the unusual scarcity in Europe and other special causes; about
$1.52 in 1848; that the following year it dropped to $1.22; and that
in 1855, owing to the Crimean war and other influences, it rose to
$2.25. The price continued to decline after 1855 until it reached
$1.33 in 1859. Then the opening of our civil war sent prices up
temporarily, but even before it closed they dropped to the lowest
point touched since the corn laws were repealed, viz., 40s 2d per
quarter, or $1.20 per bushel—still a shade higher than the price in
1839, six years before the repeal. The good effects of that repeal
must be looked for in other matters than in the reduction of prices
of grain: in the general revival of manufacturing industries, the
increase of the volume of trade, better wages, and many other items
of prosperity.


HOW “SCALPERS” MAKE MONEY.

  GLASGOW, Ohio.

  1. How can “scalpers” sell tickets at lower rates than railroad
  companies? 2. Did Senator Wade vote for the impeachment of
  President Johnson?

  D. M. MCINTOSH.

_Answer._—The following are some of the many ways in which “scalpers”
or ticket-brokers supply themselves with tickets that they can afford
to sell at a reduction from the regular prices and still make a
profit: 1. They purchase at a discount partly-used through tickets
between the large cities, from travelers getting off at intermediate
cities and way stations. As the fares between the prominent Eastern
and Western railroad centers are usually proportionately lower than
to way stations, where there is no competition, travelers often
find that they can purchase through tickets at such prices as make
it more economical for them to get such tickets and sell the unused
mileage to the scalpers, even at a considerable discount, than to
pay full way-passenger rates. Second—During excursions many persons
use but half of a ticket, and sell the “return” to the “scalpers”
at a discount on full rates. Third—In railroad wars they can buy
quantities of tickets cheap to retail later, the railroad companies
selling tickets in large quantities at such times to speculators,
who transfer them to “scalpers” to sell at their convenience, when
the war is ended and rates have increased. Fourth—Sometimes, while
a railroad company is bound by contract not to sell at less than a
specified rate, it will offer to “scalpers” a commission large enough
to enable them to undersell the regular ticket agents, who are bound
by the agreements entered into between railroad companies to sell
only at fixed prices. 2. He did.


LIBERIA.

  VINTON, Iowa.

  Please give the principal facts in the history of Liberia.

  A READER.

_Answer._—The negro republic of Liberia owes its origin and much of
its prosperity to American philanthropy and enterprise. Dec. 31,
1816, a body of energetic men organized themselves into the American
Colonization Society, with Henry Clay for President, their aim being
to establish an African colony for freed negroes. Not until six years
later did they succeed in inducing the African princes of Guinea to
favor their plan; but in 1821 a treaty was concluded by which they
obtained a tract of land 500 miles long and 50 miles wide on the
grain coast of Upper Guinea. Thereupon the society began at once the
exportation of colonists. To each man was given 30 acres, together
with the means for cultivating the land. The first town was Monrovia.
The form of government adopted was that of the United States, and
the country is universally recognized as an independent republic.
Since 1847, when the protection of the United States was withdrawn,
Liberia has enjoyed a certain prosperity, since more schools and
churches have been established in proportion to the population
than in Great Britain or America. But as to wealth and political
influence it has failed. Only about 19,000 negroes have emigrated
from our country, but surrounding tribes have been added gradually to
their territory, and the present population is estimated to number
1,068,000, of whom about 18,000 are Americo-Liberians. About 50,000
have learned the English language and 3,000 are Christians. The chief
products are sugar, palm oil, cocoa, cotton, coffee, arrow-root, and
rice.


THE ARGENTINE CONFEDERATION.

  PILZEN, Neb.

  Be so kind as to name the States composing the Argentine
  Confederation, their areas and population, and a few of the chief
  facts as to the government and condition of the country.

  VESPER.

_Answer._—The Argentine Confederation is composed of a group of
fourteen States or Provinces, and four Territories, whose population,
according to the census of 1869, and estimated areas are as follows:

  Provinces—                   Areas.   Population.

  Buenos Ayres, on the coast    63,000     495,107
  Santa Fe, on the coast        18,000      89,218
  Entre Rios, on the coast      45,000     134,235
  Corrientes, on the coast      54,000     129,023
  Rioja, Andes                  31,500      48,746
  Catamarca, Andes              31,500      79,962
  San Juan, Andes               29,700      60,319
  Mendoza, Andes                54,000      65,413
  Cordova, Central              54,000     210,508
  San Luis, Central             18,000      53,294
  Santiago del Estero, Central  31,500     132,898
  Tucuman, Central              13,500     108,904
  Salta, Northern               45,000      88,933
  Jujuy, Northern               27,000      40,362
                                ——————   —————————
      Total                    515,700   1,736,922

  Territories—

  Gran Chaco                   125,612      45,291
  Missiones (1879)              23,932      32,472
  Pampas                       191,842      21,000
  Patagonia                    347,400      24,000
                               ———————     ———————
      Total                    688,796     122,763

This shows a total population in 1869 of 1,859,685. The present
population is believed to be over 2,500,000. By the treaty of 1881
between the Argentine Confederation and Chili, the latter concedes
to the former all the territory east of the crest of the eastern
ridge of the Andes, including a small part of Terra del Fuego, and
the greater part of Patagonia. The form of government is republican.
The President is elected for six years by an electoral college,
composed of 133 representatives chosen by the several states. The
National Congress is composed of a Senate of twenty-eight members,
two from each state, or province, and a house of fifty members,
apportioned according to population. There are five ministers, viz.:
The Ministers of Foreign Affairs, the Interior, Finance, War, and
Education. Each of the provinces has a governor and legislature
elected by a popular vote. A large part of this vast country consists
of rich, alluvial plains, called pampas, similar to the prairies
of this country, with a soil four or five feet thick, formed for
the most part, like our prairie soil, by the decay of luxurious
vegetation. Immense herds of cattle and sheep are raised on these
grand prairies, furnishing the principal exports, hides, tallow,
wool, and canned meats. In 1881 the horned cattle were estimated at
18,000,000 head, and the sheep at 100,000,000. The exports of the
country amounted to $56,497,423, and the imports to $54,029,545.
Most of this trade is between Buenos Ayres—the capital, having
a population of about 200,000, and European, chiefly English,
ports. Twelve lines of steamers run to Europe, making the trip in
an average period of twenty-nine days. The revenue for 1881 was
$24,349,450, derived almost wholly from import and export dues. The
expenditures amounted to $26,747,480, and the national debt has
grown to $107,681,639, a considerable part of which is represented
by recent public improvements: railways, bridges, roads, etc. There
are now about 1,600 miles of railway and 10,000 miles of telegraph
in the country. The laws recognize no difference between natives and
foreigners, and of late foreign immigration, mostly from Spain and
Italy, has been flowing in at a steadily increasing rate, amounting
now to about 50,000 per annum.


THE OLD CALIFORNIA MAIL.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  By what route was the first California and Oregon mail, via the
  Isthmus, carried; where was it first opened; what was the postage
  on letters: and what was the distance run?

  JOHN ALBRIGHT.

_Answer._—On the 1st day of December, 1848, the Falcon sailed from
New York to Chagres, stopping at Havana en route, and carrying the
first regularly established United States mail via the Isthmus. From
Chagres it was carried up the Chagres River, thence overland to
Panama, where it was taken by the California Steampacket Company’s
vessels to San Francisco, Cal., and Astoria, Oregon. The distance
between New York and Chagres, by this route, was given as 2,860
miles, and from New York to Astoria, 7,500 miles. The postage on
letters between places in Oregon and California and places on the
Atlantic was 40 cents for each half ounce, or fraction thereof; while
local postage between offices in Oregon and California was 12½ cents
per single letter.


MEASURING HAY.

  WHITE LAKE, D. T.

  How many cubic feet constitute a ton of hay, and what length of
  time is required for it to settle sufficiently to make measurement
  correct?

  W. A. ROGERS.

_Answer._—Measuring is a very crude, unsatisfactory method of
estimating the weight of hay. There are times, however, when it
is impracticable to use the scales, and a close approximation to
the true weight will answer all purposes. Then, by taking into
consideration that fine, soft hay will pack more closely than a
coarser, stiffer quality, that when cut early in the season it will
become more solid than stiff, late-cut hay, that the degree of
dryness when stacked will affect the weight, that the compactness of
the lower part of a stack or lead is affected by the height, the time
it has stood, or distance and kind of roads it has traveled over, it
is quite possible for a person of ordinary experience and judgment
to make an estimate of the quantity in a load or mow. It is estimated
that, with all the above-mentioned conditions at an average, timothy,
in stacks of ten feet high and upward, measures about 500 cubic feet
to the ton; clear clover, between 600 and 700 cubic feet; new mown
hay, about 675 cubic feet; fine hay, well settled, 450 to 500 cubic
feet. To find the cubic feet in a circular stack, multiply the square
of the circumference by four one-hundredths (.04) of the height.
Below is given a set of rules for computing the number of cubic yards
in a ton of hay in the field, stack, or load, which can be easily
reduced to cubic feet by multiplying the result in cubic yards by 27:

1. The number of tons of meadow hay in windrows is the quotient of
the product of the length, breadth, and height, in yards, divided by
25.

2. To find the number of tons of hay in a mow, divide the product of
the length, height, and width by 15, if the stack be well packed.
If shallow, and the hay recently stacked, divide by 18, and by any
number from 15 to 18 according to the density of the stack. In square
or long stacks the number of tons is the quotient of the product of
the length of the base, the width, and half the height, in yards,
divided by 15.

3. In loads the number of tons of hay is found by multiplying
together the length, width, and height, in yards, and dividing the
product by 20.


BRAVE BARCLAY’S BRAVE BRIDE.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

The allusion to the British commander in the battle of Lake Erie,
made last week in Our Curiosity Shop, when giving the fragment of
the popular old song of the war of 1812, reminds me of an incident
I have read which goes to show that Captain, afterward Commodore,
Barclay, our defeated enemy, was not only a brave but a noble-minded
man. He was sadly crippled in that battle, and having been previously
engaged to marry a lady of rank and fortune in England, after his
return to that country he sent a message to her by a mutual friend,
saying that although his love for her was not abated, yet, as he was
so badly mutilated, if she desired it, he would release her from her
engagement. The noble lady replied “Tell Commodore Barclay that I
will marry him if he has only body enough left to _hold the soul_.”

  A READER.


DEFINITION OF LITERATURE.

  WEYAUWEGA, Wis.

  What is included under the term “Literature?” Is all prose
  literature?

  H. L. A.

_Answer._—It would be difficult to improve upon the definition of
literature in Webster, quarto edition: “1. Learning; acquaintance
with letters or books. 2. The collective body of literary
productions, embracing the entire results of knowledge and fancy
preserved in writing; also the whole body of writing upon a given
subject, as the _literature_ of biblical literature, of chemistry,
etc. 3. Belles-lettres, or the class of writings distinguished for
beauty or style of expression—as poetry, essays, or history—in
distinction from scientific treatises and works on positive
knowledge.” Which of the above senses is intended must be judged
from the subject and context. Webster further says: “Literature,
in its widest sense, embraces all compositions, except those on
the positive sciences, mathematics, etc. It is usually confined,
however, to belles-lettres, or works of taste and sentiment, as
poetry, eloquence, history, etc., excluding abstract discussions
and mere erudition. A man of _literature_ is one who is versed in
the belles-lettres; a man of _learning_ excels in what is taught
in the schools, and has a wide extent of knowledge, especially in
respect to the past; a man of _erudition_ is one who is skilled in
the more recondite branches of learned inquiry.” The perspicuity of
the above definitions leaves nothing obscure. Prose is the common
language of men, in distinction from verse. All of literature that
is not in verse may be classed as prose, but so may ordinary social
and business correspondence, text-books of science, court records,
State statutes, and city ordinances, and much else which is plainly
excluded from literature by the definitions given above.


“OLD GRIMES.”

  MARION, Ind.

  Your correspondent, C. N. H., of Chicago, says: “For several years
  I have seen notices, or sketches, of ‘Old Grimes,’ generally
  without age, date, and other items to identify the real ‘Old
  Grimes’ as I knew him. Ephraim Grimes was born about 1770, in
  Connecticut.” C. N. H. further states, after giving something of
  his history, that he finally “landed at Fort Covington, N. Y.,
  where he remained, making shingles, until about 1834, when his son
  came and took him to Connecticut.”

  Now, I wish simply to say that I am sure that Ephraim “Grimes,”
  born in 1770, and living and making shingles in 1834, was not, as
  C. N. H. declares, the real “Old Grimes” about whom was composed
  the song:

    Old Grimes is dead, that good old soul.
      We ne’er shall see him more;
    He used to wear a long blue coat
      All buttoned down before.

  I heard this old song sung when I was a lad going to school, about
  1825. So that if “Old Grimes” was dead in 1825 your correspondent
  is mistaken in stating that he has seen and known the “real Old
  Grimes.” Again, the real “Old Grimes” is said, in the rhyme, to be
  a “good old soul;” but C. N. H. states that “Ephraim Grimes was a
  dealer in counterfeit money, was convicted, imprisoned, and had the
  tip of his right ear taken off and was banished the State.” Not a
  very “good old soul,” was he?

  H. H. H.

_Answer._—The article above referred to, as from “C. N. H.,” was not
published in Our Curiosity Shop. Beyond doubt the subject of the
rhyme quoted was not the Grimes who died in Connecticut in 1834. The
original Grimes was first immortalized by the English poet Crabbe,
who was born in 1754 and died in 1832. Grimes was the subject of one
of his tales in rhyme. Later, the American poet Albert G. Greene,
of Rhode Island, wrote the humorous ballad which has rendered “Old
Grimes” familiar to every American boy and girl.


LORD CHANCELLOR AND CHIEF JUSTICE.

  MATTOON, Ill.

  What are the duties of the Lord Chancellor of England, and of the
  Lord Chief Justice? Tell something of the courts over which they
  preside.

  READER.

_Answer._—The Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain is the highest
legal authority in the kingdom, the confidential adviser of the
sovereign, and in rank precedes all except the members of the
royal family and the Archbishop of Canterbury. He is a political
officer, and one of the Cabinet, the President of the Supreme Court
of Judicature, and also a member of the Privy Council, a Court of
Appeal composed of the Lord Chancellor, the Judges of the High Court
of Justice, and four other judges. He is created without writ or
patent, by the simple delivery of the great seal, of which he becomes
the keeper, and during his term of office he acts as prolocutor for
the sovereign in Parliament.

The High Court has five divisions: The Queen’s Bench—the Supreme
Court of Common Law—presided over by the Lord Chief Justice of
England, assisted by four “puisne justices;” the Chancery, presided
over by the Master of Rolls and three vice chancellors; the Common
Pleas, by the Lord Chief Justice of Common Pleas, and four “puisne
justices;” the Court of Exchequer, by the Lord Chief Baron and four
“puisne barons;” the Court for Probate, Divorce, and Admiralty cases,
by a president, judge, and admiralty advocate, Queen’s proctor, and
admiralty proctor.


RIVERS, RAILROADS, AND MINES.

  BERLIN, Neb.

  Please to give the coal area, product of gold and silver, and
  number of miles of river navigation and railroads in the United
  States and in other countries.

  PETER THOMAS.

_Answer._—The coal area of the world is distributed as follows,
according to a late estimate made by the geologist Le Conte:

                   Square Miles.

  United States      192,000
  British America     18,000
  Great Britain       12,000
  Spain                4,000
  France               2,000
  Germany              1,800
  Belgium                518
  Rest of Europe     100,000
  China                2,000
  Japan                5,000

The estimated production of gold and silver from 1800 to 1880 is,
according to “The West in 1880,” as follows:

  U.S.             $1,780,000,000
  Australia         1,260,000,000
  Spanish A          $900,000,000
  Other coun’ts       330,000,000

The railroads of the world were distributed thus in 1880:

                       Square Miles.

  United States            93,000
  Canada                    6,145
  Rest of N. America        1,738
  Germany                  21,275
  Great Britain            17,696
  France                   15,375
  Russia                   14,698
  Austria                  12,160
  Spain and Portugal        5,260
  Scandinavia               5,167
  Italy                     5,096
  Belgium and Holland       3,910
  Turkey, etc               1,870
  Switzerland               1,650
  South America             6,830
  Africa                    5,897
  Australia                 4,350
  India                     8,611
  Rest of Asia              1,203

We have not within reach the number of miles of river navigation,
except by the tedious process of adding the navigable waters of all
the rivers and streams of the world. It may be said, however, that
the corps of United States civil engineers has estimated that there
are 20,000 miles of navigable waters, or waters that can easily
be rendered navigable, in the Mississippi system, and in the St.
Lawrence system there are about 15,000 miles more, under the control
of the United States alone and with Canada.


COPYRIGHTED ILLUSTRATIONS.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  Is it right or permissible for one paper to copy engravings or cuts
  appearing in another paper or magazine? If not, why?

  CONSTANT READER.

_Answer._—Not if the paper, magazine, or book is copyrighted in this
country, as most American illustrated papers, magazines, and books
are. The copyright law is intended to give artists and publishers
exclusive control of their productions. The right course to take
to get the privilege of using copyrighted works of any kind is to
negotiate with the publishers, who will, in some cases, make very
moderate terms, particularly for the use of wood-cuts and other
engravings that are several years old. There is no law against
pirating the illustrations published in European periodicals, and
this is done in this country by photo-engraving and other means,
to an unlimited extent. Last winter an enterprising contemporary
astonished all Chicagoans by loading our newsboys with illustrations
of the still flaming ruins of the Newhall House, Milwaukee, before
noon of the day of the conflagration. It turned out that the
illustration was a photo-engraving of the ruins of a London theater,
pirated from the London _Illustrated News_.


CHRISTADELPHIANS.

  PEWAUKEE, Wis.

  Please give a description of the sect called Christadelphians.

  H. G. PURINTON.

_Answer._—This sect is one lately organized in America. The
principles of the church are thus briefly stated: The Old and New
Testaments are equally important; those who love God in this life He
will restore to immortality; others He will annihilate; there is no
personal devil; Christ is the son of God, deriving from Him moral
perfection, but from his mother a human nature. He appeared upon the
earth as a prophet; He now mediates between God and man as a priest;
he will again appear on earth to reign as a king of the house of
David.


A BEAUTIFUL HYMN.

  ANN ARBOR, Mich.

The lines asked for in THE INTER OCEAN of Nov. 3, beginning:

  “Those everlasting gardens, etc.”

are from the concluding stanza of Sir John Bowring’s hymn, “From the
Recesses of a Lowly Spirit.” I found it as No. 2,546, in Foster’s
Cyclopedia of Poetical Illustrations. It is set to a beautiful chant
in Baker’s Church Music.

  R. B. POPE.


THE GLACIAL PERIOD.

  MIDLAND, Wis.

  How long has it been since the “Glacial Period” ended? How far
  south did the glaciers extend.

  D. W. BROWN.

_Answer._—It would be a rash geologist who would undertake to say how
many years it has been since the Glacial Period. Geological periods
cannot be reckoned by years with any approach to certainty. Even
the dates of geological events in the “Recent,” or “Human Period,”
immediately following the Glacial Period, cannot be arithmetically
computed. The order of their succession is about all that can
be established with reasonable certainty. Such events belong,
practically speaking, to an era of which it has been said: “Then time
was not.” In America evidences of glacial action extend as far south,
at least, as Washington and the Ohio River; in Europe to 50 degrees
north latitude, and in some places down to 45 degrees.


LOUIS PHILIPPE.

  ARGYLE, Minn.

  In what year did Louis Philippe ascend the throne? Give a brief
  history of his life and death.

  J. G. LEGRANGE.

_Answer._—Louis Philippe, son of Louis Philippe Joseph, Duke of
Orleans, was born at Paris in 1773, and, having held the title of
Lieutenant of the Kingdom since the abdication of Charles X., as a
result of the revolution of July, 1830 ascended the throne of France
Aug. 9, 1830. During the first revolution, in which he fought on the
side of the people, he became suspected of aspiring to the throne,
and, his arrest having been ordered, he sought refuge for himself
and sister in Switzerland. There for a time he taught under the
assumed name of Chabaud-Latour. Later he visited Northern Europe and
America, and in 1800 settled at Twickenham, near London. Upon the
restoration of the royal family, he returned to Paris, and recovered
his estates. Though coldly received by his suspicious kinsman, Louis
XVIII., he was extremely popular elsewhere, and in recognition of his
plain manners and attention to the bourgeoisie he received the title
“Citizen King.” His reign was prosperous, and his wise government did
much to restore France to a state of quiet industry. But suddenly
the cry arose for a reform in the electoral system, and receiving
no friendly response from the King or ministry, the people grew
rebellious. The King used military force, the people became their
own army, and Feb. 24, 1848, Louis Philippe fled from Paris, with
his faithful minister, Guizot. He and his queen were concealed in
Normandy for a few days, and then passed on a British steamboat to
Newhaven, Eng., as Mr. and Mrs. Smith. He died quietly at Claremont
in 1850.


POSTAL EXPENDITURES NORTH AND SOUTH.

  NASHVILLE, Tenn.

  It was stated not long ago, in Our Curiosity Shop, that the postal
  expenses in the Southern States have long exceeded the postal
  revenue from the same States, while in the Northern States the
  opposite is true. I challenge you to show that this was the case
  before the late civil war.

  A CONFEDERATE.

_Answer._—That is not at all hard to show. It has been the case
pretty much ever since the government was formed. In the Northern
States the postal revenue has almost always been in excess of the
expenditures, while the reverse has been true in the South. In
1846-7 the transportation of the mails throughout New England cost
$256,464, while the postal revenue collected in those States amounted
to $443,648. The expense of mail transportation in New York and
Pennsylvania was only $384,719, while the postal revenue collected
amounted to nearly double that amount, say $746,933. In Virginia,
Maryland, the Carolinas, and Georgia, during the same time, the
expenditures aggregated $770,044, while the amount received for
postage was but $311,569, or less than half as much. At the same
time Alabama paid in less than $50,000, while the expenditures were
over $136,000; and Texas returned but $3,246 for an expenditure of
$24,102; though Wisconsin, in which the expenditure reached but
$15,043, returned to the general postoffice $56,703, and Iowa, then
in its infancy, came within less than $500 of meeting all the cost of
her postal service. This is a fair sample of how it was before the
war.


WEALTHIEST STATES.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  Will you kindly state in Our Curiosity Shop which State in the
  Union is considered to be the richest? Say if Pennsylvania does not
  rank the highest in the aggregate of products. If not, what State
  does? and what is Pennsylvania’s rank?

  ENQUIRER.

_Answer._—According to the census of 1880 the four States showing
the highest assessed valuation of real estate and personal property
are: New York, $2,651,940,006; Pennsylvania, $1,683,459,016;
Massachusetts, $1,584,756,802; Ohio, $1,534,360,508. Assessed
valuations are so far from being the true values of property, and
there is such divergency in the practice of the various States—some
assessing at nearly the true value, others at scarcely 25 per cent
of it, and most of them at rates ranging between 40 per cent and
50 per cent of it—that there is no great amount of satisfaction
in a comparison based on these valuations. For example, the total
assessed valuation of personal property for the State of New York
is $322,657,647, when it is generally believed that four men, Mr.
Vanderbilt, Jay Gould, Russel Sage, and Augustus Belmont, together,
own very nearly this amount in bonds, mortgages, and other personal
property.

As to the value of their chief products, the States holding the
highest rank are as follows:

                        Number of          Value of
  States.            establishments.       products.

  New York               43,739        $1,080,696,596
  Pennsylvania           31,232           744,818,445
  Massachusetts          14,352           631,135,284
  Illinois               14,549           414,864,673
  Ohio                   20,699           348,298,390


  In agriculture:    Value of            Value of all
    States.         live stock.         farm products.

  Illinois         $132,437,762          $203,980,137
  New York          117,868,283           178,025,695
  Ohio              103,707,730           156,777,152
  Iowa              124,715,103           136,103,473
  Pennsylvania       84,242,877           129,760,476


  In mining:     Value of product of        Value of
    States.        precious metals.     non-precious metals

  Pennsylvania       ..........           $65,559,576
  Colorado          $19,249,172             1,041,350
  California         18,301,828             .........
  Nevada             17,318,909             .........
  Michigan               25,858            14,279,437
  Illinois           ..........             8,911,279
  Ohio               ..........             8,077,488

From the above it appears that in the aggregate value of their
agricultural, manufacturing, and mining products, New York leads all
the other States, with a total of over $1,381,000,000; Pennsylvania
follows, with $1,024,000,000; Illinois marches third, with over
$760,000,000; Massachusetts fourth, with over $676,000,000; and Ohio
fifth, with nearly $617,000,000.


PENSION-ATTORNEY’S FEES.

  TIPTON, Iowa.

  Is it true that a pension attorney cannot lawfully charge more than
  $10 for his services in procuring a pension? If so, when was this
  law passed? It used to be $25: at least that was what pensioners
  around here paid.

  OLD SOLDIER.

_Answer._—Prior to June 20, 1878, it was lawful for an attorney to
make a contract with a pension claimant for $25 as a fee, which
amount was paid by the Commissioner of Pensions, or on his order,
when the pension was allowed, out of the first pension payment. It
was wholly contingent upon the successful prosecution of the claim.
In 1878 Mr. Bentley, then Commissioner of Pensions, arrayed himself
against claim attorneys, and procured the enactment of the present
law, approved June 10, 1878, making it unlawful for an attorney
to receive a greater sum than $10 for his services in procuring a
pension. This amount the attorney can collect from the applicant and
keep, whether the claim is allowed or not. It is doubtful whether
Mr. Bentley’s well intended endeavors to benefit applicants through
this law have not resulted in more harm than good, as hundreds, if
not thousands, of applicants have paid attorneys this $10 in advance,
and therefore the latter, having nothing more to gain, have merely
filed the applications, and left the cases to take the regular
red-tape course, and be thrown out for informalities or for want of
a little additional testimony, which defects the attorneys would
have strived to cure if the fee had remained at $25, and been wholly
contingent on the allowance of the pensions.


HEADLIGHT OIL.

  ALDEN, Iowa.

  Please give the composition and properties of “headlight oil,” such
  as is used by the railroad companies in lanterns and headlights.

  P. M. EDWARDS.

_Answer._—Strictly speaking, headlight oil of the first quality
is what its discoverer, Joshua Merrill, named mineral sperm. It
is an illuminating oil intermediate between kerosene and neutral
lubricating oil, the specific gravity of kerosene being .804, that
of mineral sperm .847, and that of lubricating oil .883. The boiling
points of these are respectively, 350 deg. Fahr., 425 deg., and 575
deg. It is volatile only at very high temperature, therefore, and
cannot be ignited at less than 300 deg. Fahr., which is one reason
why it is preferred to kerosene, particularly on railroad cars and
locomotives and ocean steamers. The headlight oils in common use do
not conform strictly to the above descriptions, being, some of them,
only a fine quality of kerosene. The chemical constituents of refined
petroleum are hydrogen and carbon, in the proportions of 75 of the
former to 85 of the latter. We have not the precise chemical formula
for headlight oil.


UNITED STATES NATIONAL CEMETERIES.

  BUCYRUS, Ohio.

  How many United States National cemeteries are there, and where are
  they? What salaries are paid to superintendents? Are they kept in
  good condition?

  OLD SOLDIER.

_Answer._—The National cemeteries consecrated to the remains of
the fallen patriots of the late civil war are all well cared for
by salaried superintendents, and are examined from time to time
by competent inspectors, whose duties require them to report any
neglect. Every grave is marked with a headstone; the grounds are
handsomely laid out; the walks, winding among the green swarded lots,
are neatly graveled; and shade trees, ornamental shrubs and flower
beds are tastefully arranged to beautify these “God’s acres,” sacred
to the Nation’s dead. The cemeteries west of the Missouri contain the
graves of a good many soldiers who have died since the rebellion,
in the regular army service on the frontiers. There is an United
States National cemetery near the City of Mexico, consecrated to the
gallant fellows who fell at Chapultepec, and Contreras, and in other
brilliant actions of the war with Mexico. The locality of the awful
massacre of General Custer and his entire command by the Indians, led
by Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse, is marked by a National cemetery and
a suitable monument. The following is a full list of the National
cemeteries, with the salaries of their superintendents:

  Cemeteries.             Salaries.

  Mobile. Ala.               $840
  Little Rock, Ark.           900
  Fort Smith, Ark.            840
  Fayetteville, Ark           780
  Soldiers’ Home, D. C.       900
  Battle Ground, D. C.        720
  Barrancas, Fla.             780
  St. Augustine. Fla.
  Andersonville, Ga.          900
  Marietta, Ga.               900
  Camp Butler, Ill.           780
  Mound City, Ill.            900
  Quincy, Ill.
  Rock Island, Ill.
  Crown Hill, Ind.            720
  New Albany, Ind.            780
  Fort Gibson, I. T.          780
  Keokuk, Iowa                780
  Ft. Leavenworth, Kan.       840
  Fort Scott, Kan.            840
  Cave Hill, Ky               720
  Camp Nelson, Ky.            900
  Danville. Ky.
  Lebanon, Ky.                720
  Lexington, Ky.              840
  Logan’s Cross Roads, Ky.    840
  Mill Springs, Ky.
  Alexander, La.              840
  Baton Rouge, La.            480
  Chalmette, La.              900
  Port Hudson, La.            900
  Annapolis, Md.              780
  Antietam, Md.               900
  Laurel, Md.
  Loudon Park, Md.            720
  City of Mexico, Mex.        900
  Corinth, Miss.              900
  Natchez, Miss.              900
  Vicksburg, Miss.            900
  Jefferson Barracks, Mo.     900
  Jefferson City, Mo.         780
  Springfield, Mo.            780
  Custer Battlefield, M. T.
  Fort McPherson, Neb.        720
  New Berne, N. C.            840
  Raleigh, N. C.              840
  Salisbury, N. C.            900
  Wilmington, N. C.           840
  Beverly, N. J.              720
  Finn’s Point, N. J.         720
  Cypress Hills, N. J.        720
  Woodlawn, N. J.
  Gettysburg, Pa.             900
  Philadelphia, Pa.           840
  Florence, S. C.             840
  Beaufort, S. C.             900
  Chattanooga, Tenn.          900
  Ft. Donelson, Tenn.         780
  Knoxville, Tenn.            840
  Memphis, Tenn.              900
  Nashville, Tenn.            900
  Pittsburg Landing, Tenn.    900
  Stone River, Tenn.          900
  San Antonio, Texas          720
  Brownsville, Texas          840
  Alexandria, Va.             840
  Arlington, Va.              900
  Balls Bluff, Va.
  City Point, Va.             840
  Cold Harbor, Va.            780
  Culpeper, Va.               840
  Danville, Va.               780
  Fort Harrison, Va.          720
  Fredericksburg, Va.         900
  Glendale, Va.               720
  Hampton, Va.                900
  Poplar Grove, Va.           900
  Seven Pines, Va.            720
  Richmond, Va.               900
  Staunton, Va.               720
  Winchester, Va.             720
  Yorktown, Va.               780
  Grafton. W. Va.             720

In all, there are 315,555 graves under the supervision of the
Quartermaster General, according to a late report, only 172,409 of
which had been identified.


A TRULY REMARKABLE EGG.

  CHAMPAIGN, Ill.

SIR: Having read a short time since in your columns an account of a
“Wisconsin hen” having laid a double egg, I enclose the following:

“About fifteen years ago a Mr. Green, of Toledo, Ill., had a hen
which laid an egg as large as a goose egg. Inside the outer shell was
another perfect egg inclosed in a shell, and between the two shells,
two yolks and two whites. It is needless to remark that the hen died
in a few hours. There are a number of people now living in or about
Toledo who can vouch for the truth of this story.

  L. W. A.”


FOREIGN POSTAGE.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  Please state the rates of postage between this country and Europe
  as far back as possible, but particularly the rates in force twenty
  years ago.

  J. M.

_Answer._—It is not easy to ascertain the rates of postage between
the United States and each of the States of Europe for the whole
period of our history, nor would the information repay the research.
The Whig Almanac for 1849 gives the following rates of foreign
postage prevailing at that time: Letters, per half ounce, to Bremen,
paid or unpaid, if mailed at New York, 24 cents; within 300 miles
of New York, 29 cents; over 300 miles, 34 cents. If to Prussia, 12
cents additional; to Hamburg, 6 cents additional; to Austria, 18
cents; Bavaria, 22 cents; Switzerland, 21 cents; Egypt, 37 cents—each
additional, per quarter-ounce letter. To Denmark, 22 cents; Sweden,
39 cents; St. Petersburg, Russia, 24 cents—each additional, per
half ounce. To British West India Islands, by British West India
mail steamers, 25 cents per half ounce; to Martinique, Havana,
Porto Rico, St. Thomas, or other islands not British, 50 cents; to
Chagres, Panama, Valparaiso, or any port on the Pacific coast, 75
cents. The same year the postal difficulties with Great Britain and
her colonies were adjusted by the adoption of a uniform rate of sea
and port postage not to exceed 24 cents, the inland rates (5 cents
to 10 cents here and 2 cents to 4 cents in Britain) being added. In
1860 the following foreign postal rates prevailed for one-half ounce;
to France and Algeria, by French mails, 30 cents; to the German
states, 30 cents; to Great Britain, 24 cents, except from Washington,
Oregon, and California, (29 cents); to Bremen, 10 cents; to Hamburg,
10 cents; to Frankfort or Wurtemburg, 22 cents; to Luxemburg, 25
cents; to Holland and the Netherlands, 42 cents; to Austria, 30
cents; to Russia, 29 cents; to Prussia, 30 cents; to the Papal States
and Tuscany, 35 cents; to Spain, 42 cents; to Portugal, 42 cents;
to Denmark, 35 cents; to Sweden, 42 cents; to Norway, 46 cents; to
the West India Islands, (not British) 34 cents for less than 2,500
miles, and 44 cents for more than 2,500 miles: to the British West
India Islands, 10 cents for 2,500 miles or less, and 20 cents for any
greater distance; to the two Sicilies, 30 cents; to Parma and Modena,
33 cents; to Lombardy, 33 cents; to the Sardinian States, 38 cents.
In 1865 the postage was about the same; but after the formation of
the postal union, in 1874, an uniform postage was adopted of 5 cents
on prepaid, and 10 cents on unpaid letters, weighing not more than
one-half ounce, between all members of the union; newspapers not
exceeding 4 ounces, 2 cents; books and all other printed matter and
patterns of merchandise, not exceeding 8¾ ounces, at the rate of 2
cents per 2 ounces; postal cards, 2 cents.


HIGH TARIFF AND CHEAP GOODS.

  OSKALOOSA, Iowa.

  In a recent political dispute the free-trader declared that the
  consumer pays all the tariff. How can the protectionist answer this?

  INQUIRER.

_Answer._—This question has been answered, substantially, several
times before, but the following extract from the speech made before
the Fair Trade Congress, Leamington, by Robert P. Porter, formerly
editor of Our Curiosity Shop, author of “The West in 1880,” and
member of the late United States Tariff Commission, is so much in
point that it is given here:

“In the cotton industry need I say that we have practically robbed
England of 50,000,000 of customers, increased the number employed in
our mills to 200,000 persons, and, in the last two decades, doubled
the value of the product. Imports of cotton goods have steadily
declined from 227,000,000 yards in 1860 to 23,000,000 yards in
1881, while exports reached the same year 150,000,000 yards. Has
the consumer been injured? No! With the exception of a few special
lines which we do not manufacture, cotton goods are as cheap, and
even cheaper, with us than in England. A more remarkable progress
has been made in the silk industry, which before the Morrill tariff
gave employment to 5,000 persons; in 1880 it employed over 30,000,
a six-fold increase. The importation of silk goods has remained
stationary since 1860 at about £6,000,000, the production of our own
mills increasing from £1,200,000 in 1860 to over £8,000,000 in 1880.
Yet the cost of the manufactured goods to the consumer, estimated on
a gold basis, has steadily declined at a much greater rate than the
cost of the raw material.”

Further on Mr. Potter says: “I have this year made a careful
comparison of the average earnings of labor in the important
branches of industry in Great Britain, Germany, France, Belgium, and
Holland, with the average earnings of the same class of workers in
the United States. In prosecuting this inquiry I have visited the
industrial centers of these countries, and am prepared to further
substantiate my conclusions with details if necessary. I find that
in the United States wages are from 60 to 150 per cent higher in the
various industrial pursuits than they are in the mentioned European
countries. At the same time the difference between the purchasing
power of a dollar in free trade and protection countries is absurdly
exaggerated by the Cobden Clubites. In Germany and France (under
protective tariffs), especially in the former country, the workmen
can live far cheaper than in England. The purchasing power of a
dollar, so far as the wants of the working man is concerned, when the
cost and quality of food is taken into consideration, is about the
same in the United States as in England, though wages are often 100
per cent higher in America.”


HALBIG, THE SCULPTOR.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  Please give a sketch of John Halbig, the sculptor.

  OTTO F. H. MASCH.

_Answer._—John Halbig was born in Bavaria in 1814, and educated at
the Munich Academy, where he is now professor of statuary. Since
1846 he has modeled more than 1,000 works, chiefly busts. The most
noted is the lions at the Gate of Victory, Munich. In 1873 the
King of Germany ordered him to make a colossal group representing
the crucifixion, to be placed on a lofty mountain peak overlooking
Oberammergau, the village where the “Passion Play” is so religiously
represented.


HELEN AND THE TROJAN WAR.

  DANA, Ill.

  1. Will Our Curiosity Shop tell me how to pronounce the name of
  the President of France, and what his salary is? 2. Who was Helen?
  I heard a gentleman say that, when looking at a certain lady, he
  could easily believe in Helen’s smile and the siege of Troy. Please
  tell me about her.

  IGNORAMUS.

_Answer._—1. Gravy. His salary is 600,000 francs ($120,000), and
an additional 300,000 francs for household expenses. 2. Helen,
according to tradition, was the daughter of Zeus and Leda, the
wife of Tyndareus, King of Sparta, and was so extremely beautiful
that at the age of 10 she was stolen by two mighty Greeks, from
whom her brothers, Castor and Pollux, rescued her. Later Tyndareus
bound her suitors to the number of about thirty to save her, in
case of another abduction. She became the wife of Menelaus, King
of Lacedæmon, but, during his absence from home, Paris, a prince
from Troy, in Asia Minor, induced her to elope with him. Thereupon
Menelaus called upon the thirty to fulfill their oath, and with a
large army they sailed against Troy, laid siege to it, and were
victorious after ten years. There are conflicting stories of her fate.


WHEAT IN OHIO AND NEBRASKA.

  TRIADELPHIA, Ohio.

  Which years, the odd or even, have produced the most wheat in Ohio
  for the last ten years? State same for Nebraska.

  P. M. P.

_Answer._—The following table, compiled from the reports of the
Agricultural Department, Washington, gives the estimated wheat crops
of Ohio and Nebraska for the ten years closing with 1882, in bushels.
How much support these figures give to the notion that the even years
bear better crops than the odd ones, or vice versa, the reader can
estimate for himself:

              Ohio      Av. yield     Nebraska     Av. yield
  Year.    wheat crop.  per acre.    wheat crop.   per acre.

  1882     45,453,600                14,947,200
  1881     38,520,000      13.3      13,840,000       7.1
  1880     49,790,475      17.3      12,922,677       8.5
  1879     36,591,750      19.3      13,043,590      11.3
  1878     33,120,000      18.0      13,872,900      13.1
  1877     26,000,000      15.0       5,640,000      15.0
  1876     21,750,000      11.8       4,330,000      11.5
  1875     17,500,000       9.5       3,400,000       9.8
  1874     25,993,000      15.0       3,619,000      11.6
  1873     18,567,000      12.0       3,584,000      15.5

Certainly, in the case of Ohio, the aggregate yield of even years
surpassed that of the odd years, and the same was true in all but one
pair of years for Nebraska. As regards the average yield per acre,
the even years were not so uniformly better than the odd ones, and
this is the only test measure. But the following table, from the same
source, showing the average yield of wheat per acre for the whole
United States, for the ten years from 1872 to 1881 inclusive, is
calculated to explode the notion that the oddness or evenness of the
year makes any difference:

           Av. yield
  Year.    per acre.

  1872       11.9
  1873       12.7
  1874       12.3
  1875       11.0
  1876       10.4
  1877       13.9
  1878       13.1
  1879       13.8
  1880       13.1
  1881       10.1

One of the most interesting facts to note in the above table is the
rapid increase of wheat raising in Ohio, which is due in large degree
to the improved methods in farming—deep plowing, use of fertilizers,
tile drainage, and so forth. Another matter worthy of special notice
is the large increase of the Nebraska wheat crop, owing to the steady
extension of the cultivated area of that State. The falling off in
the average yield per acre points to the lesson that Nebraska must
learn from the example of Ohio—the necessity for improved cultivation
as the country grows older.


DEMOCRATIC PARTY.

  HILLSBORO, Iowa.

  When was the Democratic party first organized? How long did it ever
  hold unbroken control of the government?

  W. N. GALES.

_Answer._—The birth of the Democratic party, or “Jacksonian
Democracy,” as it used to be called, dates from the disruption of the
old Democratic-Republican party, consequent upon the election of John
Quincy Adams as President Soon after the Inauguration of Adams in
1825 the Adams and Clay factions of the Democratic-Republican party
separated from it. The Jackson and Calhoun factions rallied around
these men, and the Presidential election contest of 1828 was fought
on almost purely personal issues. Jackson was elected President
over Adams by 178 electoral votes to 83, although the popular vote
stood 647,231 for Jackson and 509,097 for Adams. At the same time
Calhoun was elected Vice President by 171 electoral votes to 83 for
Richard Rush, of Pennsylvania. Before the next Presidential canvass
Jackson and Calhoun had become inimical to each other; the “Jackson
men” carried the day, and, through the _first_ National Democratic
Convention—held in Baltimore in May, 1832—nominated Jackson for
re-election, and Van Buren in place of Calhoun for Vice President.
Dating from Jackson’s first term, the Democrats held unbroken control
of the Executive office until the end of Van Buren’s term, in all
twelve years, which is the longest period of consecutive Democratic
administration of our Federal Government. The next longest was from
March 4, 1853, to the bankruptcy of the National Treasury and the
civil war, reached before its close, eight years later.


FIRST WHITE CHILD BORN IN CHICAGO.

  PEKIN, Ill.

  I was born in Chicago, Oct. 1, 1827, and my elder brother tells
  me there were but four houses there at that time, and two of them
  belonged to Frenchmen. I claim the honor of being the first white
  child born at that place. I am the son of Reuben and Hannah Reed.

  LEVI REED.

_Answer._—The first white child born in Chicago was a girl, Ellen
Marion Kinzie, sister of the late Colonel John H. Kinzie. According
to the testimony of Mrs. Whistler, wife of Lieut. William Whistler,
this was in December, 1804. Mrs. Whistler was the mother of the first
white boy born in Chicago, Merriweather Lewis Whistler. He first
saluted the light in old Fort Dearborn in the autumn of 1805. He was
drowned at the age of 7, at Newport, Ky. Your brother is certainly
mistaken as to the number of houses in Chicago in 1827, for a series
of reminiscences dictated by the early pioneer, John H. Fonda, quoted
in Hurlburt’s “Chicago Antiquities,” says that when Fonda visited
Chicago in 1825, though it was then but an Indian agency and trading
post, the place contained “about fourteen houses.”


INSTITUTIONS FOR FEEBLE-MINDED CHILDREN.

  EVANSTON, Ill.

  What State provisions are there for the benefit of feeble-minded
  persons? Give the number of the blind, deaf, and feeble-minded in
  this State.

  CATHARINE DONNOVAN.

_Answer._—According to the report of the Commissioner of Education,
the number of idiots and feeble-minded children in Illinois in
1889 was 4,170; of blind, 2,615; of deaf mutes, 2,202. The United
States makes no provision for these classes. That is left to State
legislation. State institutions for the feeble-minded are located
at Syracuse, N. Y.; Columbus, Ohio; Faribault, Minn.; Glenwood,
Iowa; Frankfort, Ky., and Lincoln, Ill. At Columbus, Syracuse, and
Faribault children are taught the elementary branches, and have
various occupations for physical exercise; at Glenwood much attention
is given to kindergarten training; at Frankfort, to physical
development. In our State institution the children are divided into
ten classes, the three highest being graded, and, in addition to the
common branches, they are taught vocal music and calisthenics:[;?]
also sewing, gardening, and other occupations.


ARTICHOKES.

  JUNIATA, Neb.

  Please state the value of artichokes as food for hogs. How should
  they be raised?

  JOHN COWAN.

_Answer._—At one time artichokes were supposed to be very watery and
injurious food for swine, but a careful analysis has proved that they
are not less nutritious than potatoes. In the Western States they
grow wild in great quantities, and the roots are greedily devoured
by the hogs. The Brazil variety should be extensively cultivated in
a well-drained soil, as it is hardy and easily raised. The American
Encyclopedia of Agriculture gives the following instructions for
cultivating them: “Furrow the ground four feet apart and plant the
tubers an inch below the surface and about ten inches apart, covering
about two inches. Keep free from weeds with the ordinary two-horse
corn-cultivator. Dig in the fall and leave the tubers to be rooted
out by the hogs in autumn, winter, and spring. They bear great heat
and drought, and are excellent food for horses, cows and sheep in
winter if used in connection with food and salt.


UNITED STATES MILITIA.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  What is the total militia force of the United States, organized and
  unorganized?

  N. SNYDER.

_Answer._—The organized militia force of the United States, according
to the latest returns made to the Adjutant General of the United
States army, as given in the report of the Chief of Ordnance to the
Secretary of War, for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1880, was as
follows: Total non-commissioned officers, musicians, and privates,
117,037. Add 145 general officers, 921 general staff officers, 1,605
regimental field and staff officers, 8,869 company officers, and the
aggregate is 125,906. Of these, New York had the largest number,
20,280; Arkansas the next largest, 16,377, South Carolina the next,
11,805; Pennsylvania the next, 9,750; Ohio the next, 8,374, and
Illinois the next, 7,394. These figures are altered somewhat now, but
cannot be given accurately. The number of men subject to military
duty, but unorganized, on June 30, 1880, was 6,516,758.


MISSISSIPPI NAVIGATION.

  DES MOINES, Iowa.

  Give your Iowa readers a few facts as to the navigation of the
  Mississippi River. About what proportion of the time is it closed
  by ice or on account of low water?

_Answer._—Averaged for the nine years from 1865 to 1873, the depth
of water below St. Louis was eight feet or over for about one-half
the year, and less than four feet not quite three and one-half days a
year. The time that navigation was arrested by ice in the ten seasons
from 1870 to 1880 averaged thirty-five days a year; and the time
that barges could not be loaded to eight feet draft on account of
low water or ice, during the seven years ending with 1880, averaged
about one hundred and twenty-six days a year. In the canals around
the Mississippi rapids and between the Mississippi and the lakes,
navigation is suspended above five months each year. To appreciate
the significance of the above figures as to depth of water, it must
be borne in mind that, where the depth of water is eight feet and
over, grain is transported at less than half what it costs when the
depth is four feet. There are years when navigation below St. Louis
is not obstructed by ice all winter through; as for example, in the
winters of 1868-69, 1873-74, 1875-76, while in the rigorous winter of
1877-78 the river was closed at St. Louis seventy days. Between St.
Louis and Quincy navigation is obstructed by ice about four months
every year, and by low water about thirty-five days more, while
between Quincy and St. Paul navigation is practically closed about
half of every year either on account of ice or low water.


MILLAIS’ PICTURE OF THE HUGUENOT.

  DENVER, Col.

  Kindly inform us through Our Curiosity Shop what is the
  significance of the handkerchief in Millais’ picture of “The
  Huguenot.” I have gone to the limit of my resources and can find no
  allusion whatever to any such badge.

  F. G. WOODBRIDGE.

_Answer._—On the eve of the bloody massacre of French Protestants,
which commenced in Paris in the dead of night of Aug. 24, 1572, the
Duke of Guise, to prevent the assassination by mistake of any of his
own party, the Catholics, issued a secret order that every Catholic
bind a strip of white linen around his arm, as a badge to be known
by. This incident is vividly depicted in Millais’ celebrated painting
of “The Huguenot,” where the Catholic maiden, who is aware of this
secret order, seeks to save her bold Protestant or “Huguenot” lover
by pledging him to wear her handkerchief around his arm until they
meet again.


NORTH AMERICAN POULTRY ASSOCIATION.

  FAIRFIELD, Iowa.

  What is the object of the poultry association, formed in Ohio some
  time ago? Is it merely for speculative purposes, or has it a public
  mission to perform? Who are the officers and who can become members?

  POULTRY RAISER.

_Answer._—Probably the organization referred to in the above question
is what calls itself the North American Poultry Association. Its
declared purpose is “to take united action in the extension of the
business of producing poultry and eggs for market, and for the
mutual protection and advancement of the interests of producers.”
This it proposes to do by showing people that “poultry-raising
is more profitable than any other branch of stock-raising;” by
keeping its members informed as to the best markets for poultry
and eggs at different seasons of the year; by uniting to get the
lowest shipping rates; by efforts to protect each other from
dishonest poultry dealers or commission men; by imparting to one
another useful information as to cures for diseases of fowls, and
improvements in feeding and taking care of them. Whether some of
the principal members are using this organization for selfish
purposes to any reprehensible degree, as has been charged by one or
more correspondents, we are not prepared to affirm or deny. Some
of them are engaged in raising and selling fancy fowls and eggs
at high prices, but as that is one of the declared objects of the
association, it may only prove that it is fulfilling its mission. Any
one in any part of the United States or Canada who wishes to become
a member is invited to send $2 to the Treasurer, with a request that
his name be presented to the association for admission to membership,
the money to be returned in case he is not elected. In the opinion of
some correspondents, the reason for demanding this prepayment is very
obscure. Hoping to obtain official enlightenment as to the character
of this association, THE INTER OCEAN addressed an inquiry to W. L.
Chamberlain, Secretary of the Ohio State Board of Agriculture, to
which he returned the following reply, which renders us unwilling to
publish the names and postoffice address of officers of the so-called
association:

“COLUMBUS, Ohio, Nov., 1883.—Dear Sir: Yours relative to American
Poultry Association, of——, Ohio, to hand. We have no official
knowledge of any such association, as no reports from it are made to
this department, as there are from all the other various agricultural
organizations of the State. Inquiry at the Secretary of State’s
office fails to reveal any incorporation of said association. Might
also add that we have no personal knowledge of the association in
question. Respectfully,

  W. I. CHAMBERLAIN,
  “Secretary Ohio State Board of Agriculture.”


LAKE TAHOE.

  RICHMOND, Ind.

  What are the dimensions of Lake Tahoe, why is it so admired, and
  how near is it to the Central Pacific Railroad?

  TRAVELER.

_Answer._—Lake Tahoe is a lovely sheet of water at the eastern base
of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, and fourteen miles southward from
Truckee, on the Central Pacific Railroad. It is about 6,250 feet
above the ocean, and is environed by scenery full of picturesque
loveliness. The length, according to the latest authorities, is
35 miles, its width about 15 miles, and its depth 1,500 feet. Its
waters are clear as crystal, cold as ice, and full of trout. Pleasure
steamers ply on it in summer. Its outlet is the Truckee River. The
surrounding scenery, the perfect transparency of its waters, the
fishing, and the delicious atmosphere render it a favorite summer
resort.


THE NATIONAL CAPITOL.

  MONTICELLO, Ind.

  When was the Capitol of the United States begun; when finished; and
  what was its cost? Give its dimensions.

  JAMES COBLE.

_Answer._—The southeast corner-stone of the Capitol was laid Sept.
18, 1793, “by Brother George Washington, assisted by the Worshipful
Masters and Free Masons of the surrounding cities, the military, and
a large number of people.” The north wing was ready for occupancy in
1800, the south wing in 1808; but both were partially destroyed by
the British in 1811. The foundation of the main building was laid in
1818 (March 24), the restoration of the wings having been commenced
three years earlier; and the whole was completed in 1827. July 4,
1851, the corner-stone of the south extension was laid by President
Fillmore, and this was finished in 1857. The north extension was
occupied by the Senate in 1859. The present dome, commenced in 1855,
was completed eight years later, and Dec. 12, 1863, the American flag
floated from its summit. Thus far the cost of the entire building
has been $13,000,000—main building, $3,000,000; dome, $1,000,000;
extensions, $8,000,000; miscellaneous items, $1,000,000. The length
of the entire building is 751 feet 4 inches; its greatest breadth,
324 feet; and it covers a little over 3½ acres. The distance from the
ground to the top of the dome is 307½ feet; the diameter of the dome,
135½ feet.


MONEY AND GOODS BY TELEGRAPH.

  SPIRIT LAKE, Iowa.

  What is the method of sending money by telegraph; and about what
  does it cost? Is it true that telegraph companies will fill orders
  for household supplies? If so, explain how it is done, and oblige
  several

  SUBSCRIBERS.

_Answer._—It is not telegraph companies, but express companies that
do such business. One of the leading express companies will send
money from any one of its important city or village agencies to
another at the following rates, in addition to the cost of telegraph
service: For sums of $100 or less, 1 per cent; for sums between $100
and $200, $1.25; between $200 and $300, $1.50; between $300 and $400,
$1.75; between $400 and $500, $2; for larger sums special rates, to
be learned only of agents. The same company will purchase goods for
family consumption, without extra charges; and will advance the money
for orders not exceeding $5 each, provided deposit is made with the
agent at the office from which order is sent. Similar accommodation
is provided for by other express companies.


ALCOHOL IN A BUSHEL OF GRAIN.

  LAFAYETTE, Ill.

  How much pure liquor can be made from a bushel of corn, rye, wheat,
  or barley, as a general rule?

  CHARLES OSENBAUGH.

_Answer._—Corn affords 40 pounds of spirits of the specific gravity
of 0.9427, containing 45 per cent of absolute alcohol for each 100
pounds of grain; wheat, 40 to 45 pounds of spirits; barley, 40; oats,
36; rye, 36 to 42; buckwheat, 40. Now, 40 pounds of such spirits
equal 3½ (3.5) gallons of government-proof spirits. Taking corn at
56 pounds per bushel, rye at 56 pounds, wheat at 60, barley at 48,
oats at 32, and buckwheat at 52, these grains should afford the
following quantities of proof spirits per bushel: Corn and rye, each,
1.96 gallons, or almost 2 gallons; wheat, 2.1 gallons; barley, 1.68
gallons; oats, 1.12 gallons, and buckwheat, 1.82 gallons.


U. S. LOANS IN 1860.

  MINONK, Ill.

  Did this government borrow money during James Buchanan’s
  administration? If so, at what interest? What interest did the
  government pay for money borrowed to carry on the Mexican war?

_Answer._—In June, 1860, Congress authorized the loan of $20,000,000,
and in October, $1,000,000, at 5 per cent, was put upon the market;
but, owing to the Presidential election of that year and the
consequent change in the aspect of politics, the final amount issued
was but $7,022,000. On Dec. 17 a law was passed permitting the issue
of $10,000,000; $5,000,000 was offered, and but $500,000 was bid, at
12 per cent. Other offers at 24 to 36 per cent were rejected. By the
31st of December most of the remainder had been taken by banks and
bankers upon certain conditions securing the interest. In January,
1861, the remaining $5,000,000, under the act of December, was
awarded as follows: $10,000 at 8¾ per cent, $30,000 at 9 per cent,
$10,000 at 9¼ per cent, $140,000 at 9½ per cent, $67,000 at 9¾ per
cent, $721,000 at 10 per cent, $265,000 at 10¼ per cent, $543,000
at 10½ per cent, $1,267,000 at 10¾ per cent, and $1,947,000 at 11
per cent. Feb. 8 Congress passed another bill, authorizing a loan of
$25,000,000, at 6 per cent interest, to run not less than ten nor
more than twenty years, the stock to be sold to the highest bidder.
The amount offered was $14,355,000, of which all below 90 per cent
were rejected, and the stock as awarded ranged from 90½ to 96 per
cent. The tariff bill, which was passed March 2, authorized a loan
of $10,000,000, and restored the highest protective character to the
tariff. During the Mexican war, in 1847, the government made loans to
the amount of $9,415,250 at 6 per cent interest.


VAUXHALL GARDENS.

  MARSHALLTOWN, Iowa.

  I remember reading, when a boy, in a Baltimore paper, an account
  of the destruction by fire of the art gallery of Vauxhall Garden,
  London, and I think it stated also “with a loss of all the valuable
  paintings.” Please state in what year that conflagration occurred,
  Any information regarding this garden would be of interest to many,
  I am sure.

  JOSEPH ROGERS.

_Answer._—Vauxhall Garden, named from its site in “La Salle
Faukes,” was first opened to the public in 1660, and was for nearly
two centuries the favorite resort for a large class of London
pleasure-seekers. It was laid out with beautiful walks, fountains,
booths, and buildings, and was nightly thronged by a gay and
brilliant company, eating and drinking, while they gossiped or made
love to the sound of constant music. But toward the latter part of
the eighteenth century the garden fell into disrepute, through the
increasing laxity of many of its patrons, and on July 25, 1859, the
garden was forever closed, its site being soon covered with streets
and buildings. We cannot find the date of the fire you mention. It is
consoling, however, to know that few, if any, of the paintings had
great merit. A vivid description of Vauxhall is given in Thackeray’s
“Vanity Fair.”


ARMY—RIVERS, AND HARBORS.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  A friend asserts that the cost of the United States army is nearly
  fifty million dollars a year? I say it is not much more than half
  that amount. What does Our Curiosity Shop say?

  JOHN ALLEN.

_Answer._—It says that you are nearer right than your friend. It is
likely that he gets his notion from noting the total expenditures
for the “military establishment” as given in Secretary Folger’s
report a few days ago, amounting to $48,911,382.93. Let him look at
the items and he will see such ones as this, “Improving rivers and
harbors,” $13,639,381.27 included under the above head. Owing to the
important bearing of the transportation question and the condition
of our harbors upon the subject of National defense; in deference
to the State rights advocates of early times; and also because of
the prevailing confidence in the ability of the engineer corps of
the United States army, the appropriations made by Congress for the
improvement of the National water-ways have, as a rule, been expended
under the direction of army engineers. Below are given all the items
that enter into the grand total of nearly fifty millions which your
friend erroneously charges up as the annual cost of the United States
army. This is a statement for the fiscal year closing June 30, 1883:

  Pay Department                                        $12,659,814.60
  Commissary Department                                   2,062,922.17
  Quartermaster’s Department                             13,179,792.45
  Medical Department                                        377,647.82
  Ordnance Department                                     1,861,826.37
  Military Academy                                          144,332.46
  Improving rivers and harbors                           13,639,381.27
  Contingencies                                              26,676.19
  Expenses of recruiting                                    100,646.45
  Signal Service                                            294,466.54
  Expenses of military convicts                              93,085.37
  Publishing official records of the rebellion               33,486.68
  Support of National Home for Disabled Volunteers        1,122,088.03
  Support of Soldiers’ Home                                 162,928.48
  Construction of military posts, roads, etc.               268,707.69
  Fortifications                                            174,312.72
  National cemeteries                                       211,156.55
  Fifty per cent arrears of army transportation             296,379.38
  Construction of military telegraphs                        48,989.00
  Bounty to soldiers, act of July 28, 1866                   75,214.30
  Expenses of arctic exploring expedition                    53,000.00
  Bounty to volunteers                                      244,550.91
  Mississippi River Commission                              165,000.00
  Reimbursing the State of Missouri                         234,580.10
  Reimbursing the State of Oregon.                           70,268.08
  Claims for quartermasters’ and commissary supplies        311,062.75
  Refunding to States expenses in raising volunteers        454,163.07
  Operating and care of canals                              199,200.00
  Horses and other property lost in the service             105,061.60
  Purchase of the Arlington estate                          125,000.00
  Miscellaneous                                             115,641.90
                                                        ——————————————
    Total military establishment                        $48,911,382.93

The first five of the above items, aggregating a little over thirty
million dollars, constitute almost the entire expenditure on account
of the existing army and its operations during the year named.


ESTIMATING WEIGHT OF CATTLE.

  HASTINGS, Neb.

  Give us a rule, if there is any, for calculating the weight of
  cattle by measuring them.

  A. C.

_Answer._—No rule will lead to anything more than an approximation
to the actual weight. Every stock-raiser should have his own scales.
The following is as good a rule as any for estimating the weight of
animals by measure: Multiply the girth in inches, taken immediately
behind the shoulder blade, by the length in inches from the square
of the buttock to the point of the shoulder blade, and divide the
product by 144, which gives the number of superficial feet. If the
animal has a girth of 3 to 5 feet, multiply the number of superficial
feet by 16, and you will have its approximate weight. If the girth
is 5 to 7 feet multiply by 23, and if 7 to 9 feet multiply by 31.
If less than 3 feet girth, as in the cases of small calves, hogs,
sheep, etc., multiply by 11. Allowance must be made for the build
of the animal, conditions of fattening, etc. The above rule is
for grass-fed cattle; it being estimated that in the cases of
grass-fatted sheep, calves, and kine, or steers, each superficial
foot, when the girth is 3 feet or under, represents a weight of 11
pounds; when 3 to 5 feet, 16 pounds; when 5 to 7 feet, 23 pounds,
and when 7 to 9 feet, 31 pounds. Thus an ox measuring eight feet
girth and seven and a half feet in length should weigh about 8x7½x31
pounds, or, say 1,860 pounds. Under this rule it is customary to
deduct one-twentieth of the whole for half-fatted cattle; from 15 to
20 pounds on a cow having had calves, and if not fat an equal amount.


SMUT IN WHEAT.

  ILIA, N. Y.

  What is the cause of smut in wheat, and what is a sure preventive?

  G. F.

_Answer._—Smut is a fungus with very minute spores, that feeds upon
the grain, replacing or destroying the organs upon which it feeds.
The best preventive used is a pound of blue vitriol in two gallons
of water. But it is not enough to sprinkle this over the wheat. Put
the grain into enough of the solution to cover it, and stir slowly
to allow the light material to rise. Skim, and at the end of an hour
spread the wheat on a dry floor, and sprinkle it with quick-lime,
previously so slacked with chamber lye as to leave the lime in
powder. So continue until you have all the wheat treated. In this
state it may be heaped, and remain several days before sowing, if
the heap be occasionally turned. If the wheat remains damp, it must
be still further dried, so it will pass easily from the drill, if
it is to be drilled. The above plan is recommended by the “American
Encyclopedia of Agriculture” as the only certain preventive. Yet even
this may fail sometimes.


FIRST REVOLVING TURRET.

LACON, Ill.—Reading an article in Our Curiosity Shop some time
ago set me to thinking of some papers of my former husband, H. G.
Hamlin, showing that in 1842 he and a Mr. Nathan I. Styles assisted
Mr. Theodore L. Timby, who afterward secured the first patent
for a turret-ship, to build a model. After much consulting and
experimenting, in 1843 they changed their plan and built a working
model called a “revolving battery for offensive and defensive warfare
on land and sea,” expense not to exceed $1,800. It was finished in
June, 1843. The said model consisted of a circular icon tower, about
five feet high and eight feet in diameter, with three decks, and
pierced on each deck for thirty-five guns, with two perfect engines
worked by steam to cause the said tower to revolve. The cost when
finished was $2,230. Said model was built in Syracuse, N. Y., and I
saw it on exhibition. I will here copy a letter from F. E. Spinner (I
cannot copy his signature):

“It is found on inquiry at the Navy Department that the government
pays no one for the use of the patent for the revolving turret. It
seems that the company with which Mr. Ericsson is connected has paid
a Mr. Timby $100,000 for the use of the patent, and Mr. Hamlin and
Styles never received $1.”

After knowing this, Mr. Hamlin applied to Timby for his share; he
denied that Mr. H. ever had any interest in it. This was in 1863.
He had the papers all made out for his claim, but was taken with
congestion of the lungs, and died in a few days.

I heard Mr. Timby say that he conceived the idea when he was only
18 years of age. I don’t like the way he treated his partners, but
I like to give credit where credit is due. Mr. Ericsson deserves
much of his country for his energy and perseverance in making the
application when he did.

Please excuse all blunders, as I am an old woman, almost 74 years of
age, and this is the first time I ever wrote to an editor. My present
husband is nearly 81. We intend to read THE INTER OCEAN as long as
our sight will permit.

  MRS. WM. MAXWELL.


CLIFF DWELLINGS IN SONORA.

  WHITEWATER, Wis.

  Is it so that there has been a recent discovery of ancient
  dwellings in Sonora cut in the sides of the mountains, in solid
  rock? If so, is it known who made them?

  ABORIGINE.

_Answer._—There are some remarkable ruins about four miles southeast
of Magdalena, Mexico, in the State of Sonora, which have of late
attracted a good deal of notice. There is among these one pyramid,
with a base of 4,320 feet square and an elevation of 750 feet. It
has a winding roadway, leading by an easy grade from bottom to top,
wide enough for carriages. This is several miles long. In the sides
of this mountain, as one ascends, he passes hundreds of chambers cut
in the solid rock, with walls, floor, and ceiling hewn to an even
precision truly remarkable. These chambers vary in size from five to
ten, sixteen, and even eighteen feet square. There are no windows and
but one entrance, which is always from the top. The height of the
ceiling, usually, is eight feet. The walls are covered in places with
hieroglyphics and figures of men and animals. In some places feet
and hands of human beings are found cut in the rock. Who constructed
these dwellings is not now certainly known. Some claim that they were
the ancestors of the ancient Aztecs or Toltecs. It is not improbable
that they are the remains of ancient Zuni tribes.


GOVERNORS OF INDIANA.

  GREENCASTLE, Ind.

  Will the Curiosity Shop give me the names of the Governors of
  Indiana from 1800 to the present time and the time when each was in
  office.

  C. E. JACKSON.

_Answer._—Territorial Indiana had but three Governors: William H.
Harrison, 1800-1811; John Gibson, 1811-1813; Thomas Posey, 1813-1816.
Admitted to the Union in 1816, its first State Governor was Jonathan
Jennings, who served until 1822. His successors were William
Hendricks, 1822-1825; James B. Ray, 1825-1831; Noah Noble, 1831-1837;
David Wallace, 1837-1840; Samuel Bigger, 1840-1843: James Whitcomb,
1843-1848; Paris G. Dunning, 1848-1849; Joseph A. Wright, 1849-1857;
Ashbel P. Willard, 1857-1861; Oliver P. Morton, 1861-1867; Conrad
Baker, 1867-1873; Thomas A. Hendricks, 1873-1877; James D. Williams,
1877-1881; Albert G. Porter, 1881-1885.


LOYAL CONFERENCE—DIAMONDS.

  OHIO, Ill.

  1. I was told that some religious body of persons—as a
  conference—cheered on hearing the news of a political achievement.
  What body was it, and where? 2. Is there a tariff on diamonds
  brought into this country? 3. Are the women of Utah allowed to vote
  at general elections?

  NELSON SHIFFLET.

_Answer._—In several instances during the late war the Methodist
Episcopal Church Conferences cheered and sang the doxology when news
of great victories for the Union was announced; and in religious
meetings of several denominations the announcement of President
Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation was received with shouts or
cheers and songs of thanksgiving. 2. Glaziers diamonds are on the
free list, but on other diamonds, cut or uncut, there is a duty of 25
per cent ad valorem. 3. Utah women have the right of suffrage in all
Territorial elections. None of the Territories have any voice in the
Presidential elections.


STATE OFFICERS OF WISCONSIN.

  SHARON, Wis.

  1. What steps must be taken before a Territory can be admitted to
  the Union as a State? 2. Please name the different State officers
  of Wisconsin, the salary of each, and when each term began and will
  end.

  A READER.

_Answer._—The answer to your second question would fill one or two
columns of our paper, and we must, therefore, refer you to the
Secretary of State, Madison, Wis. The following is a list of the
present State officers:

  Governor, J. M. Rusk                                 $5,000
  Lieutenant Governor, S. S. Fifield                    1,000
  Secretary of State, E. G. Timme                       5,000
  Treasurer, E. C. McFetridge                           5,000
  Attorney General, L. F. Frisby                        3,000
  Adjutant General, C. P. Chapman                         500
  Superintendent Public Schools, Robert Graham          1,200
  Secretary Agricultural Society, C. Babbitt            2,000
  Commissioners of Lands, Secretary of State,
    State Treasurer, and Attorney General, ex-officio
  Insurance Commissioner, P. L. Spooner, Jr             3,000
  Railroad Commissioner, N. P. Hanger                   3,000
  State Librarian, J. R. Berryman                       1,500
  Chief Justice, Orsamus Cole                           5,000
  Associate Justices, W. P. Lyon, H. S. Orton, David
    Taylor, and J. B. Cassady, each                     5,000
  Clerk, Clarence Kellogg, $5 per day and fees.

The terms of the first four officers named, and of the Superintendent
of Public Schools, began Jan. 2, 1882, and will end Jan. 7, 1885;
the Adjutant General is appointed by the Governor, as is also the
State Librarian; the Secretary of the State Agricultural society is
elected by the board; the term of the Insurance Commissioners began
Jan. 5, 1882, and will end Jan. 5, 1885. Your first question has been
answered recently as well as we can do it.


MAINE LIQUOR LAW.

  MT. AYR, Iowa.

  Please tell us what the Maine liquor law is, and its effects. Are
  the Prohibitionists generally satisfied with the law?

  M. J. DONAHOE.

_Answer._—The “Maine law,” briefly stated, is this: The sale of all
intoxicating liquors shall be controlled exclusively by a special
agent, appointed by the State; and he shall superintend their
lawful sale for medicinal, mechanical, and manufacturing purposes.
All other persons are prohibited from selling any liquors, except
unadulterated cider and wine, and from manufacturing for unlawful
sale. The authorized commissioner, violating the law, shall be fined
not less than $30, and imprisoned for not more than three months. A
common seller shall be fined not less than $100 nor more than $250,
with imprisonment for from three to four months. Any one receiving
injury from an intoxicated person may sue the one who sold the
liquor. The lessee or owner of the saloon is also liable. As to the
effect of the law, we quote from the address of Governor Dingley to
the Legislature, in 1875: “The statistics (in the Attorney General’s
report) show that during the past year, in the Supreme Court alone,
there have been 276 convictions, 41 commitments to jail, and $30,898
collected in fines under these laws—more of each than in any other
year, and four times as many convictions and ten times as many
fines as in 1866, when the general enforcement of these laws was
resumed after the close of the war. It is significant, also, that
during these nine or ten years of gradually increasing efficiency
in the enforcement of the laws against dram-shops, the number of
convicts in the State Prison has fallen off more than one-fourth.”
Governor Sidney Perham, in his message to the Legislature in 1872,
says; “The present law, when it is enforced, is, so far as I can
judge, as effective in the suppression of the traffic as are other
criminal laws against the crimes they are intended to prevent.”
And Governor Chamberlain, in his message of 1870, said; “The laws
against intoxicating liquors are as well executed and obeyed as the
laws against profanity, unchastity, and murder.” These are a few
of the testimonies given to the efficiency of the Maine law. As a
rule prohibitionists are satisfied with the efficiency, but not the
sufficiency, of the legislation. Still the cause of temperance has
been greatly aided by the Maine legislation, and the progress has
probably been as great as could be expected.


GREAT SALT LAKE.

  FREDONIA, N. Y.

  What is the extent of Great Salt Lake? Has it any outlet? Are the
  waters salt enough to make good salt? Is Salt Lake City on the
  margin of the lake, or some distance off? Is it navigable?

_Answer._—Great Salt Lake is a remarkable body of water, in some
respects the most remarkable in the world. Like the Dead Sea and the
Aral Sea, in Asia, it has no outlet. Its extent is given variously
by different authors. One explanation of this may be the generally
conceded fact that the rainfall of the region between the Rocky
Mountains and the Sierra Nevada is increasing, and the average level
of Salt Lake seems to be steadily rising, so whereas one authority
states the length of the lake as about ninety miles and the breadth
as from twenty to thirty-five miles, another says it is seventy miles
long and forty-five broad. One says its area is about 3,200 square
miles, and another says it is between 3,000 and 4,000 square miles.
One says it is about 4,200 feet above sea level, while another says
it is 4,250 feet above, and still rising, and a still later statement
sets it at 4,260 feet above tidewater. One gives the mean depth
at 12 feet, and another at about twenty feet. Its maximum depth is
variously given at sixty feet and seventy-eight feet. It contains
numerous rocky islands, the longest of which, Antelope, is fifteen
miles long. Some of these islands are used as sheep pastures. The
Bear, the Weber, and the Jordan rivers empty into this lake, and are
for the most part absorbed by the sandy plain or evaporated by the
dry air of the Great Fremont Basin. Only the Bear River is navigable,
and that near its mouth. A line of steamers plies between Corinne,
on the north shore, and Black Rock, on the south. Its waters contain
about 20 per cent of common salt; some salt is manufactured from this
natural brine, and there is no doubt that in time this industry will
develop here into great importance. Unlike the Dead Sea, this lake
abounds with animal life, insects, shrimps, etc., but not, like the
Aral Sea, with fish. The United States Fish Commission has undertaken
the experiment of stocking it with certain salt-water fish, and with
some prospect of success. Salt Lake City is about eleven miles from
the lake in a straight line, and fifteen miles by the traveled road.


INDIAN EDUCATION.

  CARLINVILLE, Ill.

  An Indian-hater in this neighborhood asserts very positively
  that the attempts made to educate the Indians are all time and
  money thrown away. What figures can you give us to disprove this
  assertion?

  A READER.

_Answer._—The last report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs
furnishes proof positive that “Indian-hater” is either utterly
unprepared to make assertions on this subject, or wilfully
misrepresents the facts. Last year there were 5,113 Indian pupils
being taught at boarding-schools, and 5,014 in day-schools. There are
seventy-eight boarding-schools upon Indian reservations, having in
all 4,396 pupils, and in these industrial training has been carried
on so successfully that the pupils have cultivated 1,526 acres,
raising 18,334 bushels of corn, 4,952 bushels of oats, 19,340 bushels
of vegetables, and have made 1,171 tons of hay, and 4,325 pounds
of butter. Of the boarding pupils in schools not on reservations,
641 have attended the Indian training-schools at Hampton (109),
Carlisle (390), and Forest Grove (151), and 106 have been distributed
among various white schools in the States. At Hampton, since 1878,
the government has contributed in all $52,000, and private charity
$81,000, or, taking the existing number of students as the standard
for the five years, $244 per year per student. In these training
schools the industrial and mechanic arts are kept in the foreground,
and the main object is to inspire the minds of the young Indians with
habits of faithful, continuous work. During the past year Carlisle,
in addition to much other work, has turned out ten spring wagons
to be sent to Indian agencies, and Carlisle and Hampton propose to
furnish during the present fiscal year 2,000 pair of shoes, 3,350
dozen articles of tinware, 22 dozen bridles and halters, and 450
sets of harness. An effort is made to teach every Indian girl pupil
sewing and housework and the boys farming and mechanical trades.
The various religious societies have expended $74,689 in aid of the
government work of education strictly, besides $70,142 expended
on their own missionary work. This is besides $13,278 contributed
by them in aid of Forest Grove and Carlisle training schools, the
$26,668 in aid of the pupils at Hampton, $30,504 expended by the
societies on their own seminaries, academies, and missions among the
five civilized tribes, and $24,149 devoted to schools and missions
in Alaska. The Commissioner pays a high tribute to the value of this
religious aid.


CHINESE PROVERBS.

  LASALLE, Ill.

  I have just read that the Chinese are exceedingly fond of proverbs,
  and make great use of them. That many of these proverbs are full of
  lofty sentiment and wisdom. Can the Curiosity Shop give us a few of
  them as specimens?

  A REGULAR READER.

_Answer._—The Chinese are indeed remarkably fond of proverbs. They
not only employ them in conversation—and even to a greater degree
than the Spaniards, who are noted among Europeans for the number
and excellence of their proverbial sayings—but they have a practice
of adorning their reception rooms with these sententious bits of
wisdom, inscribed on decorated scrolls or embroidered on rich
crapes and brocades. They carve them on door posts and pillars, and
emblazon them on the walls and ceilings in gilt letters. In 1875,
W. Scarborough published a collection of 2,720 Chinese proverbs;
and these are but a small part of the great collections to be found
in the “Jeweled Mirror for Illumining the Mind,” “The Coral Forest
of Ancient Matters,” and other Chinese works. The following are a
few specimens of this sort of literature, taken from “The Middle
Kingdom,” by S. Wells Williams, for many years Secretary of the
United States Legation at Peking, and several times de facto United
States Minister. As a sneer at the use of unnecessary force to crush
a contemptible enemy, they say; “He rides a fierce dog to catch a
lame rabbit.” Similar to this is another, “To use a battle-ax to
cut off a hen’s head.” They say of wicked associates: “To cherish a
bad man is like nourishing a tiger; if not well fed he will devour
you.” Here are several others mingling wit with wisdom: “To instigate
a villain to do wrong is like teaching a monkey to climb trees;”
“To catch fish and throw away the net,” which recalls our saying,
“Using the cat’s paw to pull the chestnuts out of the fire;” “To
climb a tree to catch a fish,” is to talk much to no purpose; “A
superficial scholar is a sheep dressed in a tiger’s skin;” “A cuckoo
in a magpie’s nest,” equivalent to saying, “he is enjoying another’s
labor without compensation;” “If the blind lead the blind they will
both fall into the pit;” “A fair wind raises no storm;” “Vast chasms
can be filled, but the heart of man is never satisfied;” “The body
may be healed, but the mind is incurable;” “He seeks the ass, and
lo! he sits upon him;” “He who looks at the sun is dazzled; he who
hears the thunder is deafened,” i. e., do not come too near the
powerful; “Prevention is better than cure;” “Wine and good dinners
make abundance of friends, but in adversity not one of them is to be
found.” “Let every man sweep the snow from before his own door, and
not trouble himself about the frost on his neighbors’ tiles.” The
following one is a gem of moral wisdom: “Only correct yourself on
the same principle that you correct others; and excuse others on the
same principles on which you excuse yourself.” “Better not be, than
be nothing.” “One thread does not make a rope; one swallow does not
make a summer.” “Sensuality is the chief of sins, filial duty the
best of acts.” “The horse’s back is not so safe as the buffalo’s”—the
former is used by the politician, the latter by the farmer. “Too much
lenity multiplies crime.” “If you love your son give him plenty of
the rod; if you hate him, cram him with dainties.” “He is my teacher
who tells me my faults, he my enemy who speaks my virtues.” Having a
wholesome dread of litigation, they say of one who goes to law, “He
sues a flea to catch a bite.” Their equivalent for our “coming out
at the little end of the horn” is, “The farther the rat creeps up
(or into) the cow’s horn, the narrower it grows.” The truth of their
saying that “The fame of good deeds does not leave a man’s door, but
his evil acts are known a thousand miles off,” is illustrated in our
own daily papers every morning. Finally, we close this list with a
Chinese proverb which should be inscribed on the lintel of every
door in Christendom; “The happy hearted man carries joy for all the
household.”


SHINTUISM—BUDDHISM—CONFUCIANISM.

  CASTLETON, Ill.

  Please give us a statement in the “Curiosity Shop” of what is known
  as Shintuism, Buddhism, and Confucianism, as now existing in China
  and Japan.

  W. H. JORDAN.

_Answer._—Shintuism, Sintuism, Sintoism, or Sin-syuism, is the
prevailing religion of Japan, the worship of the sun-goddess,
Ten-sio-dai-sin. The descendant and viceregent on earth of this
deity is the Mikado, who is therefore worshiped as a demi-god.
Two ecclesiastical judges, with monks and priests, complete the
hierarchy, and the latter minister at innumerable shrines and
temples, raised for the worship of the chief deity and a legion of
canonized heroes and benefactors. In these temples there is no idol
visible, but on the shrine is a mirror, symbolizing purity. Sintuism
requires pre-eminently heart purity and general temperance, and as
aids to these prescribes pilgrimages to holy places, observance
of holy days, and mortification of the body. Buddhism, one of the
oldest existing religions, traces its origin 2,460 years back, to
Siddhartha, or Buddha, a Hindoo prince. Its two most prominent
doctrines are the transmigration of the soul and the cursed condition
or total depravity of human existence in its natural state. The first
teaches that at death every soul immediately assumes another body,
corresponding in form and habitation to the previous character of
the spirit. If noble, it may become a divinity, or dwell in some
high place upon the earth, while the wicked wander as reptiles and
vermin, or inhabit the hells in the interior of the earth. The least
term of suffering is 10,000,000 years, of happiness 10,000,000,000
years. But however long or short, it must have an end, and the soul
enters a new body. Buddha himself, it is said, has passed through
every form of existence. The second doctrine is embodied in the “Four
Sublime Verities:” Pain exists; its cause is desire; it may be ended
by Nirvana; the way to Nirvana is a rise through eight gradations,
from simple faith to complete regeneration. Theoretically this
religion has no priests nor clergy nor public religious rites. Every
man is his own priest and confessor, and the monks are ascetics only
for their own advancement in holy living; but, in fact, Buddhist
countries swarm with priests, or religious teachers, so reputed.
Confucianism is epitomized in the following words of the great
teacher: “I teach you nothing but what you might learn yourselves,
viz., the observance of the three fundamental laws of relation
between sovereign and subject, father and child, husband and wife;
and the five capital virtues—universal charity, impartial justice,
conformity to ceremonies and established usages, rectitude of heart
and mind, and pure sincerity. Confucius did not profess to have
received any revelation from “Shan-te”—the Supreme Ruler—or to have
any clear conceptions of Him, although he acknowledged the existence
of such a being, and taught that His will as learned by studying
and practicing the wisdom of the ancients by the light of nature,
should be implicitly obeyed, as the only means of living virtuously
and happily and avoiding both in this life and the life to come the
penalties of evil-doing.


MERMAID TAVERN AND CLUB.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  Please give in the Curiosity Shop a description of the famous club
  founded by Sir Walter Raleigh and called the “Mermaid Club.” I have
  searched in vain for information on this subject.

  FANNIE MACK.

_Answer._—Tradition states that Sir Walter Raleigh, before his
unfortunate engagement with Cobham, gathered a number of his most
eminent friends in “The Mermaid,” and there instituted what was known
as the “Mermaid Club.” “The Mermaid” was a tavern so situated as to
have three entrances—on Bread, Cheap, and Friday streets, and was the
favorite resort of the leading actors and literary men in the reign
of Queen Elizabeth; but the Raleigh club was acknowledged to combine
“more talent and genius than ever met together before or since.” Here
Jonson, Beaumont, Fletcher, Selden, Carew, Donne, and Shakespeare
met for convivial enjoyment, and this was the scene of the famous
disputes between Jonson and Shakespeare, the two eminent dramatists.


THE BLACKSMITH KING.

  QUINCY, Ill.

  Did any king crown the blacksmith king of all trades, as
  illustrated in the heading of the _Industrial Worker_? If so, what
  is the story?

  JAMES ALBERTS.

_Answer._—In reply to this query we received the following
explanation from the editor of the paper mentioned: Our heading
illustrates an old Scriptural and Masonic legend, that of “Solomon
and the Iron-worker,” otherwise known as “Tubal Cain.” The scene is
the celebration of the completion of the great temple at Jerusalem.
It has been announced that on this occasion the one who of all others
has been most instrumental in the erection of the sacred structure
shall be given the chief seat of honor, and the guests are horrified
to perceive that the lowly blacksmith has, unobserved, placed himself
in it. Loud murmurs arise, and a movement is made having for its
object his ejectment. Nothing daunted, the man rises and declares
his supremacy over all the other artificers, in that he wrought all
their tools, and without his work they could have done nothing.
The correctness of his position is thus proven to the satisfaction
of the king, complaints are silenced, and all honor accorded the
humble smith. The dignity of labor, however unpretending, is thus
demonstrated. The Rabbinical legend of which we have here traced
a sketch, is full of beauty in its entirety, giving in detail the
challenge of the assembled guests, the defense of the man, and the
speech of the king.


NEBRASKA STATE NORMAL.

  WAHOO, Neb.

  What are the principal facts as to the State Normal School of this
  State? How long has it been in operation? What is the amount of the
  normal school fund? What is the amount of the annual appropriation
  to meet current expenses? What results have been obtained? Please
  answer and throw as much light as possible upon this subject, about
  which there is a good deal of discussion going on in this part of
  Nebraska just at the present time.

  SUBSCRIBER.

_Answer._—The State Normal School of Nebraska is located at Peru,
near the Missouri River, about fifty miles north of the Kansas
line. This is a town of 567 inhabitants, according to the census,
accessible only by a branch of the Burlington and Missouri Railroad.
It secured the location of the school by a donation of site and other
inducements at a time when the population of the State was only about
100,000. It graduated its first class, consisting of two members, in
1870. The total number of graduates to date is 73. Total enrollment
last year, 318—the largest number in the history of the school. The
normal endowment fund, in notes and bonds, aggregated $16,308.35
last year, and the income from all sources in 1881 amounted to
$2,423.58. The total appropriation asked of the last Legislature, was
as follows, the several items being represented by the principal as
“absolutely necessary to the efficient working of the school for each
of the next two fiscal years:”

  Salaries for teachers, per year                     $11,000
  Fuel and lights, per year                             1,000
  Repairs, per year                                       500
  Board’s expenses, per year                              500
  Janitor’s wages and help, per year                      500
  Apparatus, per year ..............                      500
  Printing, stationery, advertising, per y’r.             300
  Furniture, per year                                     300
  Wells and cisterns, per year                            200
  Imp’ts of grounds and buildings, per y’r.               200
  Incidentals, per year                                   200
  Postage and postal expenses, per year                   100
  Expense special inst’n and lectures, p. yr.             100
                                                      ———————
      Total                                           $15,400

The total amount granted averaged about $14,300 a year.


BLACK HAWK’S TOWER.

  SPRINGFIELD, Ill.

  Where is Black Hawk’s Tower, and what is it like? Is it built of
  masonry or earth?

  A. H. C.

_Answer._—It is a natural rock near the Falls of Rock River, near
the southeastern angle of Rock Island bluffs, a few miles from the
city of Rock Island. It commands an extensive view of the surrounding
country for ten miles up the Rock River Valley, and northward nearly
eight miles to the Mississippi. Black Hawk’s chief village was
situated in the forks of the Mississippi and Rock River, just below
this, and this wooded rock formed a natural lookout tower for him
on the side most open to attack. The name was given to it by the
pioneers.


WILLIAM ELLERY CHANNING.

  CHARLES CITY, Iowa.

  Please give a short account of the life and writings of Dr.
  Channing.

  MRS. R. W. MAY.

_Answer._—The great apostle of Unitarianism, as he has been called,
was born at Newport, R. I., April 7, 1780, and in his 15th year
entered Harvard University. In 1798, on his graduation day, he
delivered an oration that captivated the whole audience, and foretold
his future fame as an orator and writer. While teaching in Richmond,
Va., he became impressed with the evils of slavery, and deemed the
surest cure for all such abuses to be the spread of Christianity.
Returning to Harvard, he began his theological studies, acting at
the same time as regent of the university. In 1803 he assumed the
pastorate of Federal Street Church, Boston, and at once became
known as an eloquent and brilliant orator, as well as an efficient
minister. His finest oration, perhaps, is the one delivered upon
the fall of Napoleon, in 1814, and entitled “The Goodness of God in
Delivering the Christian World from Military Despotism.” In 1820 he
received the title of Doctor of Divinity from Harvard. Two years
later, while visiting in Europe, he met Coleridge, who said of him,
“He has the love of wisdom and the wisdom of love.” His “Remarks
Upon the Life and Character of Napoleon Bonaparte,” which appeared
in 1828, did much to spread his fame throughout the civilized world.
His greatest theological work is, probably, the “Evidences of
Christianity.” An earnest minister of the Unitarian Church, he was
always a sincerely devout Christian. A friend of the anti-slavery and
temperance movements, when they had but few, his last public speech
was in commemoration of the abolition of slavery in the British West
Indies. His death occurred in 1842, and his body was laid in the
cemetery of Mount Auburn.


SIR WILLIAM WALLACE.

  POSTVILLE, Iowa.

  1. Please give a sketch of Sir William Wallace, the Scottish
  patriot. 2. In what year was the Crimean war.

  MAUD MURLIN.

_Answer._—William Wallace was the youngest son of a knight of good
family in southwestern Scotland. The place of his birth is uncertain,
but the date was probably about the middle of the reign of Alexander
III. When Edward offered pardon to the Scottish leaders, after the
subjugation of Scotland and the surrender of Baliol, Wallace was
excepted by name, being ordered to surrender unconditionally. This
he refused to do, and for many years eluded the search of those who
coveted the handsome price put upon his head. In 1305, however, he
was seized and carried to London, and there, after a mock trial,
on the 23d of August, he was hanged, drawn, and quartered, as a
traitor. But his cause lived, and a year later Robert Bruce was
crowned at Scone, King of independent Scotland. 2. The Crimean war
lasted nearly two years, from 1854 to 1856.


“HOBSON’S CHOICE.”

  MARSHALLTOWN, Iowa.

  Please tell us the origin of the expression,“Hobson’s choice.”

  F. W. WILDER.

_Answer._—The _Atlantic Monthly_ for December, 1883, contained the
following: “The explanation of the proverbial saying about ‘Hobson’s
choice’ is given by Steele in the _Spectator_, No. 509,” The passage
referred to is this: “Tobias Hobson was the first man in England that
let out hackney horses. * * * When a man came for a horse he was led
into the stable where there was a great choice, but Hobson obliged
him to take the horse which stood nearest to the stable door: so that
every customer was alike well served, according to his chance, from
whence it became a proverb, when what ought to be your election was
forced upon you, to say, ‘Hobson’s choice.’”


CALIFORNIA.

  FONDA, Iowa.

  Will you be kind enough to give your readers a description of
  California—the climate and resources of the different parts of the
  State, and the price of land to each; what places are best adapted
  to fruit trees, and what fruits grow there, and the amount of
  teachers’ wages?

  HENRY JOHNSON.

_Answer._—The State of California is divided into three entirely
distinct sections: the coast region, the valleys of the Sacramento
and San Joaquin rivers, and the deserts. Owing to the irregularity
of the surface, only about one-third of the State is arable, and in
northern California the crops are wholly dependent upon the rainfall.
In the southern part of the State the land is irrigated by numerous
streams. The chief products of California are wheat, barley, fruit,
timber, and gold; the raising of cattle and sheep is also profitable
business. The coast region is fertile and beautiful, abounding in
vineyards and orchards. The climate, varying from 51 degrees to 75
degrees in summer, and in winter seldom colder than 15 degrees, is
well suited to the cultivation of such fruits as apples, peaches,
pears, oranges, lemons, almonds, olives, and figs. In this region
also, is the great gold belt, most of the mines being on the western
slope of the Sierra Nevadas. All of the gold, however, is not found
here, as the earliest mining was on the southeastern slope, and the
precious metal is distributed over the most of the State. The valleys
of the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers occupy the country between
the coast range and the Sierras. This fertile region is devoted to
farming and grazing, and produces more barley than is raised in any
other State, while its wheat harvests increased 133 per cent from
1860 to 1870. Here, during the rainy season, the mercury falls to 45
deg., and seldom rises higher than 85 deg. In the Colorado desert
the difference between the mean temperature of January and July is
greater, being some 45 deg., while the mean annual temperature ranges
from 68 to 75 deg. Little land here is arable, owing to the lack
of irrigation. California has an excellent public school system,
closely resembling that of Massachusetts. In 1880 the average monthly
pay of male teachers was $79.50; of female teachers, $64.73. Land
in California is by no means cheap. The fruit lands are scarce, and
for the most part in the hands of private individuals; when well
cultivated and irrigated they sell for $150 to $300 per acre. Grain
lands in Northern and North Central California sell for $50 to $100
per acre, though some at a great distance from railroads and rivers
may be bought for $20 to $30. Grazing lands vary in price from $1.25
to $10 per acre, according to locality. There are fruit lands in
Southern California, far from Los Angeles and any good market, which
can be had for from $30 to $50 per acre.


THE “BRANDED HAND.”

  BEAVER CITY, Neb.

  Please give an account of the “Man with the Branded Hand,” who died
  a few years since. Why was he branded, and what was the name of the
  miscreant who officiated?

  B. W. HAWKINS.

_Answer._—The man who has become so famous was Jonathan Walker,
captain of a small vessel off the Florida coast. He was born at
Harwich, Mass., March 22, 1799, and died at Lake Harbor, Mich.,
April 20, 1878. June 23, 1844, though quite ill, and daily expecting
death, he attempted to carry seven slaves to Nassau, in the British
island, New Providence; but, when only a short distance out, he was
challenged by the sloop Catharine, and taken back to Key West. There
he was brought before a justice of the peace, and committed first to
jail, and afterward to the filthy hold of a steamboat that carried
him to Pensacola, where a new trial awaited him. This time, when he
was imprisoned, a chain of half-inch iron secured him to a huge ring
bolt, being fastened at the other end to a shackle around his ankle
that weighed half a ton. Owing to his feeble health his sufferings
were excruciating, but his further sentence read thus; “One hour in
the pillory, pelted with unmerchantable eggs; one year in prison for
each slave—seven in all; $600 for each slave, and all the costs;
and to be branded on the right hand with a large S, by a redhot
branding-iron.” But he bore his tortures without flinching, and lived
to be restored to his family after much unjust litigation. We do not
know who may have officiated at the branding; but Ebenezer Dorr, of
Maine, was at that time the United States Marshal for that district.
A beautiful monument to the memory of Captain Walker has been erected
in Muskegon, Mich.


THE OLDEST ARCHITECTURAL RUINS.

  DES MOINES, Iowa.

  What is the oldest architectural work known to exist?

  SCHOLAR.

_Answer._—Perhaps it is safe to say, with the editor of the “People’s
Cyclopedia,” that it is the remarkable rock-cut temples at Ipsambul
of Abousambul, in Nubia, on the left bank of the Nile. The largest
temple contains fourteen apartments hewn out of the solid rock. The
first and largest of these is 57 feet long and 52 feet broad, and is
supported by two rows of massive square pillars, four in each row,
and 30 feet high. To each of these pillars is attached a standing
colossus, or human figure, of enormous proportions, reaching to the
roof, overlaid with a kind of stucco and painted with gaudy colors,
apparently as brilliant now, after the lapse of over 4,000 years, as
when first laid on. In front of this temple are seated four still
larger human figures, two of them being 65 feet in height—presumed to
represent Rameses the Great, more frequently termed Sesostris, whose
marvelous military exploits are depicted in drawings and paintings on
the temple walls.


PRODUCTION OF SPIRITS.

  HURON, D. T.

  Is the production of spirits increasing or decreasing? Some
  temperance advocates maintain that it is growing less, owing to the
  efforts of the various temperance organizations.

  ANTI-SALOONIST.

_Answer._—The best answer to this question is contained in the latest
report of the Secretary of the Treasury. Mr. Folger says: “The
quantity of spirits produced and deposited in distillery warehouses
during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1883, is less than the
production of 1882 by 31,839,853 gallons, and of 1881 by 43,741,842
gallons.” He distributes this decrease as follows:

  Decrease in production of—                Gallons.

  Bourbon whisky                           20,913,422
  Rye whisky                                4,440,123
  Alcohol                                   4,482,965
  Gin                                          23,366
  Highwines                                 2,260,428
  Miscellaneous                               241,385
                                           ——————————
      Total decrease                       32,361,689

  Increase in production of—     Gallons.

  Rum                               97,876
  Pure neutral or Cologne spirits  423,960
                                   ———————
      Total Increase                          521,836
                                           ——————————
      Net decrease                         31,839,853

There were remaining in distillery warehouses at the dates below
specified distilled spirits as follows:

  Dates.                                     Gallons.

  June 30, 1883                            80,499,993
  June 30, 1882                            89,962,645

There should come out of bonded warehouses, under the present law,
and pay tax, distilled spirits as follows:

  Dates.                                     Gallons.

  By June 6, 1884                          26,104,531
  By July 6, 1884                           3,495,512
                                           ——————————
      Total                                29,600,043

It is to avert taking this large amount of spirits out of warehouse
and throwing it upon the market more rapidly than it is called for
that the distillers are so lustily petitioning Congress to postpone
the date of withdrawal. Several causes have conspired to bring about
the decrease in production of spirits above shown, of which the vigor
with which the temperance movement has been pushed of late years is
indisputably one.


ART, HISTORICAL, AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

  BATTLE CREEK, Mich.

  I am satisfied that many keen observers of climatic changes and
  other scientific phenomena, and many old residents of this country
  who are in possession of historical information of pioneer times
  which should be preserved, would communicate what they know to
  societies interested in such matters if THE INTER OCEAN would only
  publish a list of some of the most important of such societies.
  “Will not Our Curiosity Shop favor us with such a list? Also, give
  the names of a few of the most noted societies or academies of
  Europe.

  AMATEUR.

_Answer._—Taking the world at large there are many hundreds of
societies for the promotion of science, literature, or the arts.
It is not worth while to enumerate more than a few of those in
foreign countries. In France they have the famous Institute of
France, with its four academies, viz: The French Academy, the Academy
of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres, the Academy of Sciences, the
Academy of Fine Arts. There is the Royal Academy of Sciences at
Berlin; the Academy of Science at Manheim; the Electoral Bavarian
Academy of Sciences at Munich; the Imperial Academy of Sciences at
St. Petersburg; the Academy of Sciences at Stockholm; the Royal
Academy of Sciences at Copenhagen; the Royal Academy of Sciences
at Amsterdam; the Academy of Sciences at Madrid; the de Screti. or
Academia Secretorum Naturæ, at Naples; the Royal Academy of Sciences
at Turin; the Academy of Sciences at Lisbon; the Royal Academy,
London; and the Royal Irish Academy. Then there are academies for
the advancement of literature in nearly all European countries.
There were no fewer than 171 of these in Italy alone as early as
the sixteenth century, many of which still exist. Then there are
many academies of archæology and history, such as the Academy of
Herculaneum, Italy; the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres,
constituting one of the four academies of the Institute of France,
as above shown; the Celtic Academy, and others. There are academies
of medicine and surgery in various parts of the old world. As to
painting, sculpture, and music, they have such powerful auxiliary
societies as the Royal Academy of Arts, the Royal Academy of Music,
and the Academy of Ancient Music, in London; the Academy of Painting
and Sculpture and the Royal Academy of Music, in Paris; and similar
academies at Rome, Turin, Madrid, Berlin, Munich, and elsewhere.
There are geographical societies at all the principal capitals of
Europe. Of these the most conspicuous are the Royal Geographical
Society, London, the Geographical Society of France, Paris, the
Geographical Society of Berlin, and the Royal Asiatic Society,
London, with branches at Calcutta and Shanghai.

For the practical purposes stated above, and other laudable causes,
which are certainly worthy of encouragement, the following list of
some of the most important societies in the United States is of much
greater consequence to readers of THE INTER OCEAN:

  Academy of Sciences, Chicago.
  Albany Institute, Albany, N. Y.
  American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Boston, Mass.
  American Antiquarian Society, Worcester, Mass.
  American Association for Advancement of Science, Salem, Mass.
  American Association for Advancement of Social Science, Boston, Mass.
  American Bible Society, New York.
  American Colonization Society, Washington.
  American Geographical Society, New York.
  American Institute, New York.
  American Museum of Natural History, New York.
  American Numismatic and Archæological Society, New York.
  American Oriental Society, New Haven, Conn.
  American Peace Society, Boston, Mass.
  American Philological Society, New York.
  American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia.
  American Public Health Association, Washington.
  American Society of Civil Engineers and Architects, New York.
  American Society for Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, New York.
  Anthropological Society, Washington.
  Board of Trustees of Peabody Academies and Model Schools, New Orleans.
  Buffalo Historical Society, Buffalo, N. Y.
  Chicago Historical Society, Chicago.
  Connecticut Historical Society, Hartford, Conn.
  Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art, New York.
  Essex Institute, Salem, Mass.
  Franklin Institute, Philadelphia, Pa.
  Georgia Historical Society, Savannah, Ga.
  Iowa Historical Society, Iowa City, Iowa.
  Lowell Institute, Boston, Mass.
  Maine Historical Society, Brunswick, Me.
  Maryland Historical Society, Baltimore, Md.
  Massachusetts Historical Society, Boston, Mass.
  Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
  Minnesota Historical Society, St. Paul, Minn.
  National Academy of Design, New York.
  National Academy of Sciences, Washington.
  New England Historic-Geneological Society, Boston, Mass.
  New Hampshire Historical Society, Concord, N. H.
  New Jersey Historical Society, Newark, N. J.
  New York Academy of Sciences, New York.
  New York Historical Society, New York.
  Ohio Philosophical and Historical Society, Cincinnati.
  Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia.
  Peabody Academy of Sciences, Salem, Mass.
  Peabody Institute, Baltimore, Md.
  Pennsylvania Historical Society, Philadelphia.
  Rhode Island Historical Society, Providence, R. I.
  Smithsonian Institute, Washington,
  South Carolina Historical Society, Charleston, S. C.
  Southern Historical Society, Richmond, Va.
  Virginia Historical and Philosophical Society, Richmond, Va.
  Vermont Historical Society, Montpelier, Vt.
  Washington Philosophical Society, Washington.
  Western Reserve Historical Society, Cleveland, Ohio.
  Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Madison, Wis.
  Wisconsin Historical Society, Madison, Wis.


WILLIAM EWART GLADSTONE.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  Please give a short biography of William E. Gladstone.

  C. B.

_Answer._—The Hon. William Ewart Gladstone was born of Scottish
parents in Liverpool, Dec. 29, 1809. He received a thorough education
at Eton and Oxford, graduating from both with the highest honors.
In 1832 he entered politics, being returned for Newark. He early
joined himself with the Conservative party, under the leadership of
Robert Peel, in which his abilities were soon recognized by that
distinguished statesman, who gave him the position of Junior Lord
of the Treasury in 1834, and in the following year made him Under
Secretary of State; but with Peel’s retirement he relinquished that
office, in 1841, when Peel again became Premier, Gladstone served
under him as Vice President, and afterward as President of the Board
of Trade, in which capacity he derived much information concerning
the commerce of the nation. He left the Conservative party in his
support of Peel’s free-trade policy, and again retired in 1845. In
1859 he became Chancellor of the Exchequer in Lord Palmerston’s
administration, which office he held to his credit until 1866.
Two years afterward he was elevated into the premiership; but
his defeat in 1874 resulted in the elevation of his great rival,
Disraeli. He then resolved to remain out of politics; but the
policy of Beaconsfield in the Eastern question called forth his
earnest disapprobation, and again brought him before the people
in opposition to the administration. The year 1880 signalized his
triumph, a triumph which was universally acknowledged as the result
of his own personal popularity and sterling qualities. Gladstone
has always been recognized as a man of strong character, who has
conscientiously endeavored to advance the interests of the nation
and people. In oratory he possesses the wonderful faculty of making
statistics eloquent. He quickly perceives a difficulty, and with wise
discernment unravels it. The past three years have only added honor
to his name, and it is to be hoped that so favorable a beginning may
be the dawn of a fruitful administration, and that ere long the vexed
Irish question or questions will be solved forever.


INTERNAL REVENUE.

  MADISON Wis.

  Let us know how the receipts from internal revenue in 1883 compare
  with those in 1882, and oblige an opponent of the proposition to
  take off the tax on spirits and tobacco. Add cost of collecting the
  same.

  JAMES.

_Answer._—The total receipts under the internal revenue laws for the
two fiscal years ending June 30, 1882, and June, 1883, were as shown
in the table below;

  Objects taxed.                 1882.             1883.

  Distilled spirits         $69,873,408.18     $74,368,775.20
  Tobacco                    47,391,988.91      42,104,249.79
  Fermented liquors          16,153,920.42      16,900,615.81
  Banks and bankers           5,253,458.47       3,748,994.60
    Adhesive stamps—
  Bank checks                 2,318,455.14       1,946.272.10
  Friction matches            3,262,258.00       2,920,545.20
  Patent medicines, etc.      1,978,395.56       2,186,236.16
  Penalties                     199,830.04         305,803.57
  Collections not otherwise
  provided for                   81,559.00          71,852.43
                           ———————————————    ———————————————
      Total                $146,523,273.72    $144,553,344.86

The increase of revenue from spirits during the last fiscal year
was $4,495,367.02; from fermented liquors was $746,695.39: the
decrease from tobacco, $5,287,739.12; and from banks and bankers,
$1,504,463.87. The total decrease of internal revenue from all
sources up to June 30, 1883, was $1,969,928.86. This decrease was
due mainly to the removal of certain taxes and the reduction of
others effected by the legislation of the last Congress. The cost
of collecting the internal revenue in the last year above named
was $5,113,734.88. Owing to the recent action of the President
consolidating collection districts, which dispenses with the services
of a number of collectors, and other curtailments rendered possible
by the legislation of the Republican Congress of 1881-1883, the
estimated cost of collecting internal revenue during the current
fiscal year is $4,999,190, and from present indications the actual
cost will be considerably less than this.


INTEREST PAID BY PACIFIC R. R. COMPANIES.

  COLUMBUS, Neb.

  What amount, if anything, have the Pacific Railroad Companies
  repaid on account of interest on their bonds advanced by the
  General Government?

  ANTI-MONOPOLIST.

_Answer._—We are not prepared to give the whole amounts, but during
the fiscal year ending June 30, 1883, the total amount received by
the Secretary of the United States Treasury toward repayment of
Pacific Railroad bonds, of various names and descriptions, guaranteed
by it, was $1,556,866.90, an increase of $716,312.53 over the sum
received on this account during the next previous year. During the
same period the sum of $1,322,103.11 was collected for the various
Pacific railway sinking funds toward liquidation of their bonds. This
was $525,831.69 more than during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1882.


SALT REVENUE OF NEW YORK STATE.

  MUSKEGON, Mich.

  Please let us know what income New York State has derived from salt
  since the manufacture was brought under State control, or monopoly,
  whichever you please to call it.

  A MICHIGAN SALT.

_Answer._—The following statistics on this subject, derived from
official sources, have been compiled for these columns by David H.
Mason, Esq., who is authority on questions of revenue obtained from
industrial products, either by Federal or State authorities. It
should be observed in this connection that the State of New York
supplies the brine to the manufacturers at the cost here indicated.
That is to say, for example, for the thirty-six years, 1846 to 1881,
inclusive, it supplied the brine for all salt made, and collected in
return therefor 1 cent for every bushel of salt produced within the
State.

Salt expenditures and revenues of New York in undermentioned years:

                             Rate       Duties
           Expenditures.    per bu.    received.

  1843      $29,816.72        6c      $187,650.00
  1844       33,286.58        6c       240,213.24
  1845       30,407.77        6c       225,741.48
            ——————————        ——      ———————————
            $93,511.07                $653,604.72
  Deduct expenditures                   93,511.07
                                      ———————————
  Net revenue                         $560,093.65

The total net revenue to the State from this industry from 1818 to
1881, inclusive, was as follows:

  Net revenue—

  1818 to 1824, 7 years             $452,393.39
  1825 to 1845, 21 years           2,900,916.50
  1846 to 1881, 36 years             706,319.58
                                  —————————————
      Sixty-four years            $4,059,629.47

The State tax of 12½c per bushel was levied previous to 1834: from
that time to April 20, 1846, the tax was 6c per bushel; since then 1c.

Another statement—

  1818 to 1833, 16 years, 12c per bu.  $1,746,719.45
  1834 to 1845, 12 years, 6c per bu.    1,606,590.44
  1846 to 1881, 36 years, 1c per bu.      706,319.58
                                       —————————————
  Net revenue in 64 years              $4,059,629.47


THE ORIGINAL MONITOR.

  CHICAGO, Ill.

  Is not the statement recently made that the original Monitor, which
  fought the rebel ram Merrimac, is still afloat a mistake? I am of
  the impression that she foundered at sea.

  OLD CITIZEN.

_Answer._—You are quite correct. According to G. V. Fox, at one time
Assistant Secretary of the Navy, “At 1 o’clock a. m., Dec. 31, 1862,
Cape Hatteras bearing N. N. E., distant twenty miles, this little
Monitor—whose fame, ‘following the sun and keeping company with the
hours, had circled the earth,’ found a resting place at the bottom of
the ocean.”


FOOTNOTES:

[1] Prohibition.

[2] Liberal.

[3] Independent Republican.

[4] Independent Democrat.

[5] Independent.

[6] Readjuster.

[7] By union of anti-Prohibition Republicans with Democrats.
Lieutenant Governor and Legislature went Republican.

[8] By union of Democrats, Greenbackers, and Independents.

[9] By fusion of Democrats and Greenbackers.

[10] By combination of Readjusters and Republicans.

[11] Republican, elected for term of one year, beginning May 29, 1883.

[12] This is what is known as “Police London,” its broadest
definition. The London covered by “Mortality Bills” contained but
3,831,719 inhabitants.

[13] Glasgow and its suburbs.

[14] Dublin County, most of the population of which is in Dublin and
its suburbs.




  MISCELLANEOUS ANSWERS

  AND

  EXECUTIVE AND CONGRESSIONAL DIRECTORY.


R. D. M., Edwardsburg, Mich.—THE DAILY INTER OCEAN first took that
name in March, 1872.

       *       *       *       *       *

S. L. Moore, Prior Lake, Minn.—General Sheridan was married to Miss
Irene Anna Rucker, daughter of General D. H. Rucker, U. S. A., June
3, 1875, by the Rt. Rev. Bishop Foley, of Chicago.

       *       *       *       *       *

A School Girl, Westville, Ill.—The Russians held Alaska by the right
of Behring’s discovery, in 1741, and the subsequent settlement of the
territory. In 1799 Paul VIII. granted this land to the Russo-American
Fur Company. The charter of the corporation was renewed in 1839, but
finally expired in 1863, and in 1867 Alaska was ceded to the United
States for $7,200,000.

       *       *       *       *       *

Willis Hollings, Albany, Ill.—Greenwich, situated upon the right bank
of the Thames, six miles southeast of London Bridge, is a favorite
suburb of Londoners, on account of its fine parks and picturesque
views. Its meridian was selected as the one from which to reckon
standard time because from it navigators generally, the world over,
are in the practice of reckoning time and longitude.

       *       *       *       *       *

G. H. S., McLean, Ill.—Snow-shoes consist of a flat wooden frame,
of lanceolate form, from four to seven feet long, and from eight to
fourteen inches in width at the broadest part. This frame is filled
with wicker-work or thongs, and furnished with straps upon the upper
side, for the feet. The sole may be wholly of wood. By the extreme
length and breadth the shoe is prevented from sinking in the snow.

       *       *       *       *       *

S. S. H., Smith Center, Kan.:—“The Little Old Sod Shanty on the
Claim” was composed by Mr. F. E. Jerome, and first published in the
_Smith County Pioneer_ in 1878, and refers to a claim one mile from
Smith Center.

       *       *       *       *       *

John Stuart, Lyneville, Wis.—The ordinary expenditures of the United
States Government for the year 1881 amounted to $178,204,146.41.

       *       *       *       *       *

Constant Reader, Chicago—The first negro slave owned in Chicago, it
is believed, was Black Jim, the property of John H. Kinzie, brought
here by him in 1804.

       *       *       *       *       *

A Subscriber, Morris, Ill.—“Johnson’s Universal Cyclopædia” says
that Miles Standish lost his wife, Rose, during the first winter in
America.

       *       *       *       *       *

Daisy, Emporia, Kan.—The sections of one mile square are the smallest
tracts, the out-boundaries of which the law requires to be actually
surveyed. The minor subdivisions are defined by law, and the
Surveyors General, in protracting township plats from the field notes
of sections, designate them in red ink, the lines connecting being
imaginary.

       *       *       *       *       *

Mary Maxwell Call, Fulda, Minn., evidently agrees substantially
with another correspondent, whose communication on this subject was
published a few days ago, as to the origin of the saying “All is
lovely and the goose hangs high.” She writes: “It is a corruption of
the sentry call, ‘All is lovely and the goose honks high,’” meaning,
the weather is pleasant and the high flying of the geese indicates
that it will continue so. She thinks, therefore, that it is not
“slang.” Webster, however, does not recognize “honk” as an English
word in good standing, though we are not sure but he should do so.

       *       *       *       *       *

W. F. Smith, Manning, Iowa.—The steeple of Trinity Church, New York
City, is 284 feet in height.

       *       *       *       *       *

W. H. L., Springfield, Ill.—“Lady’s Day” is the name given in England
to “Annunciation Day,” which always comes on the 25th of March. In
France it is known as Notre Dame de Mars. This year it and Easter
Sunday corresponded.

       *       *       *       *       *

James Wilson, Pontiac, Ill.—Journeymen printers on Chicago morning
dailies are paid 40 cents, on evening and weekly papers and book
work 37 cents per 1,000 ems. Job printers get from $18 a week, the
minimum, to $21. The expenses of living are greater in the city than
in the country; this is one reason why wages should be higher in the
city. Another is that most of the work on a daily paper must be done
at night.

       *       *       *       *       *

W. D. Doane, Kokomo, Col.—The government farms out the seal fur
fisheries of Alaska to a commercial company for a stipulated revenue,
and under strict laws regulating the business.

       *       *       *       *       *

C. L. Gilbert, Eau Claire, Wis.—“The Fall of Jerusalem” was written
by Henry Hart Milman, who lived from 1791 to 1868.

       *       *       *       *       *

L. Brock, Oswego, Kan.—Patented articles must bear notice of some
kind that they are patented, and date of patent.

       *       *       *       *       *

S. M. Sinclair, Marshalltown, Iowa.—Homesteaders and pre-emptors must
file their claims in person. They cannot legally do it by proxy of
any kind.

       *       *       *       *       *

James Allen, Chicago—The name of the village at the mouth of the
Mississippi, Balize, is the Spanish for beacon. A beacon-light has
shone here from early times.

       *       *       *       *       *

George S. L., Attica, N.Y.—The deepest artesian well in the world is
at Sperenburg, about twenty miles from Berlin, Prussia. It is 4,194
feet deep.

       *       *       *       *       *

“Lunatic,” Vermont, Ill.—The nineteenth century began Jan. 1, 1801,
and will end with Dec. 31, 1900.

       *       *       *       *       *

F. P., Amherst, Wis.—The Michigan Central Railroad was completed to
Ypsilanti, Feb. 3, 1838; to Jackson, Dec. 30, 1841.

       *       *       *       *       *

J. F. Clymer, Silver Lake, Ind.—The total colored population of the
United States in 1880 was 6,580,793.

       *       *       *       *       *

M. B. Hilts, Towanda, Ill.—The present capital of West Virginia is
Charleston. Wheeling was the capital until recently.

       *       *       *       *       *

Charles Shick, Imogene, Iowa.—In the contest between John C. Heenan
and Tom Sayers for the championship of the prize-ring, Sayers carried
off the belt.

       *       *       *       *       *

Harry, Creston, Iowa.—Dealings in “futures” or “puts and calls” are
contrary to the laws of Illinois. These laws have not been strictly
put in force. There is a disposition to do that now.

       *       *       *       *       *

Mr. Thompson, Monona, Iowa—There are about 320 acres inclosed in the
Union Stock Yards, Chicago.

       *       *       *       *       *

G. M. Ford, Chicago.—The total imports of the United States for the
fiscal year ending June 30, 1882, amounted to $767,111,964; the total
exports to $799,959,736.

       *       *       *       *       *

C. Allen, Rock Island, Ill.—The great earthquake which destroyed so
many lives in the Island of Scio in 1881 occurred on the 3d of April.
About 4,000 persons perished.

       *       *       *       *       *

Subscriber, Emmetsburg, Iowa—Chore is a corruption of the old English
noun char or chare, derived from the verb _to char_ or _to chare_,
signifying to work by the day, take one’s turn at doing jobs, instead
of working as a regularly hired servant.

       *       *       *       *       *

A. Annubehale, Chicago.—None but native Americans are eligible to the
office of President of the United States; but children of American
citizens residing abroad are legally regarded as natives of this
country so far as this and all other civil rights are concerned.

       *       *       *       *       *

G. W. Carter, Blair, Neb.—The fastest mile recorded of a running
horse was made by Ten Broeck at Louisville, Ky., May 24, 1877, in
1:39¾. The fastest mile recorded of a trotting horse was made by Maud
S. at Rochester, N. Y., Aug. 17, 1881, in 2:10¼.

       *       *       *       *       *

J. S. Ewell, Adrian, Ill.—The term “thoroughbred” means bred to a
high point from stock of good pedigree. It may be applied to any
species of animals, although, owing to the extensive breeding of
horses for speed, there has resulted what is now a distinct class
known as “thoroughbreds.”

       *       *       *       *       *

Blonde and Brunette, Chicago—The phrase “Bread is the staff of life”
is attributed to Dr. Jonathan Swift. It is in his “Tale of the Tub.”
It is not a Bible phrase. The original of “Uncle Tom’s Cabin” is
still alive. He has published an autobiography. He was in Chicago
not many months ago. His name is Rev. Josiah Henson.

       *       *       *       *       *

Non-voter, Rockford, Ill.—The fact that you are not a citizen and
are, therefore, a non-voter does not exempt you from payment of
poll-tax in case you do not wish to work out your assessment on the
highways. The public roads are enjoyed by citizens and aliens alike,
and—so are the taxes for keeping them in proper order.

       *       *       *       *       *

C. T. Smith, Braddyville, Iowa—The United States Government has
erected a line of towers in Illinois on about the meridian of Urbana,
and similar towers in other places, including the one near South
Bend, Ind., for the purpose of effecting a more accurate survey of
the country, and for other scientific purposes.

       *       *       *       *       *

D. W. Barlow, Nettleton, Mo.—Honey-dew is a sweet substance found
on the leaves of certain trees and plants in small drops, like dew.
There are two kinds of honey-dew, one which exudes from plants,
and the other which is deposited on leaves by an insect called the
_aphis_, or vine-fretter.

       *       *       *       *       *

H. M. Eastman, Fourche, D. T.—The oldest form of religion now extant
is the Hebrew religion. The next oldest, probably, are Parseeism,
or the religion of Zoroaster, and Brahmanism. All of these have
changed materially as regards ceremonial, but in doctrine they are
essentially consistent with the faith of their founders.

       *       *       *       *       *

“306,” Dana, Iowa—General P. H. Sheridan was at Sedan, by courtesy of
the King of Prussia, at the time of the surrender of Napoleon III.
and Marshal MacMahon’s army. At the opening of the battle, according
to the account of the correspondent of the New York _Tribune_,
written on the field, “the King, Count Bismarck, General Von Roon,
the War Minister, General von Moltke, and Generals Sheridan and
Forsythe stood in a group overlooking the principal field of attack.”

       *       *       *       *       *

Leonard Bauman, Clarence, Iowa—The most productive salt region of the
United States is the Saginaw salt district, Michigan. The most famous
and productive salt mines in the world are those of the rock salt
region of Wieliczka, in Gallicia, a province of Polish Austria. Great
chambers have been excavated in the solid salt, some of them fully
150 feet in height, and of immense length and breadth. One of these
is fitted up as a chapel dedicated to St. Anthony.

       *       *       *       *       *

An Engineer, Des Moines, Iowa—The assertion that State prisons are
filled with criminals of good education is a gross exaggeration.
Unhappily, the laws of all the different States do not provide for
full and carefully kept statistics, but in all cases where such
statistics are kept they go to show that, as a rule, ignorance is
the accompaniment, if not the foster parent, of crime. For the
most reliable report on this subject write to the Commissioner of
Education, Washington, D. C., asking for copy of the paper of Dr.
Wickersham, read at a recent session of the National Teachers’
Association.

       *       *       *       *       *

P. L. Stevens, Montfort, Wis.—Coal oil is much better as a
preservative of fence posts than kerosene oil, which is more
expensive and is not so effective.

       *       *       *       *       *

Peter Sanborn, Chicago.—Every soldier who, prior to June 22, 1874,
had made a homestead entry of less than 160 acres, may enter so much
more as, when added to the quantity previously entered, shall not
exceed 160 acres.

       *       *       *       *       *

S. G. Salisbury, Independence, Kan.—You are right in the opinion that
the President may call the militia from one State to another.

       *       *       *       *       *

Subscriber, Chicago.—The great single span of the Brooklyn bridge
is 1,595½ feet, or about one-half longer than the great span in the
Cincinnati suspension bridge, which is 1057 feet.

       *       *       *       *       *

F. V. Noggle, Galien, Mich.—Probably the deepest mine in the world
in actual working is a shaft in the Rosebridge colliery, near Wigan,
Eng., which is 2,445 feet deep.

       *       *       *       *       *

C., Muscatine, Iowa—According to the laws of Iowa, one-third of the
estate, real and personal, of a wife who dies without issue and
intestate goes to her husband as dower, and the rest goes to her
parents or heirs on the parents’ side.

       *       *       *       *       *

A Subscriber, Pittsburg, Ind.—1. The total number of troops called
for by the President during the late civil war was 2,763,670 men, and
there were 2,772,408 men furnished, besides 86,724 paid commutations,
making an aggregate of 2,859,132 men.

       *       *       *       *       *

A. O. A., Cambridge, Wis.—The total tobacco crop of the United States
in 1880, as given by the statisticians of the Bureau of Agriculture,
was 446,296,889 pounds, valued at $36,414,615. The crop of 1881 was
449,880,014 pounds, valued at $43,372,336.

       *       *       *       *       *

A Farmer, Cresco, Iowa.—Trichinæ may sometimes be seen with the
naked eye, appearing as minute specks. They average in size
one-seventy-eighth of an inch in length and one-thirtieth in breadth,
and it does not require a very powerful microscope to disclose them.

       *       *       *       *       *

R. A. Santer, Hitesville, Iowa.—To kill white willow, cut it close
to the ground in February or March to encourage the wood growth, and
then cut again about the middle of the following August. If any of
them sprout after that, keep them cut back and the roots must perish.

       *       *       *       *       *

Minnie Brumfield, Perry, Iowa.—“Sheridan’s Ride” was written by
Thomas Buchanan Read, one of the most delightful of American poets.

       *       *       *       *       *

John Nail, Xenia, Ill.—Your question has been answered very recently.
A husband and wife cannot, both, make pre-emption or homestead
entries. A married woman can do so only where she is held to be
the virtual head of the family, as in case of the insanity or
imprisonment of her husband, or abandonment.

       *       *       *       *       *

A Subscriber, Hobart, Ind.—The proportion of butter in milk varies
with the breed of cattle and their food. The average is about 5 per
cent in good milk. It is nearer 6 per cent in the milk of Jersey
cows on good feed. The proportion of butter in cream also varies
considerably. It will average about 5½ pounds of butter to ten of
cream.

       *       *       *       *       *

C. S. Hasbrouck, Mendon, Mich.—The ancient language of the Irish was
of Celtic origin, and specimens of it are still extant in old legal
documents. As a living written language it no longer exists, but a
corruption of it is still spoken among the natives of the mountain
districts.

       *       *       *       *       *

S. M., Moline, Ill.—Northwestern Arkansas has been partially
described in another part of “Our Curiosity Shop” to-day. The more
common trees are the poplar, oak, pine, sycamore, ash, elm, and
hickory. This part of the State is watered by the White and Arkansas
rivers, and their tributaries. The principal railroads are the
St. Louis and the Little Rock and Fort Smith. Upon the former the
important towns are: Van Buren, population, 1,029; Fayetteville,
population, 1,788, and Bentonville, population, 784; on the latter,
Ozark, population, 824, and Clarksville, population, 656.

       *       *       *       *       *

A. B., Chicago—At the census of 1880 the “West Side” division of this
city had the largest population. The Fourteenth Ward contained the
most inhabitants, 56,464; the First Ward, the business center, the
fewest, 14,770.

       *       *       *       *       *

E. H. Topper, Greensburg, Pa.—Historians disagree as to the number
in Xerxes’ army when he invaded Greece, but no one of them was ever
so insane as to assert that he had 35,000,000 men. According to
Herodotus, the whole number of fighting men in the military and naval
force was nearly 2,500,000. He supposes, and it was evidently a wild
guess, that with the raw recruits picked up in passing through the
territories of Thrace, Macedonia, Magnesia, and other half-savage
districts, who hoped to share in the spoils of Greece, and the
servants and camp followers, there was a total multitude of about
6,000,000 persons. Other Grecian writers regard this as a gross
exaggeration.

       *       *       *       *       *

James Dunnoon, Davenport, Iowa—The extent of the Victoria Nyanza, or
great fresh water lake at the head of the Nile, is a little more than
that of Lake Huron and a trifle less than that of Lake Michigan. It
does not vary in size 1,000 square miles from either.

       *       *       *       *       *

De Lesseps, Peoria, Ill.—The average height of the Atlantic Ocean
at the Isthmus of Darien above the Pacific is given in “Haswell’s
Engineer’s Pocket-book” as 6.56 feet.

       *       *       *       *       *

W. I. Pratt, Tuscola, Ill.—The nickname “gentle shepherd” belonged to
the Hon. George Grenville (born in 1712), and originated thus: He was
a Whig, and while urging a tax upon cider, asked his opponents where
they would have it. Becoming excited, he exclaimed: “Let them tell me
where; I repeat it, sir, tell me where;” when Pitt, who was one of
the opposition, raised a laugh by repeating the words of an old song,
“Gentle shepherd, tell me where.” Your other questions we cannot
answer.

       *       *       *       *       *

N. Johnson, Peoria, Ill.—The three most level States in the Union are
Delaware, Louisiana, and Illinois; the latter being more broken than
either of the others.

       *       *       *       *       *

Readers, Chicago—John Wilkes Booth was shot in a barn near Bowling
Green, Va., April 26, 1865 twelve days after the assassination—while
resisting arrest—by Boston Corbett.

       *       *       *       *       *

L. D. Nickerson, Appleton, Wis.—The name of the author of “Ecce Homo”
and “Ecce Deus” is John Robert Seeley.

       *       *       *       *       *

A Reader, Freeport, Ill.—The essential difference between a galvanic
and a Faraday battery is that the former uses a connecting fluid
between zinc and copper, and the latter uses the magnetic coil.

       *       *       *       *       *

“Anxious Mother”—Kansas has established a reform school for boys at
North Topeka. The Nebraska Legislature has voted $10,000 to open an
industrial reform school at Kearney.

       *       *       *       *       *

F. G. Day, Strahn, Iowa—Cole Younger is working out a life sentence
in the Stillwater State Penitentiary, Minn.

       *       *       *       *       *

An Inquirer, Joliet, Ill.—Prince Gortschakoff skillfully retreated
with his garrison from Sebastopol when beleaguered by the allied
armies.

       *       *       *       *       *

Frank C. Mercer, Kansas City, Mo.—1. A troy ounce weighs 480 grains;
an avoirdupois ounce, 437½ grains. 2. Aaron Burr was the third Vice
President of the United States, having been elected with Thomas
Jefferson in 1800.

       *       *       *       *       *

Samuel Burt, Girard, Kan.—The distillery having the largest capacity
in the United States is located at Peoria, Ill. If the great
distillery at Des Moines, Iowa, were fully equipped, as originally
intended, it would be the largest in the world.

       *       *       *       *       *

L. D. Crotchett, Edwardsville, Kan.—1. The salary of United States
Senators and Representatives is $5,000 each. 2. The Vice President
and Speaker of the House each receive $8,000. 3. According to a
decision of Attorney General Brewster, a Congressman is not a United
States officer within the meaning of that term in certain statutes;
but in the broader sense of the word he is an officer. See definition
of officer in Webster’s Dictionary.

       *       *       *       *       *

B. Frank Hoover, Penrose, Ill.—The days you name are not made school
holidays by statute, although they are legal holidays as regards
commercial paper. Saturdays, New Years, Fourth of July, and Christmas
are the only legal school holidays in Illinois, unless the board of
directors agrees to grant other holidays, which it has power to do.

       *       *       *       *       *

M. L. Karney, Brodhead, Wis.—The Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul
Railroad pays Mr. Lawler twenty-five cents for every freight car,
and fifty cents for every coach which he transports across the
Mississippi upon his pontoon bridges at Prairie du Chien. The company
has no other means of crossing at that place.

       *       *       *       *       *

J. H. Rhodes, Big Rock, Ill.—The Erie Canal, extending from Buffalo
to Albany, has at the western end an eastern flow for a short
distance—from Buffalo to Seneca River, then a western flow from Lodi
to the Seneca River, and finally an eastern flow from Lodi into
the Hudson River near Albany. The motion of the water is greatly
moderated by the numerous locks, which serve to impede the current.
The expense of constructing this canal was much less per mile than
the cost of the Suez Canal.

       *       *       *       *       *

George W. Robbins, Peru, Neb.—The United States statutes are silent
upon the subject of National holidays, except that they provide that
as to negotiable paper, bills of exchange, promissory notes, etc.,
the effect of July 4, Dec. 25, and Thanksgiving Day shall be the same
as that of Sunday, or the first day of the week.

       *       *       *       *       *

C. E. Stevenson, Bryant, Ill.—Sam Patch made his last and fatal leap
at Genesee Falls, New York.

       *       *       *       *       *

P. A. Brooks, Mt. Vernon, Iowa.—The Constitution of the United States
was framed by a convention of delegates from all the States except
Rhode Island, held at Philadelphia in September, 1787. Tom Paine was
not a delegate.

       *       *       *       *       *

J. R. Cripper.—Adelaide Neilson was a distinguished actress. She
filled several successful engagements in this city, and died in Paris
in 1852.

       *       *       *       *       *

R. S., Kill Creek, Kan.—The height of mountains is determined from
the relative height of the barometer. Ascending from the sea level
the air becomes lighter, and the mercury in the barometer falls.
Civil engineers, knowing the height of the barometer at sea level,
and also at the place whose height they desire to determine, are able
to compute the elevation of the place. Other methods are sometimes
used.

       *       *       *       *       *

Harry T. Ashton, Chicago—Emile Gaboriau is a man. 2. “Ouida” is the
assumed name of Miss Louisa De la Rame, an English novelist of French
extraction.

       *       *       *       *       *

V. G. Bush, Cayuga, Ill.—A young lady ceases to be a minor when she
attains the age of 18. 2. Brokerage is computed on the face, or par
value of stock.

       *       *       *       *       *

H. Joint, Logan, Kan.—The statutes of California declare the marriage
of white and colored persons unlawful. The Constitution of the United
States does not forbid it.

       *       *       *       *       *

Milton T. Cox, Fairmount, Ind.—The steamship Alaska, which made the
quickest time on record from New York to Queenstown, viz., 6 days 18
h 37 m, sailed 2,925.7 miles. This may be considered a fair estimate
of the sailing distance between the two places.

       *       *       *       *       *

Ex-Soldier, Kellerton, Iowa—1. Alcohol thermometers are used for
observing temperature below 38 degrees, though ordinarily they are
not as accurate as mercurial thermometers.

       *       *       *       *       *

John A. Hughes, Grapeland, Texas—For the election of members of
the lower house of the General Assembly of Illinois the State is
districted so that three members represent each district. Then every
elector is permitted to cast three votes. He may give three to one
candidate, one and a half to each of two, or one to each of the three.

       *       *       *       *       *

Subscriber, Belmond, Iowa—The real name of Eli Perkins is M. D.
Landon.

       *       *       *       *       *

G. W. D., Chicago.—As nearly as one can judge from the names, about
four-fifths of the Chicago saloon-keepers are foreign born. As to
their politics, it is hard to tell where to place them, except in a
local election, when a majority of them are sure to be in favor of
low license and anti-Sunday legislation.

       *       *       *       *       *

F. M. P., Clipper, Iowa.—It is probable Saint John died at Ephesus
during the reign of the Emperor Trajan. Jerome states that he was 100
years old, Suidas 120 years. There is no reference to the age of Job,
save that he lived 140 years after his trials ended. 2. Molasses is a
singular noun.

       *       *       *       *       *

R. P. Drake, Shenandoah, Iowa—The origin of the word dude, is not
certainly known. It has been in English slang for a 100 years
at least. It has not been widely used in this country until
comparatively recently, but in Salem, Mass., and vicinity, it has
held a place in local slang for many years.

       *       *       *       *       *

Subscriber, Houghton, Mich.—St. Patrick’s Day is the day set apart in
the Romish calendar for special religious observances in honor of the
founder of the Christian church in Ireland, canonized by the Church
of Rome as St. Patrick. It is probably not the day of his birth,
since it is generally conceded that it is impossible to determine
that.

       *       *       *       *       *

Mrs. J. R. Dowling, Wheatland, Iowa.—After the death of the great
Roman general and statesman, Cæsar became a title of all of the
Roman emperors, and from them has passed into several other European
countries to designate the chief ruler. In Germany it appears as
Kaiser, and in Russia as Czar. 2. We have lately answered your other
questions.

       *       *       *       *       *

E. C. W., Garden City, Kan.—The Dry Tortugas and several other
islands off the Florida coast belong to the United States. The
government has a military station, hospital, etc. on the Dry
Tortugas, and sometimes sends convicts there.

       *       *       *       *       *

A. V. Bacon, Lansing, Minn.—The principal reasons for outgoing
trans-Atlantic steamers from the United States bearing north, are:
the influence of the gulf stream running from the southern extremity
of Florida up the American coast, making to northeastward between
New Foundland and Ireland; the higher latitude of the British Isles;
and in certain seasons the prevailing winds. “Imaginary lines” have
nothing to do with their choice of this course. If the form of the
earth was the only thing to be considered, the steamers would sail
on the great circle connecting the port of departure and the port of
destination, both going and coming, because such a circle marks the
shortest distance between the two points on the sphere. But winds and
currents are more important than shortest distances.

       *       *       *       *       *

E. D. Vorhes, Peotone, Ill.—We believe Whittier is sometimes
referred to as the “bachelor poet,” but we know of no living poet of
distinction referred to as “the boy poet.” Isaac Watts wrote verses
at a very early age, despite of all the attempts of his father to
reform him of this weakness. Our own William Cullen Bryant, who was
very fond of declaiming some of Watts’ hymns at 7, 6, and even 5
years of age, began to make verses of his own at 8 years, and wrote
a poem for a school examination at 10 years, which was of sufficient
merit to become a stock declamation in other schools. He wrote “The
Embargo” and “The Spanish Revolution” when he was but 13. Henry Kirke
White wrote good poetry before he was 15, and published a volume of
poems when he was not quite 17. Other “boy poets” there have been,
but who is the “boy poet,” so recognized, of this prosaic age?

       *       *       *       *       *

Fred Cooke, Butte City, M. T.—Probably New York State leads all
others in the quantity and quality of marketable apples produced and
in the prices realized.

       *       *       *       *       *

Adaline, Moline, Ill.—A lady writing to a person who does not know
whether she is single or married should sign Mrs. or Miss ——, as
otherwise the receiver cannot tell how to address his reply.

       *       *       *       *       *

A. P. Hargrave, Lowden, Iowa.—The rectangular system of survey was
adopted by the United States Government May 20, 1785, several years
before the adoption of the present constitution. It was put to
practice first in Southwestern Ohio; the first principal meridian
being run from the mouth of the Great Miami.

       *       *       *       *       *

Theodore Wiltz, Dana, Ill.—Yes, “a person who has resided in the
United States but one year, and has only taken out his first
naturalization papers can pre-empt or make a homestead entry in
Dakota.” He does not need to reside in the country a year; fifteen
minutes is long enough after he has formally declared his intention
to become a citizen: so great-hearted and liberal is “Uncle Sam.”

       *       *       *       *       *

Charles W. Collins, Louisville, Wis.—In cases of simultaneous
applications to enter under the homestead laws, the rule is as
follows: Where neither party has improvements on the land, it should
be sold to the one who bids highest. Where one has actual settlement
and improvements and the other none, it should be awarded to the
actual settler. Where both allege settlement and improvements, an
investigation must be had, and the lands awarded to him who shows the
prior actual settlement and substantial improvements, each as to be
notice on the ground to any competitor.

       *       *       *       *       *

Inquirer, ——, Kan.—The law making it necessary for an officer of one
State to have a requisition from the Governor of the same upon the
authorities of another State before he can arrest and take therefrom
any person charged with crime is designed to prevent persons from
being transported to other States, in some cases far from home,
friends, business interests, to be tried among strangers, without
good evidence that a crime of some magnitude has been committed.
Similar reasons, but of much less cogency, apply in support of laws
limiting the authority of sheriffs and constables to the counties to
which they belong, except when armed with special warrants.

       *       *       *       *       *

L. J. Martin. Bowling Green, Ky.—The following States cast their
electoral votes for Mr. Lincoln for his first term: California,
Connecticut, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan,
Minnesota, New Hampshire, New York, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode
Island, Vermont, Wisconsin.

       *       *       *       *       *

J. S. White, Paw Paw, Mich.—The largest ratio of colored population
in Kansas in 1880 was in Bourbon County, being as 7,314 to 8,642, or
nearly 47 per cent of the total. The next was in Christian County,
where it was as 14,639 to 17,043, or a little over 45 per cent. The
ratio in Fayette County was almost as great, say as 12,974 to 16,049,
or over 44 per cent. There were no other counties where it was nearly
so great.

       *       *       *       *       *

Subscriber, Blendon, Kan.—1. The Penitentiary at Sing Sing, N. Y., is
a State institution. Prisoners convicted in Federal courts are sent
there under an arrangement between State and Federal authorities.
2. Rip Van Winkle is the fictitious hero of one of Washington
Irving’s “Sketch Book” tales, entitled the “Legend of Sleepy Hollow.”
The popular play of the same name is the same story, with some
alterations, as dramatized by Dion Boucicault.

       *       *       *       *       *

B. F. McCormick, Rock Valley, Iowa.—“Sunset Cox” takes this nickname
from a really vivid but rather grandiloquent description of an Ohio
sunset, which was widely copied into exchanges at the time it was
written, many years ago. “Extra Billy Smith,” not “of New York,” but
ante bellum Representative from Virginia, and subsequently Governor
of that State when in rebellion, fairly won this name from his
predilection for recommending and voting extras in appropriation
bills.

       *       *       *       *       *

W. I. Pratt.—1. Thomas Green Fessenden was an early American author
and journalist of wide reputation. He was born in New Hampshire
in 1771; graduated at Dartmouth College in 1796; studied law, but
made more reputation as a writer. His poem, “The Country Lovers,”
was popular, as was also his humorous, satirical poem, “Terrible
Tractoration.” He settled in Boston in 1804, where he became editor
of the _New England Farmer_, He died in 1837.

       *       *       *       *       *

A Subscriber, Walnut, Iowa.—Whether persons who have been shipwrecked
shall be carried free of charge upon other vessels is optional with
the captains of said vessels. If landed in a strange country, they
may seek aid from the consul representing their own government. The
American consul is furnished with funds to help shipwrecked seamen
only, but he is under obligation to do what he can for all American
citizens in distress.

       *       *       *       *       *

Dicke, Dana, Ill.—There is no “Senator at large.” A “Representative
at large” is one elected by the entire State, instead of a district,
in those States failing to redistrict before the election following
the reapportionment of Representatives according to the latest
census. For instance, the four additional Representatives given to
Kansas by the last Congressional apportionment were elected on a
general State ticket and not from single districts. In Maine, where
the number of Congressmen was reduced, the Legislature having failed
to redistrict the State all the Representatives were elected on a
general State ticket.

       *       *       *       *       *

David E. Gray.—1. The treaty of St. Ildefonso was an offensive and
defensive alliance between the first French Republic and Spain,
negotiated Aug. 19, 1796, resulting, among other things, in a war
between these allied powers and England. 2. Oregon and Washington
Territory fix the weight of a bushel of green apples at 45 pounds.
Other States and Territories fix the legal weight of dried apples,
but not of green apples, so far as we can discover.

       *       *       *       *       *

A Reader, Crete, Neb.—The greater weight of a body at the poles, as
compared with its weight at the equator, is attributed, principally,
to two causes, viz., the estimated shorter distance from the pole to
the center of the earth; and the centrifugal force resulting from the
revolution of the earth on its axis, which is zero at the poles and
at its maximum at the equator.

       *       *       *       *       *

John Steele, Chicago—Yes, a fine watch may easily be ruined by too
close approach to a powerful electrical machine. The hair-spring and
balance wheel become magnetized, and it is difficult and costly to
get them demagnetized.

       *       *       *       *       *

James McNulty, Chicago—The pitch of a roof is the ratio of its
height divided by its span. Consequently a half pitch roof is one
whose height is half its span, a quarter pitch one whose height is
one-fourth the span, and so on. The answer you refer to was defective
in omitting the word “span” after “foot.”

       *       *       *       *       *

Charles Seymour, Chicago, Ill.—The Emperor Maximilian I., of Mexico,
had two foreign legions besides his French allies, one known as the
“Belgic Legion,” the other as the “Austrian Legion.”

       *       *       *       *       *

O. Clark.—In the case of Wright vs. Wood it was decided that “four
pre-emptors may combine to erect a house upon the corner common to
their claims, but each pre-emptor must reside in his own part of
the house.” If you will send your address and a postal-card we will
answer your other question.

       *       *       *       *       *

Taylor Lee, Sammon’s Landing, Mich.—Great Abaco is an island in the
Bahama group. It is about eighty miles long and twenty wide. Little
Abaco, about twenty-eight miles long, is near it. They are both
specially adapted to the raising of early vegetables for the great
American markets. Being at the northern end of the Bahamas, they lie
directly east of the most eastern projection of Florida. They belong
to Great Britain.

       *       *       *       *       *

L. J. Worden, Bowling Green, Ky.—The first railroad on which a
locomotive was operated was the Merthyr-Tydvil Railway, England. This
was in 1804. But the first railway built for general traffic was
constructed by Pease and Stephenson in 1825. It was the Stockton and
Darlington Railroad in England. For further particulars see Curiosity
Shop of last year, in book form, page 101.

       *       *       *       *       *

E. Judkins, Alpowa, W. T.—1. The author of “The Beautiful Snow” is
James W. Watson.

       *       *       *       *       *

C. L. N., Cresco, Mich.—1. The talent of the Scriptures, or Hebrew
talent, has been variously estimated at from $1,645 to $1,916. 2. To
take care of your live oyster ask advice of the Superintendent of
State Fisheries, Lansing, Mich.

       *       *       *       *       *

D. S., Winters, Ill.—The inventor of Sharps’ rifles for military and
sporting purposes was Christian Sharps, a scientific machinist, born
in New Jersey in 1811, died in 1874. The manufacture of these rifles
was begun at Hartford, Conn., in 1854.

       *       *       *       *       *

W. Bird, Bolivar, Mo.—The Maas (or Meuse, as it is called in the
upper part of its course) is a river of Belgium and Holland, which,
after uniting with the River Rhine, discharges into the North Sea
not far from Rotterdam. During the winter months the Dutch travel
and amuse themselves on skates and runners on the ice of their many
canals, lakes, and rivers, these being their thoroughfares in winter
as well as in summer. Owing to moderate temperature and an unexpected
rise in the river in the winter of 1512, the ice suddenly gave way at
a point on the Maas, near Rotterdam, and a large number of people,
some say about 8,000, were precipitated into the water, where the
most of them perished.

       *       *       *       *       *

Joe Davidson, White Rock, Kan.—1. The District of Columbia contains
an area of sixty-four square miles. 2. The yearly salary of the
President is $50,000; that of the Vice President $8,000; of each of
the members of the Cabinet $8,000; of Senators, $5,000 each, 20 cents
per mile mileage, stationery $125, franking privilege, and expenses
when serving on special committees; Representatives the same as
Senators.

       *       *       *       *       *

Leonard Smith, Atalissa, Iowa—The fastest time on record for any
locomotive in this country (and we find no faster for any other) is
fourteen miles in eleven minutes, made by locomotive Hamilton Davis
and 6 cars on the New York Central Railroad in 1855. This was an
average of a mile in 47⅐ seconds.

       *       *       *       *       *

Prosy, Busti, Iowa.—1. Rice was introduced into this country from
Madagascar through the gift of a sack of rice by the captain of a
vessel driven into Charleston, S. C., in 1694, to Thomas Smith, who
planted it in his garden and distributed the seed.

       *       *       *       *       *

M. V., Suez, Ill.—“Gulliver’s Travels” were written by Jonathan
Swift, who was born in Dublin, Ireland, Nov. 30, 1667; died in the
same city, Oct. 19, 1745. The above named work was a series of
humoristic satires on the weaknesses of human nature, the follies of
society, and the foibles of certain individuals against whom Swift
cherished personal antipathies.

       *       *       *       *       *

Phillip Blunn, Seward, Kan.—Fremont in early life was a bold,
original spirit, as is fully shown by his daring and at times almost
reckless adventures during the explorations by which he discovered
the overland route to California and opened up the regions of the
great Salt Lake and Upper California to American settlement. He
chafed under the restraints of military discipline, and was charged
with disobeying or exceeding his instructions, which he sometimes
undoubtedly did: and in his case it nearly always turned out
fortunately for the country. He was placed under military arrest and
found “guilty of mutiny and insubordination” for acting as Governor
of California by appointment of Commodore Stockton in 1846, contrary
to orders of General Kearney. The “Old Pathfinder,” as he was
subsequently called, rather gained by the event.

       *       *       *       *       *

Soper Bros. & Co., Chicago—In the destruction of the Southern Hotel,
St. Louis, April 11, 1877, thirteen lives were lost and thirty-five
persons seriously injured. The hotel was rebuilt, and was reopened to
the public about one year ago last summer.

       *       *       *       *       *

P. L. F., Swan Lake, Dak.—1. There are two State Normal schools in
Illinois—one at Bloomington and the other at Carbondale. 2. There is
no part of the earth’s surface where the sun’s rays, if unobstructed
by some intervening object, would not shine into a north window at
some time in the year.

       *       *       *       *       *

M. L. Scott, Boulder, Col.—1. The Chief Justices of the United States
since 1789 have been John Jay, John Rutledge, Oliver Ellsworth, John
Marshall, Roger B. Taney, Salmon P. Chase, and the present incumbent,
Morrison R. Waite. 2. The corner-stone of our first Federal Capitol
was laid by George Washington Sept, 18, 1793. The corner-stone of the
extension of 1851 was laid by Millard Fillmore.

       *       *       *       *       *

A. C., Streator, Ill.—Inauguration Day, of the 4th of March, on
which the term of office of the President of the United States
must necessarily begin, has occurred on Sunday fourteen times this
century. It occurred so the last time on the occasion of President
Hayes’ inauguration, and he quietly took the oath of office in the
White House Sunday afternoon. The inauguration ceremonial at the
Capitol took place the next day. Inauguration Day will not fall on
Sunday again during this century.

       *       *       *       *       *

James Harman, Central City, Neb.—The total receipts from saloon
licenses in this city in 1880 amounted to $182,226.40. The expenses
entailed through pauperage, damage to property and person, increased
cost of police, jails, etc., cannot be accurately determined. It is a
matter of estimate.

       *       *       *       *       *

A Subscriber, Chicago.—In the Massachusetts gubernatorial election,
Butler received 133,946 votes: Bishop, 119,997, and Almy, 2,137,
making Butler’s plurality 13,949, and his majority 11,812.

       *       *       *       *       *

The ten-mile race at the State fair held at Minneapolis last fall was
won by Miss Belle Cook, with five horses, in 20:02. Little Cricket
won the twenty-mile race in 40:59.

       *       *       *       *       *

John Allen, Topeka, Kan.—The real name of “Mary Blake,” contributor
to the _Century_, is Mrs. Blakesley.

       *       *       *       *       *

A. B. E.—The authoress of “Curfew Must Not Ring To-night” is Rose
Hartwicke Thorpe.

       *       *       *       *       *

J. M. H., Stanberry, Mo.—The President pro tempore of the Senate
draws the same salary as the Vice President when filling the same
office. You are right as to the apportionment of members of Congress.
The whole question is explained on page 75 of Our Curiosity Shop
of 1882, in book form, costing 25 cents, postage included. It
answers hundreds of such questions as you and your fellow-students
are discussing. There is no instance of a State’s returning to the
condition of a Territory, unless the rebel States were in that
condition before they adopted their “reconstruction constitutions”
just after the war, when they were under provisional governments.
Your other questions have all been answered very recently.

       *       *       *       *       *

“She-cau-oh,” Chicago, Ill.—We give your note just as it comes
to us: “Man-i-_to_-ba—that is not the way it is pronounced, but
Ma-nit-a-_bah_. Chicago should be She-cau-_oh_ (Potawatome)—‘all
gone,’ ‘far-off-place.’ Sioux, pronounce Sou. I could speak the
Indian language better than the English once.—She-cau-_oh_.” It
is too late in the world’s history to change the pronunciation of
Chicago back to the original, and, for that matter, the pronunciation
of Manitoba is hopelessly anglicized into Man-i-_tow_-ba. Still we
thank you for your note, and will preserve it in our bound Curiosity
Shop as another witness for the original pronunciation of all these
names, and what is admitted to be one of the Indian meanings of
Chicago, the others, vouched for by good authority, being “strong”
and “wild onion,” the sense in each case being dependent on the
connection.

       *       *       *       *       *

Ida, Milo, Ill.—1. George III. was King of England during the whole
period of the American revolution. His Prime Minister from 1770 until
after the surrender of Cornwallis was Lord North, and two other of
the principal members of his Cabinet were Lords Gower and Weymouth.
In 1779 the latter, seeing the hopelessness of the effort to subdue
the Americans, resigned, but North continued in power until after the
capture of Cornwallis at Yorktown, when he resigned March 20, 1782,
and was succeeded by the Marquis of Rockingham, who at once opened
negotiations for peace.

       *       *       *       *       *

Alfred Gates, Lafayette, Ind.—The dower right of a married woman
in her husband’s real estate has been abolished in Indiana and
California. In States where married women are entitled to dower, it
is the general rule that relinquishments of dower made by any such
woman under 21 years of age are of no effect unless ratified by her
after she has attained that age. Even in most States where women are
“of age,” or become mistresses of themselves at an earlier age than
21, they cannot convey real estate until they have attained the full
legal majority of 21 years.

       *       *       *       *       *

Martha J. McCoy, Mt. Pleasant, Iowa.—If the paint is scaling off your
recently painted house it proves that there is not much pure white
lead and good boiled linseed oil in it. Unless one employs an honest
painter and contracts for these substantial ingredients he is almost
certain to get white lead adulterated with earths, sulphate of
baryta, or other cheap materials, mixed with worthless substitutes
for linseed oil. The lowest-priced paints are usually the dearest in
the long run, particularly for outside work.

       *       *       *       *       *

Georgia L. Brown, West Salem, Wis.—1. The salary of the President
was increased to $50,000 a year—making it the same as that of
the Governor General of Canada—on the last day of the first term
of President Grant, who drew pay according to this law from the
beginning of his second term.

       *       *       *       *       *

S., Greenfield, Ill.—“Red Line Poets” is a trade name given to
certain editions of selected poems printed on pages bordered with
red lines. There are one or two English books of this description,
and one or more American books. No two of them embrace the same list
of authors. A Boston red-line edition contains only selections from
Longfellow, Whittier, Bryant, Holmes, Lowell, and Emerson.

       *       *       *       *       *

Amateur Antiquary, Chicago, Ill.—“Empire State of the South” is a
popular appellation for Georgia in allusion to its being the leading
State in wealth and enterprise. Tennessee is sometimes called the
“Big-bend State,” in allusion to the spoon-like bend of the Tennessee
River. West Virginia is sometimes called the “Pan-handle State,”
because it includes that singular strip of land between the Ohio
River and the boundary of Pennsylvania.

       *       *       *       *       *

H. N. Kinney, Mantone, Ill.—The leading corn county of this State in
1881 was McLean, with a crop of 9,750,000 bushels; the next largest
was Livingston, with 6,983,522 bushels. The same year Kankakee County
produced 2,743,300 bushels.

       *       *       *       *       *

R. D. Silsby, Modale, Iowa.—Your friend is right in asserting that
there are yellow and brownish varieties of cotton. The valuable
Orleans cotton staples are naturally white, but there is cheap yellow
and brownish staple used for nankeen cloth, and one sort known as
Bourbon cotton.

       *       *       *       *       *

A Reader, Glenwood, Iowa.—1. The great Chicago fire of 1871 began
Sunday evening, Oct. 8, and lasted until Tuesday morning. 2. Henry
Wilson, the late Vice President, changed his name, by birth Colbath.
Why, he always treated as a strictly private matter. His childhood
was one of extreme poverty, and he was apprenticed when he was but
ten years old.

       *       *       *       *       *

Normal Student, Stanbury, Mass.—There is no State in the Union where
a man can vote before he is 21 years of age. However, if a man’s
birthday is Feb. 1 he becomes of age Jan. 31, as the law takes no
account of fractions of a day in a matter of this kind.

       *       *       *       *       *

C. H. Martin, Cheboygan, Mich.—St. Patrick was sent by Pope Celestine
as a missionary to Ireland, after being a monk in the celebrated
monastery of Lerius, in France. His father was a deacon in the Church
of Rome, and his mother was a sister of St. Martin of Tours.

       *       *       *       *       *

A Reader, Chicago.—In Wisconsin it is not necessary to take out a
marriage license.

       *       *       *       *       *

A. G. Damson, Vienna, Ill.—W. H. Russell, war correspondent of the
London _Times_ during “the recent unpleasantness,” is called “Bull
Run Russell” because of his overdrawn description of the first battle
of Bull Run, and prediction of the speedy collapse of the Union as a
consequence. He is still alive.

       *       *       *       *       *

Geo. T. L., Attica, N. Y.—The President of Mexico at this time is
General Gonzales; installed Dec. 1, 1880, for four years. There is a
Senate composed of the Vice President and two members of each of the
twenty-seven States. The House of Representatives consists of one
member for each 80,000 population, and in 1879 numbered 331. During
the recess of Congress a Council of Government, composed of the Vice
President and half of the Senate, sits, to advise the President.

       *       *       *       *       *

A. C., Englewood, Ill.—The silkworm spins its cocoon and passes into
the torpid state of a chrysalis or pupa. If allowed to remain in this
state too long it becomes active, begins to gnaw its way through the
cocoon, and finally comes forth in the butterfly state. The cocoon
is then of little value. But if, just before the chrysalis begins to
grow active, the cocoons are dropped into boiling water the insect is
instantly killed, and the silk is easily unwound and reeled for the
market.

       *       *       *       *       *

B. B. Williams, Parsons, Kan.—The Golden Horn is the name of the
inlet from the Bosphorus, which divides the city of Constantinople
and constitutes its magnificent harbor.

       *       *       *       *       *

A. M. A., Union Grove, Ill.—When Governor Ford’s term as Governor
expired, in 1846, he moved to Peoria and went into the practice of
the law. He had been called from the office of Associate Judge of the
Supreme Court to that of Governor, but although a good judge, he was
not well suited for an advocate. Moreover, he had become addicted to
overdrinking and during his gubernatorial term had made many violent
enemies in his own party, some of whom spared no opportunity to wound
him. He had retired from the Governorship “poorer than when he was
inaugurated,” and failing to secure a remunerative practice against
all the discouragements above mentioned, he fell into despondency,
and died at Peoria in 1850 in indigent circumstances, but not “a
pauper.”

       *       *       *       *       *

N. K. Pierce, Mentor, Kan.—The most elegant Pullman palace cars cost
from $20,000 to $25,000, but such cars have been made in only a few
special cases. The ordinary Pullman car costs from $11,000 to $15,000.

       *       *       *       *       *

Inquirer, LeRoy.—1. The American Almanac for 1883 states the total
number of churches in the United States at 92,477, omitting the
churches of the Methodist Episcopal Church South, which numbers about
8,000. 2. The membership of all the Protestant churches is stated
at 8,974,400, and the “adherents” of the Roman Catholic church at
6,370,858, according to the Catholic Directory for 1882. Protestant
churches enumerate only those who become members by profession of
faith or letters from other churches; Roman Catholics enumerate
all who have been baptized in their faith, either in infancy or
after years. 3. Church attendance can only be estimated from church
sittings, which average for the United States about two and a half
times the membership. 4. The total number of newspapers, magazines,
and other periodicals published in the United States in the census
year is given as 11,314.

       *       *       *       *       *

Old Subscriber, Lincoln, Ill.—In most of the States the marriage of a
female partner in any business firm dissolves the partnership.

       *       *       *       *       *

J. L. Orr, Glen Haven, Wis.—Evidently the north window of a house
situated on the north pole would be a sky light. All side wall
windows would look to the south.

       *       *       *       *       *

J. J. Stark, LaCygne, Kan.—1. The most celebrated picture of “Christ
and the Last Supper” was painted by Leonardo da Vinci in 1497. 2.
Your second question we cannot answer.

       *       *       *       *       *

E. Finley, Pontiac, Ill.—The total precipitation of moisture for the
year 1882 observed by the officer of the Signal Service at Riley,
McHenry County, Ill., was 35.36 inches, or 1.46 inches above the
annual average for twenty-one years.

       *       *       *       *       *

A. N. Smith, Davenport, Iowa—To destroy chicken lice keep the
hen-house clean and well ventilated and sprinkle the dusting bins
with carbolic acid.

       *       *       *       *       *

T. L., Winona, Minn.—You are wrong. B wins the wager, because “a son
born to an American minister while his parents are on official duty
abroad” is in the eye of the law as much an American as if born in
this country, and is eligible to the Presidency of the United States.

       *       *       *       *       *

Mrs. S. E. E., Fredericksburg, Iowa—For some years there was no
general agreement as to the time of observing “Decoration Day,” but
when it became desirable to settle on a specific day to be kept every
year, May 30 having been fixed upon by one or more Legislatures, it
was adopted generally.

       *       *       *       *       *

Charles Hallas, Adrian, Minn.—1. Congress raised the salary of the
President, by act of March 3, 1873, to $50,000 per annum, at the
same time cutting off certain allowances made to former Presidents,
aggregating several thousands a year. Before that act the salary of
Congressmen of both houses had been $5,000 and mileage, but by this
act they were raised to $7,500. By act of Jan. 20, 1874, the salaries
of Congressmen were reduced to the old amount.

       *       *       *       *       *

C. J., Topeka, Kan.—It certainly is customary when ladies or
gentlemen write to any one for information for them to inclose a
postal stamp or postal card for the reply. It is quite as much as
one should ask of a business man that he take time to give desired
information. To request this much and expect him to pay postage
on the reply is what is termed in the emphatic vocabulary of the
slang-slinger, “cheeky.” The very fact that postage is such a trifle
makes the omission to inclose it all the more inexcusable. But while
postage is a mere trifle on the single letter, to a person in a
public position, called on to answer thousands of questions in a
year, the aggregate postage would be a serious matter were it not for
the above rule.

       *       *       *       *       *

E. J. Bristo.—The whites of Virginia number 880,858; the colored
population is 631,616. That State has one of the most healthful
climates in the world. The water is excellent except in the swamp
regions in the eastern part, and the soil of about two-thirds of
the State is fertile except where worn out by long tobacco culture
without proper use of fertilizers and alternation of crops. Virginia
can produce anything that grows in the temperate zone.

       *       *       *       *       *

Wm. G. Miller, Arkansas City, Kan.; No method of manufacturing
merchantable diamonds has ever been discovered. A French chemist
claims to have made very minute crystals of diamond by an extremely
expensive process, simply to prove that the thing is possible, but
the crystals, whether diamonds or not, were of no value as gems or
for any other commercial or mechanical purpose. For anything more on
this subject see Our Curiosity Shop for 1882, page 147. Price per
mail, 25 cents in paper covers and 50 cents in cloth.

       *       *       *       *       *

George H. Gifford, West Point. Neb.—1. The total net ordinary
expenditures of the United States Government in 1880 amounted to
$171,885,382.67. Figure out for yourself “the cost per minute.” It
will be a delightful pastime for idle moments; editors have none.

       *       *       *       *       *

Jacob Vanaernam, Mount Morris, Wis.—In Illinois the State is
districted for State representatives, so that three representatives
are chosen from one district. Every voter may either give each of the
three candidates one vote, or one of them all three of his votes,
or he may give one and a half votes to each of two of them. This
explains why you saw “half votes” in Illinois election returns. This
system of voting is designed to place it in the power of a minority
party to secure at least one out of three representatives, where by
the old method all three representatives might be elected by the
majority party.

       *       *       *       *       *

A. Tyler, DeWitt, Ill.—The Declaration of Independence was not
adopted by Congress until the 4th of July, 1776, about 2 o’clock p.
m., as fully explained in Our Curiosity Shop some weeks ago. It was
not adopted on July 2. A resolution was adopted on that day asserting
that “these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and
independent States,” but the Congress sat the rest of that day, all
the next, and a part of the Fourth, discussing the Declaration before
It was adopted. Some of the delegates to that Congress never signed
it; others not until some time after July 4.

       *       *       *       *       *

W. L. Murphy, Tuscola, Ill.—1. The distance from St. Paul to Portland
via the Northern Pacific Railroad is 1,911 miles; from Chicago to St.
Paul is 409 miles, making the total distance to Portland 2,320 miles.

       *       *       *       *       *

M. R. Huntington, Chicago—The five longest rivers in the world are
the following, named in the order of length from greater to less: The
Missouri, measured from its source to the Gulf of Mexico; the Amazon;
the Nile; the Yang-tse-kiang, China, and the Murray, Australia.

       *       *       *       *       *

A. C. Hess, Central P. O., Pa.—Ginseng is exported to China in large
quantities, where it is in high repute as a medicine. It is used
in pharmacy to some degree in this country and Europe. In 1880 our
export of ginseng amounted to 391,083 pounds, valued at $533,042.

       *       *       *       *       *

C. F. S., Denmark, Iowa—The autographic process of telegraphing,
which transmits a facsimile of the original dispatch, was first
brought forward in 1848 by F. C. Bakewell, of London, England. It was
improved by Abbe Casselli, of Florence; Lenoir and Meyer, of France,
and Professor Sawyer, of Washington, D. C. It is not so economical,
so expeditions, or so well adapted in some other respects to ordinary
telegraphic purposes as the Morse system with modern improvements.

       *       *       *       *       *

A. J., Dern, Ind.—1. The eclectic school of medicine lays great
stress on the avoidance of depletion, either by blood-letting or
severe purging, and the use of agents calculated to build up the
system. Vegetable remedies largely predominate in its medical agents.

       *       *       *       *       *

M. K. C., Park, Col.—The air-tube of an argand-burner lamp should
always be open, as its use is to supply air to the inside of the wick
while other air is being furnished upon the outside. If the wick be
turned too high the oil will rise in it by the principle of capillary
attraction (not siphon) too rapidly to be properly consumed. Some of
this oil passes off as unconsumed carbon, and some may drip, in its
original form. 2. The amount of carbon in the atmosphere varies with
local circumstances, such as population, rainfall, sewerage, etc.,
from 2 to 10 in 10,000 volumes of air. The oxygen and nitrogen of the
atmosphere are invariable in their proportional parts: twenty-three
parts (by weight) of oxygen and seventy-seven of nitrogen.

       *       *       *       *       *

Lile E. Argile, Kilbourne City, Wis.—The final cause of the war of
1812 was the search of American vessels by the English, and the
impressment of United States sailors into the service of Great
Britain. All of this trouble, however, probably grew out of the
ill-feeling that had existed between the two nations since the
Revolutionary war. The cause of the Mexican war was the annexation of
Texas to the United States.

       *       *       *       *       *

R. L. Stevensun, Quincy, Minn.—Half-morocco binding consists of a
fine quality of cloth covers with morocco corners and morocco spring
back. Library binding is all leather.

       *       *       *       *       *

P. S. Williams, Fort Lyon, Mo.—The largest ship in the world is the
Great Eastern, described on page 63 of Our Curiosity Shop for 1880.
Length, 680 feet; breadth, 118 feet; height to top of bulwarks, 70
feet.

       *       *       *       *       *

E. E., Stralm, Iowa.—The first watch was made by Peter Hele, a
clockmaker of Nuremberg, Germany, in the year 1477.

       *       *       *       *       *

George Searle, Langworthy, Iowa.—After the war Horace Greeley
advocated a general amnesty and a policy of conciliation. As a step
in this direction he advised the release of Jefferson Davis on
bail, and when this course was determined upon he became one of the
bondsmen.

       *       *       *       *       *

E. H. T., Greensburg, Pa.—1. The Dead Sea is 1,312 feet below the
Mediterranean, and the Caspian Sea is 84 feet below the Black Sea. 2.
The two rivers which unite to form the Upper Amazon are the Marancon
(or Tunguraguas, as it is called by some writers) and the Ucayale (or
Apurimac).

       *       *       *       *       *

M. B. J., Union Hill, Ill.—1. The direct cable from Ireland to Rye
Beach, N. H., is 3,060 miles in length. 2. The length of the Union
and Central Pacific Railroad, extending from Omaha to San Francisco,
is 1,916 miles.

       *       *       *       *       *

R. Hancock, Columbus, Wis.—Andrew Johnson was impeached, but not
convicted. See definition of impeach in Webster’s unabridged
dictionary.

       *       *       *       *       *

Samuel Adams, Chicago—Francis Hanford was killed by Alexander
Sullivan in this city, Aug. 7, 1876, about 7 o’clock in the evening.

       *       *       *       *       *

U. W. G., Union, Iowa—At the Battle of Cold Harbor, General Meade
ordered some of the troops to advance; but they by common consent
refused to obey.

       *       *       *       *       *

S. B., Oconee, Ill.—Illinois has had three State constitutions,
including the one now in force. The first went into force in 1818:
the second in 1848, and the third in 1870.

       *       *       *       *       *

W. H., Brockport, N. Y.—A painting may be copyrighted by sending to
the Librarian of Congress a full description of the work, together
with $1, the price of recording the application and issuing the
certificate.

       *       *       *       *       *

Subscriber, Verdon, Neb.—By a Joint resolution of Congress, adopted
Dec. 29, 1845, Texas was declared to be admitted to the Union.

       *       *       *       *       *

Edith Allen, Milwaukee, Wis.—The highest mountain in the Philippine
Islands is 4,531 feet higher than Mount Washington, N. H. It is a
volcano, named Alpi, and has been ascended recently and found to be
10,824 feet high.

       *       *       *       *       *

S. N. W.. Deep River, Iowa—Read verse 49 of the thirty-first chapter
of Genesis and the marginal note, and you and she will understand the
beautiful appropriateness of Mizpah on an engagement ring.

       *       *       *       *       *

Lizzie J. Clark, Lawrenceburg, Tenn.—The nightingale proper is a
migratory bird, common to Northern Africa, Western Asia, and the
greater part of Europe. The European nightingale spends the winter
in Northern Africa. It may be said to be a native of all the regions
above named, although its hatching places are in Europe. Your other
question will be answered elsewhere.

       *       *       *       *       *

George E. White, Englewood—There is more silver in a trade dollar
than in the standard United States silver dollar, but it is at a
discount in business dealings because it is not a legal tender for
debt. Congress has the constitutional authority to declare what coins
are a legal tender and what are not. In this case it has outlawed the
trade dollar; whether wisely and justly or not is a matter in dispute.

       *       *       *       *       *

Lillie G. Hendee, Sandwich, Ill.—1. There is a snake with a straight
horn on the end of its tail, which, when in rapid motion, looks like
a revolving hoop. It is found in Southern Illinois and Missouri, and
the country east and south of the same. It is popularly known as the
hoop snake. 2. Naturalists are generally agreed that the worms seen
after showers do not fall from the clouds; they are not fully agreed
as to the proper explanation of their sudden appearance at such
times. For further particulars address Professor Forbes, curator of
the Laboratory of Natural History, Normal, Ill.

       *       *       *       *       *

M. S. H., Chicago.—Pierre, the present Western terminus of the
Chicago and Northwestern Railroad is the railway station nearest to
Deadwood, from which it is about 190 miles distant. The Northwestern
Express Stage and Transportation Company runs a line of Concord
stages between these points.

       *       *       *       *       *

C. H. F., Weldon, Ill.—The term creole as used in our Gulf States
applies to descendants of French and Spanish settlers, in distinction
from French and Spanish immigrants, and mulattoes or half-breeds:
also to natives of the West Indies of European descent. But in the
West Indies the word is applied to natives, whether of white, black,
or mixed races.

       *       *       *       *       *

George Fair, Fairmont, Neb.—1. The velocity of light, as determined
by the latest experiments, is 186,300 miles per second. 2. The
velocity of electricity traveling on metal wires was calculated
by Wheatstone at 194,000 miles per second. But It travels at
different rates on different wires, and as a consequence the reports
of different observers do not agree. 3. We can only furnish the
Curiosity Shop volumes of 1880, 1881, and 1882.

       *       *       *       *       *

J. M. Simpson, Cherokee City, Ark.—The present form of government in
France is republican. The constitution bears date Feb. 25, 1875. It
vests the legislative power in an assembly of two houses, the Chamber
of Deputies and the Senate, and the executive power in a President,
who is elected by a majority of votes of the Senate and Chamber of
Deputies united in National Assembly. The President at this time is
Francois J. P. Jules Grevy.

       *       *       *       *       *

S. A. Maxwell, Morrison, Ill.—The term “O grab me act” was applied
to the embargo act of Dec. 27, 1807. This embargo, laid by our
government on all its own ports and vessels in retaliation for
certain decrees of France and England sorely restricting the rights
of neutral vessels, bore particularly hard on New England, which
had been increasing its shipping very rapidly. Inverting the word
“embargo,” the malcontents called it the “O grab me act,” referring
to the fact that it operated to the advantage of one part of the
country at the expense of the shipping interest in another. These
murmurings grew until the act was repealed in February, 1809. When
Congressmen voted themselves an increase of back salary a few years
ago there was an attempt to transfer the name of O grab me act to
this law.


UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT.


_The Executive._

Chester A. Arthur, of New York, President of the United States;
salary, $50,000.

G.F. Edmunds, of Vermont, President pro tem. of Senate, and Acting
Vice President: salary, $8,000.


_The Cabinet._

Frederick T. Frelinghuysen, Secretary of State; salary, $8,000.

Charles J. Folger. Secretary of the Treasury; salary, $8,000.

Robert T. Lincoln, Secretary of War; salary, $8,000.

William E. Chandler, Secretary of the Navy; salary, $8,000.

Henry M. Teller, Secretary of the Interior; salary, $8,000.

Walter Q. Gresham, Postmaster General; salary, $8,000.

Benjamin Harris Brewster, Attorney General; salary, $8,000.


FORTY-EIGHTH CONGRESS.

_March 4, 1883, to March 3, 1885._

THE SENATE.

Republicans (in Roman), 38; Democrats (in _italics_), 36; Readjuster
(in SMALL CAPS), 2. Total, 76.

  Term ex.                          Home Postoffice.

      Alabama—
  1889 _John T. Morgan_             Selma.
  1885 _James L. Pugh_              Eufaula.

      Arkansas—
  1889 _Augustus H. Garland_        Little Rock.
  1885 _James D. Walker_            Fayetteville.

      California—
  1885 _James T. Farley_            Jackson.
  1887 John F. Miller               San Francisco.

      Colorado—
  1889 Thomas M. Bowen              Rio Grande.
  1885 Nathaniel P. Hill            Denver.

      Connecticut—
  1885 Orville H. Platt             Meriden.
  1887 Joseph R. Hawley             Hartford.

      Delaware—
  1889 _Eli Saulsbury_              Dover.
  1887 _Thomas Francis Bayard_      Wilmington.

      Florida—
  1885 _Wilkinson Call_             Jacksonville.
  1887 _Charles W. Jones_           Pensacola.

      Georgia—
  1889 _A. H. Colquitt_             Atlanta.
  1885 _Joseph E. Brown_            Atlanta.

      Illinois—
  1889 Shelby M. Cullom             Springfield.
  1885 John A. Logan                Chicago.

      Indiana—
  1885 _Daniel W. Voorhees_         Terre Haute.
  1887 Benjamin Harrison            Indianapolis.

      Iowa—
  1889 J. F. Wilson                 Fairfield.
  1885 William B. Allison           Dubuque.

      Kansas—
  1889 Preston B. Plumb             Emporia.
  1885 John J. Ingalls              Atchison.

      Kentucky—
  1889 _James B. Beck_              Lexington.
  1885 _John S. Williams_           Mt. Sterling.

      Louisiana—
  1889 _Randall L. Gibson_          New Orleans.
  1885 _Benjamin F. Jonas_          New Orleans.

      Maine—
  1889 William P. Frye              Lewiston.
  1887 Eugene Hale                  Ellsworth.

      Maryland—
  1885 _James B. Groome_            Elkton.
  1887 _Arthur P. Gorman_           Laurel.

      Massachusetts—
  1889 George F. Hoar               Worcester.
  1887 Henry L. Dawes               Pittsfield.

      Michigan—
  1889 T. W. Palmer                 Detroit.
  1887 Omar D. Conger               Port Huron.

      Minnesota—
  1889 D. M. Sabin                  Stillwater.
  1887 Samuel J. R. McMillan        St. Paul.

      Mississippi—
  1885 _Lucius Q. C. Lamar_         Oxford.
  1887 _James Z. George_            Jackson.

      Missouri—
  1885 _George G. Vest_             Kansas City.
  1887 _Francis M. Cockrell_        Warrensburg.

      Nebraska—
  1889 Charles F. Manderson         Omaha.
  1887 Charles H. Van Wyck          Nebraska City.

      Nevada—
  1885 John P. Jones                Gold Hill.
  1887 _James G. Fair_              Virginia City.

      New Hampshire—
  1889 Austin F. Pike               Franklin.
  1887 Henry W. Blair               Plymouth.

      New Jersey—
  1889 _John R. McPherson_          Jersey City.
  1887 William J. Sewell            Camden.

      New York—
  1885 Elbridge G. Lapham           Canandaigua.
  1887 Warner Miller                Herkimer.

      North Carolina—
  1889 _Matt W. Ransom_             Weldon.
  1885 _Zebulon B. Vance_           Charlotte.

      Ohio—
  1887 John Sherman                 Mansfield.
  1885 _George H. Pendleton_        Cincinnati.

      Oregon—
  1889 Joseph N. Dolph              Portland.
  1885 _James H. Slater_            Le Grande.

      Pennsylvania—
  1885 J. Donald Cameron            Harrisburg.
  1887 John I. Mitchell             Wellsboro.

      Rhode Island—
  1889 Henry B. Anthony             Providence.
  1887 Nelson W. Aldrich            Providence.

      South Carolina—
  1889 _Matthew C. Butler_          Edgefield.
  1885 _Wade Hampton_               Columbia.

      Tennessee—
  1889 _Isham G. Harris_            Memphis.
  1887 _Howell E. Jackson_          Jackson.

      Texas—
  1889 _Richard Coke_               Waco.
  1887 _Sam Bell Maxey_             Paris.

      Vermont—
  1885 Justin S. Morrill            Strafford.
  1887 George F. Edmunds            Burlington.

      Virginia—
  1889 HARRISON H. RIDDLEBERGER     Richmond.
  1887 WILLIAM MAHONE               Petersburg.

      West Virginia—
  1889 _John E. Kenna_              Kanawha.
  1887 _Johnson N. Camden_          Parkersburg.

      Wisconsin—
  1885 Angus Cameron                LaCrosse.
  1887 Philetus Sawyer              Oshkosh.


HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES.

Republicans (in Roman), 117; regular Democrats, (in _italics_), 196;
Readjusters (in SMALL CAPS), 5; Greenback-labor (in SMALL CAPS), 1;
Independent (in SMALL CAPS), 3; vacancies, 3: Total, 325; majority,
163. Representatives in the Forty-seventh Congress marked with a
[18]; those in a preceding Congress with a [19].

  Alabama—

  1 _James T. Jones._[18]
  2 _Hilary A. Herbert._[18]
  3 _Wm. C. Oates._[18]
  4 _Charles M. Shelley._[18]
  5 _Thomas Williams._[18]
  6 _Goldsmith W. Hewitt._[18]
  7 _Wm. H. Forney._[18]
  8 _Luke Pryor._[15]

  Arkansas—

  _1 Poindexter Dunn._[18]
  _2 James K. Jones._[18]
  _3 John H. Rogers._
  _4 Samuel W. Peel._
  _At Large_—_C. R. Breckinridge_.

  California—

  1 _Wm. S. Rosecrans._[18]
  2 _James H. Budd._
  3 _Barclay Henley._
  4 _Patrick B. Tulley._
  _At Large_—_Chas. A. Sumner_, _John. R. Glascock_.

  Colorado—

  James B. Bedford.[18]

  Connecticut—

  1 _Wm. W. Eaton._[15]
  2 _Charles L. Mitchell._
  3 John T. Wait[18]
  4 _Edw. W. Seymour._

  Delaware—

  _Charles B. Lore._

  Florida—

  1 _Robert H. H. Davidson._[18]
  2 Horatio Bisbee, Jr.

  Georgia—

  1 _John C. Nicholls._[19]
  2 _Henry G. Turner._[18]
  3 _Charles F. Crisp._
  4 _Hugh Buchanan._[18]
  5 _Nathaniel J. Hammond._[18]
  6 _James H. Blount._[18]
  7 _Judson C. Clements._[18]
  8 _Seaborn Reese._[18]
  9 _Allen C. Candler._
  _At Large_—_Thomas Hardeman._[19]

  Illinois—

  1 Ransom W. Dunham.
  2 JOHN F. FINERTY, Ind.
  3 George R. Davis.[18]
  4 George E. Adams.
  5 Reuben Ellwood.
  6 Robert R Hitt.[18]
  7 Thomas J. Henderson.[18]
  8 William Cullen.[18]
  9 Lewis E. Payson.[18]
  10 _Nicholas E. Worthington._
  11 _William H. Neece._
  12 _James M. Riggs._
  13 _William M. Springer._[18]
  14 Jonathan H. Rowell.
  15 Joseph G. Cannon.[18]
  16 _Aaron Shaw._
  17 _Samuel W. Moulton._[18]
  18 _William R. Morrison._[18]
  19 _Richard W. Townshend._[18]
  20 John R. Thomas.[18]

  Indiana—

  1 _John J. Kleiner._
  2 _Thomas R. Cobb._[18]
  3 _S. M. Stockslager._[18]
  4 _William S. Holman._[18]
  5 _Courtland C. Matson._[18]
  6 Thomas M. Browne.[18]
  7 Stanton J. Peelle.[18]
  8 _John E. Lamb._
  9 _Thomas B. Ward._
  10 _Thomas J. Wood._
  11 George W. Steele.[18]
  12 _Robert Lowry._
  13 William H. Calkins.[18]

  Iowa—

  1 Moses A. McCoid.[18]
  2 _Jermiah H. Murphy._
  3 David B. Henderson.
  4 L. H. WELLER, _Gbk._
  5 James Wilson.[19]
  6 John C. Cook.[16]
  7 John A. Kasson.[18]
  8 William P. Hepburn.
  9 _Wm. H. M. Pusey._
  10 Adoniram J. Holmes.
  11 Isaac S. Struble.

  Kansas—

  1 John A. Anderson.[18]
  2 Vacancy.
  3 Thomas Ryan.[18]
  _At Large_—Edmund N. Morrill, Lewis Hanback,
    Samuel R. Peters, Bishop W. Perkins.

  Kentucky—

  1 _Oscar Turner._[18]
  2 _James F. Clay._
  3 _John E. Halsell._
  4 _Thomas A. Robertson._
  5 _Albert S. Willis._[18]
  6 _John G. Carlisle._
  7 _Joseph C. S. Blackburn._[18]
  8 _Philip B. Thompson, Jr._[18]
  9 William W. Culbertson.
  10 John D. White.[18]
  11 _Frank L. Wolford._

  Louisiana—

  1 _Carleton Hunt._
  2 _E. John Ellis._[18]
  3 William P. Kellogg.[15]
  4 _Newton C. Blanchard._[18]
  5 _J. Floyd King._[18]
  6 _Edward T. Lewis._

  Maine—

  _At Large_—Thos. B. Reed.[18]
  Nelson Dingley, Jr.[18]
  Chas. A. Boutelle.
  Seth L. Milliken.

  Maryland—

  1 _George W. Covington._[18]
  2 _J. Frederick C. Talbott._[18]
  3 _Fetter S. Hoblitzell._[18]
  4 _John V. L. Findlay._
  5 Hart B. Holton.
  6 Louis E. McComas.

  Massachusetts—

  1 Robert T. Davis
  2 John D. Long.
  3 Ambrose A. Ranney.[18]
  4 _Patrick A. Collins._
  5 _Leopold Morse._[18]
  6 _Henry B. Lovering._[16]
  7 Eben F. Stone.[18]
  8 William A. Russell.
  9 THEODORE LYMAN.[17]
  10 William W. Rice.[18]
  11 William Whiting.
  12 Vacancy.

  Michigan—

  1 _William C. Maybury._
  2 _Nathan B. Eldredge._
  3 Edward S. Lacey.[18]
  4 _George L. Yaple._
  5 _Julius Houseman._
  6 _Edwin B. Winans._
  7 _Ezra C. Carleton._
  8 Roswell G. Horr.[18]
  9 Byron M. Cutcheon.
  10 Herschel H. Hatch.
  11 Edward Breitung.

  Minnesota—

  1 Milo White.
  2 James B. Wakefield.
  3 Horace B. Strait.[18]
  4 William D. Washburn.[18]
  5 Knute Nelson.

  Mississippi—

  1 _Henry L. Muldrow._[18]
  2 J. R. CHALMERS,[18] _Ind._
  3 E. S. Jeffords.
  4 _Hernando D. Money._[18]
  5 _Otho R. Singleton._[18]
  6 _Henry S. Van Eaton._
  7 _Ethelbert Barksdale._

  Missouri—

  1 _William H. Hatch._[18]
  2 _A. M. Alexander._
  3 _Alexander M. Dockery._
  4 _James N. Burnes._
  5 _Alexander Graves._
  6 _John Cosgrove._
  7 _Aylett H. Buckner._[18]
  8 _John J. O’Neill._
  9 _James O. Broadhead._
  10 _Martin L. Clardy._[18]
  11 _Richard P. Bland._[18]
  12 _Charles H. Morgan._[19]
  13 _Robert W. Ryan._
  14 _Lowndes H. Davis._[18]

  Nebraska—

  1 Archibald J. Weaver.
  2 James Laird.
  3 Edward K. Valentine.[18]

  Nevada—

  _George W. Cassidy._[18]

  New Hampshire—

  1 Martin A. Haynes.
  2 Ossian Ray.[18]

  New Jersey—

  1 _Thomas W. Ferrell._
  2 J. Hart Brewer.[18]
  3 John Kean. Jr.
  4 Benjamin F. Howey.
  5 William Walter Phelps.[19]
  6 _William H. F. Fiedler._
  7 _William McAdoo._

  New York—

  1 _Perry Belmont._[18]
  2 _William E. Robinson._[18]
  3 Darwin R. James.
  4 _Felix Campbell._
  5 _Nicholas Muller._[19]
  6 _Samuel S. Cox._
  7 _William Dorsheimer._
  8 _John J. Adams._
  9 _John Hardy._[18]
  10 _Abram S. Hewitt._[18]
  11 _Orlando B. Potter._
  12 _Waldo Hutchins._[18]
  13 John H. Ketcham.[18]
  14 _Lewis Beach._[18]
  15 _John J. Bagley, Jr._[19]
  16 _Thomas J. Van Alstyne._
  17 Henry G. Burleigh.
  18 Frederick A. Johnson.
  19 Abraham X. Parker.[18]
  20 _Edward Wemple._
  21 George W. Ray.
  22 Charles R. Skinner.[18]
  23 _J. Thomas Spriggs._
  24 Newton W. Nutting.
  25 Frank Hiscock.[18]
  26 Sereno E. Payne.
  27 James W. Wadsworth.[18]
  28 Stephen C. Millard.
  29 _John Arnot._
  30 _Halbert S. Greenleaf._
  31 _Robert S. Stevens._
  32 _William F. Rogers._
  33 Francis B. Brewer.
  _At Large_—_Henry W. Slocum._[19]

  North Carolina—

  1 _Thomas G. Skinner._
  2 James E. O’Hara.
  3 _Wharton J. Green._
  4 _William R. Cox._[18]
  5 _Alfred M. Scales._[18]
  6 _Clement Dowd._[18]
  7 TYRE YORK, _Ind._
  8 _Robert B. Vance._[18]
  _At Large_—_R. I. Bennett._

  Ohio—

  1 _John F. Follett._
  2 _Isaac M. Jordan._
  3 _Robert M. Murray._
  4 _Benjamin Le Fevre._[18]
  5 _George E. Seney._
  6 _William D. Hill._[19]
  7 Henry L. Morey.[18]
  8 J. Warren Keifer.[18]
  9 James S. Robinson.[18]
  10 _Frank H. Hurd._[19]
  11 John W. McCormick.
  12 Alphonso Hart.
  13 _George L. Converse._[18]
  14 _George W. Geddes._[18]
  15 _Adoniram J. Warner._[19]
  16 _Beriah Wilkins._
  17 Joseph D. Taylor.
  18 William McKinley, Jr.[18]
  19 Ezra B. Taylor.[18]
  20 _David R. Paige._
  21 _Martin A. Foran._

  Oregon—

  Melvin C. George.[18]

  Pennsylvania—

  1 Henry H. Bingham.
  2 Charles O’Neill.[18]
  3 _Samuel J. Randall._[18]
  4 William D. Kelley.[18]
  5 Alfred C. Harmer.[18]
  6 James B. Everhart.
  7 I. Newton Evans.[19]
  8 _Daniel Ermentrout._[18]
  9 A. Herr Smith.[18]
  10 _William Mutchler._[18]
  11 _John B. Storm._[19]
  12 _Daniel W. Connolly._
  13 CHAS. N. BRUMM,[18] _Gbk._
  14 Samuel F. Barr.[18]
  15 _George A. Post._
  16 William W. Brown.
  17 Jacob M. Campbell.[18]
  18 Louis E. Atkinson.
  19 _William A. Duncan._
  20 _Andrew G. Curtin._[18]
  21 _Charles E. Boyle._
  22 _James H. Hopkins._[19]
  23 Thomas M. Bayne.[18]
  24 George V. Lawrence.[19]
  25 _John D. Patton._
  26 Samuel H. Miller[18]
  27 Samuel M. Brainard.
  _At Large_—_Mortimer F. Elliott._

  Rhode Island—

  1 Henry J. Spooner.[18]
  2 Jonathan Chace.[18]

  South Carolina—

  1 _Samuel Dibble._[18]
  2 _George D. Tillman._[18]
  3 _D. Wyatt Aiken._[18]
  4 _John H. Evins._[18]
  5 _John J. Hemphill._
  6 _Geo. W. Dargan._
  7 Edmund W. M. Mackey.[18]

  Tennessee—

  1 Augustus H. Pettibone.
  2 Leonidas C. Houk.[18]
  3 _Geo. G. Dibrell._[18]
  4 _Benton McMillin._[18]
  5 _Richard Warner._[18]
  6 _Andrew J. Caldwell._
  7 _John G. Ballentyne._
  8 _John M. Taylor._
  9 _Rice A. Pearce._
  10 _Casey Young._[19]

  Texas—

  1 _Charles Stewart._
  2 _John H. Reagan._[18]
  3 _James H. Jones._
  4 _David B. Culberson._[18]
  5 _Jas. W. Throckmorton._[19]
  6 _Olin Wellborn._[18]
  7 T. P. OCHILTREE, _Ind._
  8 _James F. Miller._
  9 _Roger Q. Mills._[18]
  10 _John Hancock._[19]
  11 _Samuel W. T. Lanham._

  Vermont—

  1 John W. Stewart.
  2 Luke P. Poland.[19]

  Virginia—

  1 ROBERT M. MAYO, _Re._
  2 HARRY LIBBEY, _Re._
  3 _George D. Wise._[18]
  4 BENJ. S. HOOPER, _Re._
  5 _George C. Cabell._[18]
  6 _John Randolph Tucker._[18]
  7 Vacancy.
  8 _John S. Barbour._[18]
  9 HENRY S. BOWEN, _Re._
  _At Large_—JOHN S. WISE, _Re._

  West Virginia—

  1 Nathan Goff, Jr.
  2 _William L. Wilson._
  3 _Charles P. Snyder._
  4 _Eustace Gibson._

  Wisconsin—

  1 _John Winans._
  2 _Daniel H. Sumner._
  3 _Burr W. Jones._
  4 _Peter F. Deuster._[18]
  5 _Joseph Rankin._
  6 Richard Guenther.[18]
  7 _Guibert M. Woodward._
  8 William T. Price.
  9 Isaac Stephenson.


FOOTNOTES:

[15] Formerly United States Senator.

[16] And Greenback.

[17] Civil Service Reform and Democrat.




INDEX.


  A.
        Page.

  A and ap in names, meaning of, 113

  Abaco Great, island of, 179

  Aboukir, battle of, 54

  Acre, battle of, 54

  Acre, rule for measuring, 21

  Adams, John, birthday of, 46

  ADAMS, J. Q.—
    And the Whigs, 19
    Descent of, 20

  Adams, Samuel, 53

  Addington’s fatal flint, 137

  Africa, Sunday schools in, 117

  AFRICANS—
    In Chicago, 23
    In New York, 23

  Agassiz, Louis, sketch of, 143

  Agnosticism, 60

  ALABAMA—
    Gold mines, 57
    Governors and Senators of, 102

  ALASKA—
    Area of, 33-34
    Early history of, 174
    Fur fisheries of, 174
    Natural features of, 33-34
    Alaska, steamer, time of trip, 177

  ALBANY, N. Y.—
    Burning of, 50
    Settlement of, 62

  Albemarle County Colony, 67

  ALCOHOL—
    Amount in grain, 163
    Production of, 171

  Alderney cattle, 51

  Alexandria, Library of, 60

  Alhambra, the, 87

  ALIENS—
    Heirs of, 96
    Property of, 96

  Alloys, fusibility of, 72

  Almanacs, perpetual, 73

  ALTITUDES—
    How ascertained, 177
    Of Western cities, 21

  Amazon River, sources of the, 184

  Amazon Valley, extent of, 67

  Amendments, Constitutional, 129

  America, Central, 94

  America, Sunday schools in, 117

  AMERICAN—
    Coins, 122-123
    Heroes, 61
    Statesmen, 61
    “Knights”, 130

  Americans, foreign born, 182

  Aminta, 10

  Anchor ice, 83

  Anderson, John, 143

  Andersonville, Providence Spring, 121

  Andorra, 58

  Angelo, Michael, paintings by, 18

  Angora fleeces, 44

  Animals, cruelty to, 52

  Antietam, Lee at, 16

  Antiquity of man, 111-112

  Apocrypha, the, 102

  APPLES—
    Largest market for, 178
    Weight of when green, 179

  Arch Rock, Mackinac, 14

  Architectural ruins, 170-171

  Arctic Explorations, 16-17, 139-140

  Arctic huts, warming and furniture of, 69

  AREA OF—
    England, 31
    Ireland, 31
    Palestine, 104
    Scotland, 31

  Argand burner, 183

  Argentine Confederation, 155

  ARKANSAS—
    Descriptions of, 87-88, 131
    Military road in, 6
    Rivers and towns of, 176
    Trees in, 176

  ARMY. U. S.—
    Chaplains in the, 138
    Cost of the U. S., 164
    Highest rank in the, 20

  Armies, British commanders of, 111

  Arnold, Benedict, age of, 34

  Art societies, 171-172

  ARTHUR, CHESTER A.—
    Descent of, 20
    In the Custom House, 118

  Artision well, the deepest, 175

  Artichokes for hogs, 162

  Artificial Brooders, 76

  Aryan race, ancient home of, 7

  ASBESTOS—
    Charlemagne, table-cloth of, 84
    Where found, 84

  Ashler River colony, 67

  Ashtabula disaster, 61

  Asia, Sunday-schools in, 117

  ASIATICS—
    In Chicago, 23
    In New York, 23

  Assay offices of U. S., 67

  “Assembly of Notables”, 122

  Assessments of deposits, 102

  Astor, John Jacob, 13

  Astrological superstition, 31

  Atchison, Gen. Dave, sketch of, 91

  ATLANTIC ISLANDERS—
    In Chicago, 23
    In New York, 23

  Atlantic Ocean higher than the Pacific, 176

  Augustus, home of, 112

  AURORA BOREALIS—
    Known to ancients, 6
    Superstition respecting, 6

  AUSTRALIA—
    Distance and fare to, 124
    Sketch of, 50-51
    Tin mines in, 58
    Australia, South, 51
    Australia, Western, 51

  AUSTRALIANS—
    In Chicago, 23
    In New York, 23

  Austria, wealth of, 142

  AUSTRIANS—
    In Chicago, 23
    In New York, 23

  AUTHOR OF—
    “A Bundle of Letters”, 8
    “An International Episode”, 8
    “A Little Bird Told Me”, 123
    “A Skeleton in Every Closet”, 123
    “A Summer Scamper”, 94
    “A Woman’s Shortcomings”, 119
    “Beautiful Snow”, 179
    “Children of the Sun”, 94
    “Christianity, the Logic of Creation”, 8
    “Church not an Ecclesiasticism”, 8
    “Cover Them Over”, 135
    “Daisy Miller”, 8
    “Famous Single and Fugitive poems”, 129
    “Farm Festival”, 136
    “Farm Ballads”, 136
    “Fax”, 135
    “French Poets and Novelists”, 8
    “From Recesses of a Lowly Spirit”, 157
    “Gulliver’s Travels”, 180
    “Hawthorne, Nathaniel”, 8
    “Hobson’s Choice”, 170
    “I am Dying, Egypt, Dying”, 129
    “Jerusalem Liberated”, 10
    “Little Old Sod Shanty,” etc., 174
    “Mariomne”, 18
    “Millions for Defense,” etc., 81
    “Moralism and Christianity”, 8
    “Naval History of U. S.”, 13
    “Not One Cent for Tribute, but,” etc., 81
    “Opus Majus”, 118
    “Paul Pry”, 22
    “Phœnixiana”, 18
    “Poor as I Am, The King,” etc., 63
    “Queechey”, 97
    “Reminiscences of Carlyle”, 8
    “Rifts in the Clouds”, 135
    “Sheridan’s Ride”, 176
    “Squiboby Papers”, 18
    “Substance and Shadow”, 8
    “The American”, 8
    “The Death of Mark Antony”, 129
    “The Diary of a Man of Fifty”, 8
    “The Dying Californian”, 96
    “The Fourth Watch”, 97
    “The Goose Hangs High”, 174
    “The Harp of Zion”, 18
    “The Lamplighter”, 97
    “The Lonely Hearth”, 18
    “The Market Book”, 29
    “The Nature of Evil”, 8
    “The Other Shore”, 97
    “The Pilot”, 13
    “The Pioneers”, 13
    “The Prairie”, 13
    “The Pathfinder”, 13
    “The Secret of Swedenborg”, 8
    “The Spy”, 13
    “The Wide, Wide World”, 97
    “Those Everlasting Gardens,” etc., 157
    “Times That Try Men’s Souls”, 67
    “Transatlantic Sketches”, 8
    “Unless you can Love as the Angels May,” etc., 119
    “Washington Square”, 8
    “Watch and Ward”, 8
    “Wonder of a Kingdom”, 38
    “Young Folks”, 136

  Authors, pseudonyms of, 131-132

  Authors, rights in publications, 36-37

  Averell, Gen. W. W., sketch of, 38


  B.

  Bacchus, sketch of, 102

  “Bachelor Poet,” the, 178

  Baconian theory, 45

  Bacon, Roger, sketch of, 118

  Balize, meaning of, 174

  BALLOONS—
    Different kinds of, 70
    Inventors of, 90
    Performances of, 70

  Banc, court in, defined, 85

  Bank of U. S., oldest, 12-13

  Baptists in Canada, 35

  Barclay’s brave bride, 156

  BARLEY—
    Amount of alcohol in, 163
    Duty on, 11
    Grades of, 67-68
    Weight of bushel of, 68

  “Barnburners”, 52-53

  Barnum, P.T., 106

  Barometer, signs of the, 142-143

  Bashfulness and fear, 133

  Basket-willow, curing of, 113

  Baton Rouge, La, 44

  BATTLE OF—
    Aboukir, 54
    Acre, 54
    Hochkirchen, 117

  Battles, principal of the civil war, 109-110

  Batteries, differences of, 177

  “Bears,” meaning of on ’Change, 141

  “Beautiful Snow,” author of, 179

  Beef, amount in an animal, 36

  Bees, swarming of, 109-124

  BELGIANS—
    In Chicago, 23
    In New York, 23

  Belles-lettres, definition of, 156

  Bellinger, E. C., 153

  Benevolence, Christian, 148

  Bergh, H., sketch of, 24

  Bermudas, the, 65

  Berosus, writings of, 42

  Bethany, distance from Jerusalem, 85

  Betting on races, 73

  “Biglow Papers”, 146

  “Bird, a little, told me”, 123

  Binding, Library “Half-Morroco”, 183

  Black Fridays, three of, 104

  BLACK HAWK—
    The tower of, 169
    Wars, 64-65

  Black laws of Illinois, 89-90

  Black letter books, 85

  Blacksmith, made king, 168-169

  “Blake, Mary,” real name of, 180

  Bliss, P. P., at Ashtabula, 61

  Blum, Robt., 127

  BOHEMIANS—
    In Chicago, 23
    In New York, 23

  Bolivar, sketch of, 25-26

  BONAPARTE—
    Jerome, children of, 31
    Napoleon, 31
    Napoleon, sketch of, 106
    Prince Jerome, 31

  Bone dust, as a fertilizer, 64

  Bonneval, Claude de, sketch of, 91-92

  Booth, Gen., of the Salvation Army, 110

  Booth, John Wilkes, death of, 177

  Borde, Andrew, the notorious quack, 69

  Boston, burning of, 49-50

  Boy poets, 178

  “Branded Hand,” the, 170

  “Bread, the staff of life”, 175

  Brethren, United, 114

  Bridge, Brooklyn, 96

  Bridge piers, sinking of, 96

  Bridges, affected by music, 40

  British Americans in Chicago, 23

  British Americans in New York, 23

  British army, commanders of, 111

  British goods, tariff on, 86

  Brokerage, how computed, 177

  Brooklyn bridge, 96, 176

  Brown, John, bashfulness of, 133

  Bruce, Robt., 75

  Bruno, the Pantheist, 76-77

  Bryant, W. C., 178

  BUCHANAN, PRESIDENT, JAMES—
    Cabinets of, 20
    Descent of, 20

  Buckwheat, amount of alcohol in, 163

  Buddhism, 168

  “Bulls” and “Bears”, 141

  Bunker Hill battle flag, 29

  Burleigh, Lord, 9

  Burlingame, Anson, 126-127

  BURR, AARON—
    Death of, 55
    Vice President, 177

  Butler, Colonel John, the tory, 89

  Butler, Governor B. F., vote for, 180

  Butler, Zebulon, the patriot, 89

  BUTTER—
    Amount in milk, 176
    Creamery, 27
    Duty on, 11

  Butterine, ingredients of, 20

  Butter, product of a good cow, 39-40

  Byron, Lord, sketch of, 118-119


  C.

  Cable, telegraph, between Ireland and U. S., 184

  Cabinet, of Buchanan, 20

  Cabinet officers, 185

  Cabinet officers, salaries of, 107-108, 185

  Cabinet, Postmaster General in the, 143

  Cable message, the first, 31

  Cables, transatlantic, 21

  Cables, submarine, 120-121

  CÆSARS—
    Palace of the, 112
    The title, 178
    The twelve, 96

  Cairo, elevation of, 109

  Calendar, changes in, 45-46

  Calhoun, resigns Vice Presidency, 49

  CALIFORNIA—
    An early coin of, 44
    Description of, 24, 170
    Leprosy in, 6
    Mail route, 155

  Calvinism, five points in, 91

  Cambridge, Duke of, 111

  CANADA—
    Largest cities in, 151
    Religious statistics in, 35

  Canadian tariff, 86

  Canals, Erie and Michigan, 10

  Canby, General, sketch of, 148

  Canon, the sacred, 102

  Canton, burning of, 50

  Capitol at Washington, 163

  Capron, suicide canard, 120

  Carat, definition and weight of, 8

  Carleton, Will, sketch of, 135-136

  Carlotta, Empress, 122

  Carlos, Don, sketch of, 147-148

  Carlstadt, burning of, 50

  CAROLINA—
    Gold mines of, 57
    Settlement of, 67

  Cashmere fleeces, 44

  Caspian Sea, depression of the, 184

  Castle Garden, New York, 56

  Casualties of the civil war, 74

  Cathedrals, largest, 69

  Catholics, Roman, in Canada, 35

  CATTLE—
    Estimating the weight of, 164-165
    In the United States, 121, 127

  Caucus, origin of the, 53-54

  Cedar County, Neb., 31-32

  Celts, record of British, 43

  Cement, Chinese, 131

  Cemeteries, National, 159

  Central America, 94

  CENTRAL AMERICANS—
    In Chicago, 23
    In New York, 23

  Chaillu, Du, sketch of, 92

  Chancellor, Lord and Chief Justice, 156-157

  Channing, William E., sketch of, 169

  CHAPLAINS—
    Age required for, 138
    In army and navy, 138
    Of Congress, 99

  Chapultepec, Lee at, 16

  Chariots, scythed, 75-76

  Charles, Elizabeth Rundle, 72

  Charleston, S. C., burning of, 50

  Cheers in a conference, 166

  CHEESE—
    Creamery, 27
    Duty on, 11

  Chess, origin of, 69-70

  CHICAGO—
    Burning of, 50, 181
    Churches in, 76
    Elevation of, 128
    First slave in, 174
    First white child born in, 161
    Flower mission in, 73
    Foreign population of, 23
    Grain handled in, 17
    Population of, 176
    Pronunciation and meaning of, 181
    Railroads entering, 133-134
    Saloons in, 105

  Chickens, what to feed, 85

  China, distance and fare to, 124

  Chinese cement, 131

  CHINESE—
    In Australia, 51
    In Chicago, 23
    In New York, 23
    Proverbs of, 167-168

  China, treaties with, 126-127

  Chore, derivation of the word, 175

  Christadelphians, 157

  Christiana, burning of, 49

  Christian Era, when first used, 96

  Christian institutions, 148

  Christianity, the Logic of Creation, 8

  Christmas and Easter, 116

  Churches and membership in Chicago, 76

  Church of England, 74

  Churches, membership of, 182

  Church reformations, 102-103

  CITIES—
    Altitudes of Western, 21
    Largest in U. S. and Canada, 151
    Of France and Great Britain, 131

  Citizen’s League of Illinois, 77-78

  Civil list of U. S., 28

  CIVIL WAR—
    Prisoners taken in, 134
    Troops called for in, 176

  Clarendon County Colony, 67

  CLAY, HENRY—
    And Liberia, 154
    Descendants of, 108-109
    Sketch of, 108-109
    Presidential candidate, 108

  Clearing House, London, 17

  Clement VIII., 10

  Cliff dwellings in Sonora, 165

  Clocks and noon marks, 24

  Clock and sun-dial, 97

  Clydesdale horses, 78

  COAL—
    Area of the U. S., 157
    Duty on, 11
    First reported in U. S., 88
    Oil for fence-posts, 176

  Cobbett, Wm., sketch of, 100

  Code Napoleon, 106

  COFFEE—
    First use of, 95
    Mocha, 44-45

  COIN—
    An early Californian, 44
    At a premium, 110
    Early American, 19
    Fineness of U. S., 20
    Foreign, value of, 128
    Rare, of the U. S., 122-123
    Value of rare, 19-20

  COLD—
    Atmospheric condition of, 83
    In Dakota and Chicago, 83

  Cold Harbor, General Meade at, 184

  Coles, Governor Edward, sketch of, 20

  Cologne Cathedral, 69

  Colombia, formation of, 25

  Colosseum, dimensions of, 68-69

  Columbia College, wealth and attendance, 134

  Columbia, District of, area of, 180

  Columbia River, 145-146

  Columbus, wives and sons of, 73

  Combe, George, 9

  Comet of 1812 and 1813, 149

  Committee of the Whole, 53

  Communism, 79

  Compass, variations of, 16

  Compulsory Education Laws, 132-133

  Concrete houses, 100-101

  Confederacy, finances of, 123-124

  Confederate losses, 74

  Confucianism, 168

  Congregationalists in Canada, 35

  CONGRESS—
    The Continental, 62, 140
    First Chaplains of, 99
    Members of, 185
    Congressman “at large”, 70, 179
    Members not United States officers, 177
    Congressmen, occupations of, 88
    Salaries of, 180
    Congressional apportionments, 11
    Congressional townships, 67

  CONSTANTINOPLE—
    Burning of, 49-50
    Harbor of, 182

  Constellations of the Zodiac, 30-31

  CONSTITUTION—
    Amendments to the, 104, 129
    Framers of the, 177
    Of the United States, 138

  Consumption, deaths from, 125

  Contestants of seats in Congress, 70

  Continental Congress, Presidents of, 62

  Convict labor, 95

  Cook, Eliza, sketch of, 15

  Cooper, J. Fenimore, sketch of, 13

  Copenhagen, burning of, 49

  Copper, where found and use, 14

  COPYRIGHT—
    How to secure a, 78
    Penalties, 78

  Cordova, Mexico, description of, 116

  CORN—
    Amount of alcohol in, 163
    Crop of Iowa and Illinois, 124
    Crop in 1882, 31
    Duty on, 11
    “Corn Laws”, 154
    Leading county in, 181

  Corn meal, duty on, 11

  Cortez, Fernando, 48-49

  Cotton, white and brown, 181

  Cotton-gin, inventor of, 114

  Counties, large, 118

  Counties, number in the United States, 32

  Court in banc, 85

  Courts, high, 157

  Cow, products of butter from, 39-40

  Cox, “Sunset”, 179

  Creamery, description of, 27-28

  Creole, meaning of the term, 184

  CRIME—
    In Chicago, 77
    On high seas, 51

  Criminals, number of educated, 175

  Cruelty to animals, 52

  Cuba, slavery in, 23

  Cummins, Maria S., 97

  “Curfew Must Not Ring To-night”, 180

  Cushing, Caleb, 126

  Custer County, Neb., 145

  Czar, income of the, 47


  D.

  DAKOTA—
    “Bad Lands” of, 153-154
    Brown County, 118
    Cold in, 83
    Corn in, 119-120
    Entering land in, 43
    Southeastern, 47

  “Daisy Miller,” author of, 8

  DANES—
    In Chicago, 23
    In New York, 23

  Darius and the Scythians, 115

  Dartmouth College, founding of, 109

  Dates, how to find day of, 92

  Date line, international, 144

  Davis, Jefferson, sketch of, 71

  Davy and the electric light, 21

  Days of week, of old dates, 73, 92

  Dead Sea, depression of the, 184

  DEATHS—
    From accident, 125
    From consumption, 125
    Rate of in cities, 119

  Debate, questions for, 65

  DEBT—
    Funded and floating, defined, 54
    Of the Confederacy, 123-124
    Of France and Great Britain, 40
    Of States, 98
    Of United States, 30, 98
    Of United States under Buchanan, 79
    Of Virginia, 41
    Reduction of National, 78-79
    Repudiated, State, 43-44

  Declaration of Independence, 183

  Decoration Day, date of, 182

  Democratic party, origin of the, 135, 161

  Democrats, the rooster emblematic of, 124

  DENOMINATIONS—
    Statistics of, 9, 16
    Statistics of in Canada, 35

  Deposits, assessment of, 102

  Derby, Captain Henry, “John Phœnix”, 18-19

  “Desert Land Act”, 61, 78, 99

  De Soto as a miner, 88

  DIAMONDS—
    Discovery of, 105-106
    In ancient countries, 105
    Manufacturing, 183
    Noted ones, 105
    Tariff on, 166

  DISTANCES—
    Between points on N. Pac. R. R., 61
    San Francisco to Australia, 124
    San Francisco to Sandwich Islands, 124
    San Francisco to New Zealand, 124
    San Francisco to China and Japan, 124
    From St. Paul to Portland, Oregon, 183
    From St. Paul to Chicago, 183

  Distillery, largest, 177

  Dixon, bridge, disaster at, 120

  DOLLAR—
    Trade, silver in a, 184
    Not legal tender, 184

  Dollars, rare old, 19-20

  Don Carlos, sketch of, 147-148

  Dower right, relinquishment of the, 181

  Dram-shops, license for, 151

  “Drink, strong” of the Hebrews, 146-147

  Drinking from skulls, 38

  Druggists, number of trained, 60

  Du Chaillu, sketch of, 92

  Dude, origin of the word, 177

  Dumas’ works, order of, 20

  Duncan, General Joseph, 64-65

  DUTCH—
    In Chicago, 23
    In New York, 23

  DUTIES—
    Rates of at various dates, 7
    Tendency to increase, 7-8
    On farm products, 11
    On coal, 11

  “Dying Californian,” author of, 96


  E.

  Earth, revolves 366 times in a year, 21

  EARTHQUAKES—
    Frequency of, 47
    Causes of, 46-47

  Easter, a movable feast, 116

  “Ecce Homo,” author of, 177

  Eclectic School of Medicine, 183

  Eden, site of, 32-67

  Edinburg, burning of, 49

  Editorial rules governing manuscripts, 36-37

  EDUCATION—
    And Christians, 148
    Of criminals, 175
    Of Indians, 167

  Egg, a remarkable, 159

  Egypt, Napoleon in, 54

  ELECTIONS—
    Years for Presidential, 30

  Electric Light, discovery of, 21

  Electric Telegraphing, 79

  ELECTRICITY—
    Effect on watch, 179
    Velocity of, 184

  Elevated Railways, 22

  Elgin, bridge disaster at, 120

  Elizabeth, Queen, 9

  Emmanuel, Victor, 135

  Embargo of 1807, 184

  Ember days, 114

  ENGLAND—
    Area of, 31
    Church of, 74
    Intemperance in, 34
    Railway speed in, 28
    Ship-building in, 17-18
    Sovereigns of, 26
    Wages in, 17
    In Chicago, 23
    In New York, 23

  Episcopalians in Canada, 35

  Equinoxes, precession of the, 148-149

  Era, Christian, 96

  Erie and Michigan Canal, 10

  Erie Canal, 177

  Eugenie, ex-Empress of France, 31

  Europe, Sunday schools in, 117

  EXECUTIVE OFFICERS—
    Of the Cabinet, 186
    Salaries of, 107-108

  Expenses of contestants for Congress, 70

  Explorers in the Southwest, 94


  F.

  Falconry, 58

  “Fall of Jerusalem,” the, 174

  Fallows, Bishop, sketch of, 79

  Fare to Australia, 124

  “Farm Ballads”, 136

  FARMS—
    Bonanza, 97
    Of the United States, 139

  “Father of History”, 68

  Feasts, Christian and Jewish, 116

  February, five Sundays in, 62

  Feeble-minded, State Institute for, 8, 161-162

  Fencing lumber, grades of, 85

  Ferrara, Duke of, 10

  Fertilizer, bone dust as a, 64

  Fessenden, Thomas G., sketch of, 179

  Feudalism, 145

  Fiat money in Japan, 113

  Fillmore, President, descent of, 20

  FIRES—
    Caused by locomotives, 95-96
    List of great ones, 49-50
    London, Moscow, Chicago, 28
    Fisk, Jas., and Black Friday, 104

  FLAG—
    At Bunker Hill battle, 29
    At Fort Sumter, 88
    History of the United States, 15
    Of Colonial troops, 29
    Of our Union, the, 151

  Flagg, Azariah C., 52

  Flooring, lumber, grades of, 85

  Flower Mission, Chicago, 73

  Ford, Governor, last years of, 182

  Foreigners in Chicago and New York, 23

  “Fourth Watch,” author of, 97

  FOWLS—
    Description of, 65
    Houdan, how marked, 31
    Sex of, 143-144

  Fowler, Oscar Squire, 9

  FRANCE—
    Agriculture in, 103
    Carrying trade of, 103
    Chief cities of, 131
    Commerce of, 103
    Finances of, 142
    Government of, 184
    In Mexico, 26
    Manufacturers of, 103
    Mining in, 103
    National debt of, 40
    The President of, 161
    Threatened war with, 82
    Franco-German war, 40

  Franchise in Great Britain, 81

  Francis Joseph, 135

  FRANKLIN, SIR JOHN—
    Expedition of, 139-140
    Search for, 88, 127
    Last record of, 127

  Fraudulent land claims, 48

  FREMONT, J. C.,—
    Character of, 180
    Explorations of, 94

  French explorations in the West, 90

  French pools, 73

  Friday, Good, Lincoln’s assassination on, 48

  Froebel, sketch of, 82-83

  Fuel, amount of wood consumed, 38

  Fugitive slave laws, 57-58

  Fur fisheries of Alaska, 174

  Fusibility of alloys, 72


  G.

  Gall, Franz Joseph, 8

  Garfield, descent of, 20

  Gay-Lussac, sketch of, 90

  Geikie, Professor, 111

  Gelasius, Pope, 102

  Gems, the language of, 8

  Generals, U. S. A., rank of, 20-21

  “Gentle Shepherd,” nickname of, 176

  Geological divisions of time, 120

  George Third, king in 1775, 181

  Georgia gold mines, 57

  Gere, C. H., 112

  Germans in Chicago, 23

  Germans in New York, 23

  German Jews, 10-11

  GERMANY—
    Agriculture in, 103
    Carrying trade of, 103
    Commerce of, 103
    Manufactures of, 103
    Mining in, 103
    Wealth of, 142

  Gettysburg, Lee at, 16

  Gettysburg and Waterloo, battles of, 47-48

  Ginseng, export of, 183

  Girard, Stephen, sketch of, 127

  Glacial period, the, 7, 157

  Glaciers, directions of, 7

  Gladstone, W. E., sketch of, 172

  Glaisher, the balloonist, 70

  Glue, liquid, 131

  Goats of Angora and Cashmere, 44

  GOLD—
    In sea water, 72-73
    Localities and uses, 14
    Mines, location and product, 57

  Golden Horn, the, 182

  Golden House of Nero, 112

  “Golden Circle, Knights of the”, 130

  Gonzales, General, 182

  “Goose Hangs High,” origin of, 174

  GORTSCHAKOFF—
    And America, 38
    At Sebastopol, 177

  Gospels, when written, 21

  GOTHAM—
    Application to New York, 69
    Traditions of, 69
    Wise men of, 69

  Gould, Jay, and Black Friday, 104

  GOVERNMENT—
    Land sales of, 71
    Cost of, 107-108
    Land sections, subdivision of, 94-95

  GOVERNORS—
    Of Alabama, 102
    Of Kansas, 59
    Of States, 57
    Terms and salaries of, 57

  GRAIN—
    At Milwaukee and Chicago, 17
    Price in England, since corn laws, 154

  GRANT, U. S.,—
    And Black Friday, 104
    Descent of, 20

  GREAT BRITAIN—
    Agriculture in, 103
    Carrying trade of, 103
    Celts of, 43
    Chief cities of, 131
    Commerce of, 103
    Debt of, 40
    Emancipation in, 52
    Franchise in, 81
    High Court of, 157
    Manufactures of, 103
    Mining in, 103
    Parliament of, 117-118
    Rates of interest in, 63
    Revenue of, 58-59
    Schools in, 117
    Sovereigns of, 26
    Wealth of, 142

  Great Dipper, revolution of, 12

  “Great Eastern”, 183

  GREEKS—
    In Chicago, 23
    In New York, 23

  GREELEY, HORACE—
    Bondsman of Davis, 183
    Southern policy of, 183

  GREENLANDERS—
    In Chicago, 23
    In New York, 23

  Greenwich, situation of, 174

  Gregorian Calendar, 45-46

  Grenville, George, 176

  Grevy, President, salary of, 161

  “Grimes, Old,” original of, 156

  Grote, George, Sketch of, 75

  Grout houses, 100-101

  Guilds, 26

  Guillotine, the, 102

  Guinea pig, 115

  Guiteau jury, names of, 10

  “Gulliver’s Travels,” author of, 180

  GUNS—
    Choke-bore, 133
    Different makes, 42
    Duty on, 8
    Points of a good one, 41-42

  Gunpowder, invention of, 118


  H.

  Halbig, John, sketch of, 160

  Hale, J. P., candidate for President, 120

  Hallowe’en, history of, 146

  Hamburg, burning of, 50

  Hamilton, Alex., nationality of, 151

  Hanford, murder of, 65-66, 184

  Harmonica, the, 99

  Harper’s Ferry, Lee at, 16

  Harrison, descent of, 20

  Harvard University, wealth and attendance, 134

  Havana, burning of, 50

  Hawks’ bills, 58

  Hay, measuring, 155-156

  Hayes, President, descent of, 20

  Hayes, Dr., death of, 88

  Hayes, President, and Arthur, 118

  Headlight oil, 159

  Hebrew, not a living language, 60

  Helen and the Siege of Troy, 160-161

  Henry, Gen. Jas. D., 65

  Henry VIII., of England, 32-33

  Hero and Leander, 75

  HERODOTUS—
    Sketch of, 68
    Writings of, 42

  High-binder, sporting term, 114

  High Court, England, 157

  High Seas, 51

  Hill, Thos., original of Paul Pry, 22

  Historians, American, 133

  Historians, greatest American, 37

  Historians, oldest, 42

  Historical Societies, 171-172

  “Hobson’s Choice”, 170

  Hobson, Lieutenant, 127

  Hochkirchen, battle of, 117

  HOLIDAYS—
    Legal, in Illinois, 177
    National, 177

  Holland, wealth of, 142

  Homeopathy in the United States, 112

  Homerian Riddle, 21

  HOMESTEADS—
    Abandonment of, 60
    Act granting, 46
    Claims, 174
    Claims, fraudulent, 48
    Not liable for debt, 143
    Rights of women, 85
    Soldiers, 29, 59, 176
    Two applications for a, 178

  Honey-dew, 175

  Hot Springs, Las Vegas, 101

  Houdan Fowls, how marked, 31

  House of Representatives, 185

  Howitt, Wm., 106

  Hugo, Victor, works of, 114-115

  HUGUENOTS—
    In the Carolinas, 67
    The picture of, 162

  HULL, GENERAL—
    Birth and rank, 151
    In what battles, 55

  Hull, Commodore, birth and rank, 151

  Humane Society, 24

  HUNGARIANS—
    In Chicago, 23
    In New York, 23

  Hungary, Apostle of, 107

  “Hunkers”, 52-53

  Huron, D. T., elevation of, 128

  Hussites, the, 103


  I.

  “I am dying, Egypt, dying”, 129

  “I” and “We” in journalism, 121

  Ice, anchor, 83-84

  Igloos or Arctic huts, 69

  Illustrations, copyrighted, 157

  ILLINOIS—
    Black laws, 89-90
    Citizens’ League of, 77-78
    Congressional districts of, 183
    Constitutions of, 184
    Corn crop of, 124
    First railroad in, 92
    General Assembly of, 184
    Half votes in, 183
    Institution for feeble-minded, 8
    Leading corn county of, 181
    Liquor drank in, 104-105
    Orphan asylums in, 97
    Railroads in, 149
    Rainfall in 1882, 182
    Saloons in, 105
    Slavery in, 89-90
    State normal schools, 180
    Wealth of, 158
    Wheat crop in 1882, 105

  IMMIGRANTS—
    Number of, 52
    Vaccination of, 40

  Immigration Commission, New York, 56

  Immigration, foreign, 149

  Imports, amount of, 175

  Inauguration Day on Sunday, 180

  INCUBATOR—
    Artificial, 54-55
    How to use, 84-85
    Success of, 60-61

  Independence, Declaration of, 140

  INDEX—
    Of periodical literature, 45
    Poole’s, to magazines and reviews, 45

  INDIANA—
    Governors of, 165-166
    Temperance in politics, 35

  INDIANS—
    Education of the, 167
    Tribes of Michigan, 13

  Industrial legislation, 46

  Infallibility of the Pope, 103

  Inks, recipes for, 15

  Innocent I., Pope, 102

  INTEMPERANCE—
    In Chicago, 77
    In England, 34
    In Illinois, 104

  INTEREST—
    On notes, 55-56
    Rates of, 63

  “International date lines”, 144

  Inter Ocean, when named, 174

  Inventors, greatest Americans, 37

  Invincible Club. Democratic, 130

  IOWA—
    Corn crop of, 124
    Governors of, 66

  IRELAND—
    Area of, 31
    Celts in, 43

  IRISH—
    Ancient language of the, 176
    In Chicago, 23
    In New York, 23

  Iron, where found, 14

  “I sat alone with my conscience”, 106

  Isinglass, 114

  ITALIANS—
    In Chicago, 23
    In New York, 23

  ITALY—
    Freedom of, 135
    Wealth of, 142


  J.

  JACKSON, ANDREW—
    Descent of, 20
    Double marriage of, 28-29

  Jamaica, emancipation in, 52

  James, Henry, Sr. and Jr., 8

  Jamestown, settlement of, 62

  JAPAN—
    Distance, and fare to, 124
    Effects of low tariff in, 113
    Japanese in Chicago, 23
    Japanese in New York, 23

  Jeannette expedition, 140

  JEFFERSON, THOMAS—
    Descent of, 20
    Library of, 12
    Sketch of, 11, 135
    United States banks and, 12
    Jeffersonianism, 11-12

  Jersey cattle, 51

  Jerusalem, burning of, 49

  “Jerusalem liberated”, 10

  Jesus Christ, date of birth of, 34

  JEWS—
    Nationality of the, 10-11
    Rights of in various countries, 10
    Scriptures, of the, 103

  John Carver, 14

  JOHNSON, ANDREW—
    Descent of, 20
    Impeachment of, 184

  Johnson, Vice President, R. M., elected by Senate, 94

  Johnston, General A. S., sketch of, 83

  Johnston, General Joseph E., sketch of, 83

  Josephine, Empress, divorce of, 106

  Journalism, origin of, 80-81

  Juarez, expelled by French, 26

  Julian Calendar, 45

  Julian, Geo. W., sketch of, 120

  Jumps, highest, 68

  Justices, Chief of the United States, 180


  K.

  KANE, DR. E. K.—
    Sketch of, 88
    Explorations of, 140

  KANSAS—
    Governors of, 59
    Colored population of, 179
    Made a State, 63
    Senators of, 59
    Topeka, Reform School of, 177

  Keith, Marshall, sketch of, 116-117

  Keokuk, 64

  Kleber, General, 54

  “Knights, American”, 130

  “Knights of the Golden Circle”, 130

  Knox, William, sketch of, 18

  Konigsburg, burning of, 49

  Kyrle, John, 131


  L.

  Labrador, tropical plants in, 113

  Ladies members of Parliament, 63-64

  “Lady Elgin,” loss of the, 50

  Lady’s Day, 174

  Lakes, the great, 51

  LANDS, PUBLIC—
    “Bad lands”, 153
    Desert act, 78
    Entries by women, 73-74
    Entries in Dakota, 43
    How much one person can enter, 43
    In California, 99
    In Nevada, 99
    Omaha Reservation, 116
    Sale of government, 71
    Subdivisions of, 94
    Unimproved, 52
    Wrong surveys, 90

  Land warrants, 96-97

  “Language” and “Tongue”, 97-98

  Language of gems, 8

  Laodicea, council of, 102

  Las Vegas hot springs, 101

  “Last Supper,” painter of the, 182

  Lathrop, Amy, 97

  Laud, Archbishop, 71-72

  LAWYERS—
    As Presidents, 88
    In Congress, 88-89

  Lead-crystals, forms of, 42

  Leander, 75

  Leaps, longest, 25

  Leap Year, why 1900 is not a, 45

  Lee, Robert E., sketch of, 16

  Legion, the number in, 150

  Legislation for the people, 46

  Leper settlement, Sandwich Islands, 6

  LEPROSY—
    Among Caucasians, 6
    Case of Charles Derby, 6
    In California, 6
    In Sandwich Islands, 6

  Lewis and Clarke, explorations of, 90-94

  Liberia, history of, 154-155

  Lice in chickens, to destroy, 182

  LICENSES—
    Dram-shop, 151
    Of saloons in Illinois, 105

  Life-boat, inventor of the, 140-141

  Light, velocity of, 184

  LINCOLN, ABRAHAM—
    Descent of, 20
    Day and date of assassination of, 48

  Lincoln, monument to, 112-113
    Vote for in 1860, 179

  LIQUORS—
    Revenue from, 172
    Drank in Illinois, 104-105

  Literati, American, 61

  LITERATURE—
    Definition of, 156
    Poole’s Index of, 45

  “Little Old Sod Shanty,” author of, 174

  Liverpool, burning of, 50

  Livermore, Mrs. Mary A., sketch of, 85-86

  Livingstone, Dr., sketch of, 94

  LOANS OF UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT—
    During the Revolution, 80
    In 1860, 163
    See Debt, Index

  Locomotives, fire caused by, 95-96
    Fastest time of a, 180
    Largest in United States, 39

  Lollards, the, 103

  LONDON—
    Ancient facts regarding, 151
    Burning of, 49
    Clearing House of, 17
    Derivation of its name, 151

  Longevity of the Circassians, 149

  Longitude and latitude at sea, 30

  Lottery mail matter, 51

  Louisiana, Capital of, 44

  Louis Philippe, sketch of, 157-158

  Lowe, the balloonist, 71

  Lowell, J. R., sketch of, 146

  LUMBER—
    Grades of, 85
    Weight of, 107

  Luther, Martin, sketch of, 109

  LUXEMBURGERS—
    In Chicago, 23
    In New York, 23

  Lytle, General W. H., sketch of, 129


  M.

  Maecenas, house of, 112

  Mackenzie, sketch of, 15-16

  Mackinac Island, history of, 13-14

  Madison, President, descent of, 20, 135

  Madison, Wis., elevation of, 128

  Madonna, Sistine, 150-151

  “Maid of the Mist” at Niagara, 103, 134

  Mail, old California, 155

  Mail-bags, pouch in, 146

  Maine liquor law, 166

  Mallet on earthquakes, 47

  Mamelukes, slaughter of, 95

  Man, antiquity of, 111-112

  “Man of Ross,” the, 131

  Manetho, writings of, 42

  Manitoba, pronunciation of, 181

  Manna, 85

  MANUSCRIPT—
    Postage on, 73
    Rule governing, 36-37

  Marcy. Hon. Wm. L., 52

  Marine vessels, old, 146

  Marquette, Jean, 13

  MARRIAGE—
    Between whites and blacks, 177
    License in Wisconsin, 181

  Martyrs in the Colosseum, 69

  Massachusetts, wealth of, 158

  Mason, Governor, of Michigan, 25

  Mason, Sergeant, sentence of, 96

  Mason & Dixon’s Line, 63

  Matches, revenue from, 172

  Mather, Cotton, 150

  MAXIMILIAN, OF MEXICO—
    And Carlotta, 122
    In Mexico, 26
    “Legions” of, 179
    Sketch of, 97

  McClellan’s “Minute Men”, 130

  Meade, General, at Cold Harbor, 184

  Measuring an acre, 21

  Meat, ratio to live weight, 36

  Medicine, eclectic school of, 183

  Meerschaum—Sea Foam, 57

  Mendoza, burning of, 50

  Menon, General, in Egypt, 54

  Merchants’ Club and the Caucus, 54

  Mercury, locality and uses, 14

  Mermaid Tavern, 168

  “Merry Andrew,” origin of, 69

  Metals, their location and uses, 14

  Metals, yield in various countries, 14

  Meteoric stones, 123

  Methodists in Canada, 35

  Metrical System, base of the, 149-150

  Meuse, river, 180

  MEXICANS—
    In Chicago, 23
    In New York, 23

  MEXICO—
    Discovery of, 48-49
    Government of, 182
    The mines in, 58

  Mica, 12

  Michigan, first State election in, 25

  Middleton, Thomas, 38

  Mileage, railroads, 37

  Miller, Joaquin, 64

  Military heroes of America, 61

  Military road in Arkansas, 6

  Militia, called by the President, 176

  Milk, amount of butter in, 176

  Milman, H. H., 174

  Milwaukee, grain handled in, 17

  MINES—
    Deepest in the world, 176
    Oldest American, 88
    Mines of Australia, 51
    Mines of the Toltecs and Aztecs, 88

  “Minnie Myrtle”, 64

  Mints, U. S., 67

  Miocene Period, man in, 111

  MISSISSIPPI RIVER—
    Does not run up-hill, 98-99
    Fall of, 109
    Length of, 115
    Navigation of the, 162
    Valley of the, 67

  Missouri Compromise, 63

  Missouri River, length of the, 115-116

  Mitchell, Maggie, 71

  Mizpah, meaning of, 184

  Mocha, island of, 114

  Mocha coffee, 44-45

  Moffat, Robert, 94

  Moldavian Desert, 115

  Money, early American, 19

  “Monitor,” the original, 173

  Monroe, descent of, 20

  Montreal, burning of, 50

  “Moralism and Christianity”, 8

  Moravian Brethren, the, 103

  Morris, George P., sketch of, 151

  Mortality in cities, 119

  MOSCOW—
    Burning of, 49-50
    Siege of, 54
    Who burned, 67

  Moses, writings of, 42

  MOUNTAINS—
    Highest in Philippine Islands, 184
    How measured, 177
    Of Australia, 50-51

  Movable feasts, 116

  Munich, 87

  Murad Bey, 95

  Murders, annual number, 91

  Mushroom gardening, 95

  Mushroom and toadstool, 79

  Music, effect on bridges, 40

  Mutuals, Paris, 73

  Mystics, the, 103


  N.

  NAPOLEON BONAPARTE—
    Banishment of, 11
    Defeat of, 54
    Sketch of, 31

  NAPOLEON III, LOUIS—
    And Maximilian, 26
    Sketch and incidents of, 31, 122, 134

  Nares Polar Expedition, 93

  Nast, Thomas, sketch of, 97

  National Banks, security of, 66

  Nations of the Globe, 42-43

  “Nature of Evil,” the, 8

  NAVY, U. S.—
    Chaplains in the, 138
    Officers who turned rebels, 87
    Period of 1861 to 1865, 87

  NEBRASKA—
    And Lincoln’s monument, 112-113
    “Bad Lands” in, 153-154
    Cedar County, 31-32
    Description of, 144-145
    Rainfall in, 91
    State Normal, 169
    Wheat crops in, 161

  Negroes and Suffrage, 15

  Negroes, schools for, 89

  Neilson, Adelaide, 177

  Nero, golden house of, 112

  New Jersey, woman suffrage in, 134

  New Orleans, La., 44

  New South Wales, 51

  NEWSPAPERS—
    Circulation of, 132
    Earliest, 80-81
    Number in America, 81
    New Troy, 151

  NEW YORK CITY—
    Burning of, 49
    Charter of, 7
    Elevated railways in, 22
    Foreigners in, 23
    Mayors of, 158
    Sale of apples in, 178

  NEW YORK, STATE OF—
    Cost of new State Capitol, 9
    Discovery and settlement of, 7
    Immigration, Commissioners of, 56
    Wealth of, 158

  NIAGARA RIVER—
    Descent of, 103
    Facts concerning, 62
    Shooting the rapids of, 134

  Nicollet, John, 13

  Nicknames of Southern States, 181

  Nightingale, Florence, Sketch of, 76

  Nightingale, the habitat of, 184

  Night-glasses, 133

  Nihilism, 78

  NILE—
    Battle of the, 54
    Ruins along the, 170-171

  Noble, Warren V., sketch of, 10

  Noon marks, 24

  Nordenskjold, sketch of, 79

  NORMAL SCHOOLS—
    Of Illinois, 180
    Of Nebraska, 169

  Norman horses, 78

  North, Lord, Minister of England, 181

  Northwest passage. See Arctic.

  NORWEGIANS—
    In Chicago, 23
    In New York, 23

  Notables, assembly of, 122

  “Not one cent for tribute,” author of, 81-82

  Novgorod, burning of, 50


  O.

  OATS—
    Amount of alcohol in, 163
    Duty on, 11

  Oberammergau, 35

  Occupations, number in United States, 136

  Oceanica, Sunday-schools in, 117

  “O-grab-me act”, 184

  OHIO—
    Institute for Feeble-minded, 8
    Wealth of, 158
    Wheat crops in, 161

  Oil, headlight, 159

  Omaha Reservation, 116

  Opium war, 126

  “Opus Majus”, 118

  Orators, greatest American, 37

  OREGON—
    Crops and herds, 100
    Description of, 99

  Orphan asylums in Illinois, 97

  Osage-orange, silk from, 129-130

  Osier plantations, 101

  “Other Shore,” author of, 97

  “Ouida”, 177

  Ounces, weight of, 177


  P.

  Paint, what makes it poor, 181

  Painting, how to copyright, 184

  Paintings, celebrated, 18

  Pan-Presbyterian Council, 91

  Papal infallibility, 103

  Paris, burning of, 50

  Paris Mutuals, 73

  Parliament, members of, 63-64

  Parris, Samuel, and Mass. witchcraft, 150

  PARTNERS—
    Effect of marriage of, 182
    Special, 129

  Passion-flower, 84

  Passion Play, history of the, 35-36

  Patch, Sam, 177

  Patterson, Elizabeth (Bonaparte), 31

  Patented articles, must bear notice, 174

  Patti, Adelina, sketch of, 145

  Pattie, Sylvester, 94

  Paul Pry, 22

  Pauper relatives, support of, 92

  “Peace Organisation”, 130

  “Peasant, the”, 106

  Pedestrian, best, 143

  “Peeler,” debt, 41

  PEERESSES—
    In Parliament, 145
    Of England, 63-64

  Peking, population of, 59-60

  Penikese, Agassiz’s school on, 143

  Pennsylvania, wealth of, 158

  Pennsylvania Whisky War, 90

  PENSION—
    Attorney’s fees for, 158-159
    Of soldiers of 1812, 151
    Who inherits, 68

  Periodicals, number of in U. S., 182

  “Perkins, Eli”, 177

  Perry, naval song of, 138

  Peru, tin mines in, 58

  Pestalozzi, sketch of, 82

  Pewter, fusibility of, 72

  Pharmacy Laws, 60

  Philippine Islands, highest mountain in, 184

  “Phœnix, John,” sketch of, 18-19

  Phrenology, history of, 8-9

  Pierce, President; descent of, 20

  Pierre, Dakota, 184

  Pigs, Guinea, 115

  Pinckney, Chas. C., 81-82

  Pisa, leaning tower of, 40-41

  Pitch of a roof, 179

  Pitman, Mary Ann, 130

  Pittsburg, burning of, 50

  Pittsburg Convention, 120

  Planets in February, 1883, 18

  Plants, tropical, in Labrador, 113

  Platinum, locality and use, 14

  “Plon Plon”, 31

  Plows, steam, first, 152-153

  Pocahontas, descendants of, 21

  Poems, certain, authors of, see Authors, Index

  Poets, greatest American, 37

  Polar Explorations, the, 16-17

  Pole, why weight increases at, 179

  POLE, SOUTH—
    Nearest approach to, 93
    See Arctic.

  POLES—
    In Chicago, 23
    In New York, 23

  Police, Metropolitan and city, 34

  POLK, PRESIDENT—
    Descent of, 20
    Feud with Silas Wright, 52

  Poll-tax, who pays, 175

  Pontoon bridges, Prairie du Chien, 177

  Poole, John, 22

  Poole’s Index, 45

  Pools, French, 73

  “Poor as I am,” etc., 63

  POPULATION—
    Of the globe, 37-38
    Of the United States, colored, 175

  “Porte Crayon,” pseudonym of, 115

  Porterhouse steak, origin of name, 29

  Portland, Me., burning of, 50

  Portsmouth, burning of, 49

  PORTUGUESE—
    In Chicago, 23
    In New York, 23

  POSTAGE—
    Cheap, legislation for, 46
    Foreign, 159-160
    Old rates of, 151
    On manuscript, 73
    On newspapers, 139

  Postage stamp, origin of, 67

  Postal expenditures, 158

  Postal instructions, 185

  Postal rates, old, 151-152

  Postal service in the United States, 97

  Postal system, history of the, 141-142

  Postal time-table, 185

  Postmaster General in the Cabinet, 143

  Postmasters, salaries of, 138-139

  Postoffices, origin of, 141-142

  Posts, coal oil preserve, 176

  Potatoes, duty on, 11

  Poultry, artificial brooders, 76

  Poultry Association, North American, 162-163

  Pratt, Major, 152-153

  Precession of the equinoxes, 148-149

  PRE-EMPTIONS—
    Claims, 174
    “Continuous residence,” on, 137
    Liable for debts, 143
    “Proving up”, 137
    When claims join, 178
    Who can make, 176-178

  Presbyterians in Canada, 35

  Presidential dinners, who pays for, 49

  Presidential election, years for, 30

  PRESIDENTS—
    And republics, 59
    National descent of, 20
    Of Continental Congress, 62
    Professions of, 88
    Pro-tem., of the Senate, 115, 185
    Salary of, 107, 180-182

  Printers’ wages in Chicago, 174

  Prison labor, 95

  Prize-ring, championship of, 175

  Promissory note, interest on, 55-56

  Property of a wife, 176

  Proverbs, Chinese, 167-168

  Providence Spring, 121

  Pry, Paul, 22-23

  Pseudonyms of authors, 131-132

  Ptolemy Philadelphus, sketch of, 60

  Pueblos of New Mexico, 64

  Puget Sound, 24

  Pullman cars, cost of, 182

  “Puts and Calls”, 175

  Pyramids, battle of the, 95


  Q.

  Quakers and suffrage, 15

  Quaternary period, 111

  Quebec, burning of, 50

  “Queechey,” author of, 97

  Queen Victoria, surname of, 98

  Queen’s bench, 157

  Queensland, 50-51


  R.

  Races, ten and twenty mile at Minneapolis, 180

  Rae, Dr. John, 139

  RAILROADS—
    Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe, 101
    Certain agreements between, 21
    Disaster at Tay bridge, 59
    Entering Chicago, 133-134
    First, 179
    First in Illinois, 92
    In Illinois, number of, 149
    Land grants to, 37
    Lands, settlers on, 125
    Michigan Central, 175
    Mileage of, 37
    Miles of, in United States, 157
    Northern Pacific, 61
    Pacific, finances of, 173
    Southern Pacific, 72
    Trains, speed of, 28
    Union Pacific, 184

  Railways, elevated, in New York, 22

  RAINFALL—
    In Nebraska, 91, 144-145
    In United States, 82

  Rain-gauge, how used, 93

  RALEIGH, SIR W.—
    Club of, 168
    Execution of, 90

  Randall, S. J., sketch of, 10

  Randolph, Chief Postmaster, 141

  Raphael, paintings by, 18

  Raphael’s Sistine Madonna, 150-151

  Rebellion, principal battles of, 109-110

  “Red Line Poets”, 181

  Red Sea, origin of name, 27

  Reed, General Joseph, 63

  Reform School at Topeka, Kan, 177

  Relationships, 36

  Relatives, pauper, legal claims of, 92

  Religion, oldest form of, 175

  RELIGIOUS SECTS—
    Statistics of, 9, 76, 182
    Statistics of, in Canada, 35

  Representatives, Speaker of the House, 115

  Republics, Chief Magistrates of, 59

  “Republic of South Carolina”, 58

  Republican legislation, effects of, 46

  Requisition of Governor, 178

  REVENUE—
    From salt, in New York State, 173
    Internal, 172-173
    Of Great Britain, 58-59

  Rhode Island, smaller than some counties, 118

  Rice, introduction into United States, 180

  Richmond, Lee at, 16

  Richter, Jean P., sketch of, 113-114

  Riddle, given to Homer, 21

  Riddleberger, Bill, 41

  Rifles, Sharpes, inventor of, 180

  Rip Van Winkle, 179

  RIVERS—
    Amazon, 67
    And harbors, cost of improving, 164
    Fall of Western, 109
    Length of, only estimated, 115
    Longest in the world, 183
    Meuse, the, 180
    Miles of navigable, in United States, 157
    Mississippi, 115
    Missouri, 115

  Road Laws of Illinois, 86

  Robards, Mrs., union with Jackson, 28

  Rock Island, elevation of, 109

  Rome, burning of, 49

  Roof, the pitch of a, 179

  Rooster, the, a Democratic emblem, 124

  Royal family of England, 72

  Rulers of the World, 84

  Runs, fastest, 68, 175

  Runs, longest, 25

  Ruskin, John, sketch of, 93-94

  Russell, “Bull Run”, 182

  Russia, wealth of, 142

  RUSSIANS—
    In Chicago, 23
    In New York, 23

  RYE—
    Amount of alcohol in, 163
    Duty on, 11


  S.

  Sacramento Valley, 24

  Saint Simon, sketch of, 120

  Safford, Truman Henry, 75

  Saginaw salt wells, 175

  SALARIES, U. S.—
    Department, 107-108
    Executive, 107-108, 177

  Salem Witchcraft, 150

  SALOONS—
    In Chicago, 77, 105
    In Illinois, 105
    Keepers, nationality of, 178
    Licenses in Chicago, 1880, 180

  SALT—
    Duty on, 11
    Product of and tax in New York, 173
    Regions, greatest, 175
    Revenue from, 173

  Salt Lake, description of, 166-167

  Salvation Army, the, 110-111

  SAN FRANCISCO—
    Burning of, 50
    Distance from Australian and other ports, 124
    Fares from to various ports, 124

  San Marino, 59

  San Joaquin Valley, 24

  Sand, George, 121-122

  Sandeau, Jules, sketch of, 121-122

  Sandpaper, 133

  SANDWICH ISLANDS—
    Leprosy in, 6
    Natives of in Chicago, 23
    Natives of in New York, 23

  SANTA FE—
    Age of, 64
    Settlement of, 62

  Savannah, burning of, 50

  Sayers, Tom, 175

  “Scalpers,” how they work, 154

  Scandinavian, old ideas of heaven, 38

  “Schonberg Cotta Family,” author of, 72

  SCHOOLS—
    First free, in the United States, 116
    Of Britain and Ireland, 117
    For colored race, 89
    Temperance in, 34-35

  Schwatka, Lieutenant, the explorer, 127

  Schwerin, Field Marshal, sketch of, 86

  Scientific societies, 171-172

  Scio, earthquake on island of, 175

  SCOTLAND—
    Area of, 31
    Natives of in Chicago, 23
    Natives of in New York, 23

  Scriptures, the Jewish, 103

  Scythians and Darius, 115

  SEA—
    Finding latitude at, 30, 36
    Gold and silver in, 72-73

  Seas, the high, 51

  Seasons, limits of the, 108

  “Secret of Swedenborg”, 8

  Secretaries, of States, 70

  SECTIONS—
    Government, 174
    Of land, “long and short”, 90

  Sects, religious, statistics of, 9

  Sedan, battle of, 175

  SENATE, U. S.—
    Members of, 185
    Presidents of, 115
    Presidents, pro tem. salary of, 181

  Senators of Kansas, 59

  Septuagint, 60

  Settlers on railroad lands, 125

  Shakespeare, articles on, 45

  Sharon, Hon. Wm., sketch of, 104

  Sharps, Christian, 180

  Shells, how to polish, 132

  SHERIDAN, GENERAL PHIL—
    At Sedan, 175
    Name of wife of, 174

  Shilling in various States, 54

  Shilling, the York, 54

  Ship, largest, 183

  Ship-building, English and American, 17-18

  Shipping, American sold, 98

  Ship-wrecked, persons, care of, 179

  Siding-lumber, grades of, 85

  Signal service, 143

  Signal station, elevation of, 127-128

  Signals of storms, 5-6

  Signs of weather changes, 24-25

  Silk from osage-orange, 129-130

  Silk-worms, development of, 182

  SILVER—
    Localities and uses, 14
    In sea water, 72-73

  Silver coins at a premium, 110

  Silver-plating, cheap method, 101-102

  Silver-ware, how to clean, 9

  Sinaloa, route to, 72

  Sing Sing, penitentiary at, 179

  Sintuism, 168

  Sirens, the, 91

  Sirloin, derivation of, 56-57

  Sistine Chapel, 18

  “Skeleton in every closet,” a, 123

  Skulls as bowls, 38

  Slave, first negro in Chicago, 174

  Slave trade, 51-52

  Slaves, voting, value of, 11

  SLAVERY—
    First case of in Chicago, 174
    In Cuba, 23
    In Illinois, 89-90
    In Jamaica, 52

  Smith, “Extra Billy”, 179

  Smut in wheat, 165

  Smyrna, burning of, 49-50

  Snake, hoop, 184

  Snow-shoes, how to make, 174

  Socialism, 79

  Societies, art, historical, and scientific, 171-172

  Soldiers’ Homesteads, 29-30

  Solferino, battle of, 134-135

  “Sons of Liberty”, 130-131

  “Sore-heads”, 52

  Sound and sense, 16

  South, the, and protective tariff, 128-129

  South Americans in Chicago, 23

  South Americans in New York, 23

  South Carolina, “Republic of”, 58

  Southern Hotel, loss of life in, 180

  Sovereigns of England, 26

  Spain, wealth of, 142

  SPANIARDS—
    In Chicago, 23
    In New York, 23

  SPEAKER OF THE HOUSE—
    Right to appoint a chairman, 53
    Salary of, 177
    Who have been, 145

  Specie, resumption of, 135

  Speed, of railway trains, 28

  Sphinx, the, 118

  SPIRITS—
    Production of, 171
    Revenue from, 172

  Spring, limits of, 108

  Spurzheim, Dr., 9

  St. Anastasias, sketch of, 107

  St. Augustine, age of, 64

  St. George’s Company and Ruskin, 93-94

  St. Helena, 17

  St. Ildefonso, treaty of, 179

  St. John, age of at death, 178

  St. Johns, burning of, 50

  ST. LOUIS—
    Burning of, 50
    Elevation of, 109

  St. Patrick, 181

  St. Patrick’s Day, 178

  St. Paul, Minn., elevation of, 128

  St. Peter’s Cathedral, 69

  St. Petersburg, burning of, 49-50

  St. Thomas, burning of, 50

  STAMPS, POSTAGE—
    Origin of, 67
    In a business letter, 182

  Standish, Miles, wife of, 174

  “Star Organization”, 130

  Stars, steering by the, 30

  STATES—
    Debts of, 98
    Formed from others, 62-63
    Nicknames of, 181
    Repudiating debts, 43-44
    Returning to a Territory, 181
    Security for U. S. loans, 79-80
    Vote of in November, 1882, 23
    Wealth of the, 98, 158

  Statesmen, Eminent American, 61

  Steamers, course across the Atlantic, 178

  Steamship, fastest time of a, 177

  Steel and Steel Rails, 66-67

  Stock Yards, Chicago, 175

  Stockholm, burning of, 49

  Storm Signals, 5-6

  Stratton, C. H., sketch of, 106

  Strother, D. H., 115

  Stubbs, Charles W., 106

  Suffrage, history of, 14-15

  Suicides, annual number of, 91

  Sullivan, Alexander, 65-66

  Sullivan-Hanford murder, 65-66

  Summer, limits of, 108

  Sumter, Ft., flag restored on, 88

  SUN—
    Days north of equator, 104
    Days south of equator, 104
    In the north window, 180
    Visible zones of, 20

  Sundays, five in February, 62

  Sunday schools in the world, 117

  Sun-dial and clock, 97

  Sunlight, covers more than a hemisphere, 117

  Survey, rectangular system of, 178

  SWEDES—
    In Chicago, 23
    In New York, 23

  SWISS—
    In Chicago, 23
    In New York, 23


  T.

  Tahoe, lake, description of, 163

  Taine, M., sketch of, 151

  Talent, value of Hebrew, 180

  Talleyrand insults United States, 82

  Tarantulas, 137-138

  TARIFF—
    And parties, 8
    Articles on, 45
    Canadian, 86
    Effect upon commerce, 103
    High and cheap goods, 160
    Low and fiat money, 113
    Increase of, 7-8
    In Great Britain, 58-59
    On coal, 11
    On diamonds, 166
    On farm products, 11
    On guns, 8
    On tin, 119
    Present duties, 7-8
    Jackson on, 147
    Jefferson on, 147
    In the South, 128-129
    Madison on, 147
    Monroe on, 147
    Van Buren on, 147
    Washington on, 147
    Who pays the, 160

  Tasso, sketch of, 9-10

  Tay Bridge disaster, 59

  Taylor, President, descent of, 20

  Taylor, “Father,” sketch of, 151

  Tea, first use of, 95

  TELEGRAPH—
    Autographic, 183
    Cable, to Ireland, 184
    Electric, 79
    Money and goods, 163
    The printing, 79
    Wheatstone’s, 79

  Telephone and telegraph compared, 86-87

  Telephone, how to operate, 87

  Telescope—Night-glass, 133

  TEMPERANCE—
    Facts for in Chicago, 77
    In common schools, 34-35
    In Germany, 21
    In Indiana politics, 35
    Movement, origin of, 21-22
    Societies, orders, etc., 21

  Templars, Good, 22

  Temperature, how observed, 93

  Tennessee gold mines, 57

  Terne plates, 119

  Testament, the Old, 103

  Texas admitted to the U. S, 184

  THERMOMETERS—
    Alcohol instruments, 177
    Zero, point of, 58

  Thoroughbred, meaning of, 175

  “Those everlasting gardens,” etc, 157

  Throop, Governor Enos T., sketch of, 24

  Throws, longest, 25, 68

  Thumb, Tom, sketch of, 106

  TIMBER—
    Act to encourage culture of, 99
    Claims, fraudulent, 48
    Culture act, 46
    Lands in Dakota, 43

  TIME—
    Difference of between various places, 19
    Geological divisions of, 120
    Noon marks, 24

  “Times that try men’s souls”, 67

  TIN—
    Mines, principal ones, 58
    Plate Association, 119
    Tariff on, 119
    Where found and use, 14

  Titus and the Colosseum, 68

  Toadstool, 79

  TOBACCO—
    Crop for 1880 and 1881, 176
    Revenue from, 172
    Sale of by producer, 92-93

  Tom Thumb, sketch of, 106

  “Tongue” and “Language”, 97-98

  Torpedoes, submarine, 125-126

  Torrismond, 10

  Tortugas, Dry, 178

  Towers, government, for geodetic survey, 176

  Townships, political and government, 67

  Trade, as shown by clearings, 17

  Trade marks, use of, 102

  Trades unions, history of, 26-27

  Training School for Nurses, 76

  Treasury Department, salaries of, 107-108

  Trent, Council of, 102

  Trichinæ, 176

  Trinity Church steeple, 174

  Troy, N. Y., burning of, 50

  Trotting, fastest, 175

  Truesdell truss, 120

  TURKS—
    In Chicago, 23
    In New York, 28


  U.

  Ulysses and the sirens, 91

  “Uncle Tom,” the original, 175

  Union losses in civil war, 74

  United Brethren, 114

  UNITED STATES—
    Agriculture in, 103
    Army, cost of the, 164
    Banks of, 12-13
    Capital of the, 163
    Capitals during Revolution, 62
    Carrying trade of, 103
    Cattle in the, 121, 127
    Civil list of, 28
    Coal area of, 157
    Coins, fineness of, 20
    Colored population of, 175
    Commerce of, 103
    Cultivated area of the, 139
    Debt of, 30, 38, 78-79
    Expenditures for government, 174, 183
    Expenditures of for eighteen years, 75
    First free schools in, 116
    Gortschakoff’s attitude to, 38
    Homeopathy in the, 112
    Imports during 1881, 175
    Islands belonging to, 136-137
    Largest cities in, 151
    Loans in 1860, 163-164
    Loans, State security for, 79
    Loans, when non-negotiable, 79
    Manufacturers of, 106
    Marine, size of, 97
    Miles of navigable waters, 157
    Miles of railroad in, 157
    Militia, force of the, 162
    Mining in, 103
    Mints and assay offices, 67
    Most level States of the, 176
    National cemeteries of, 159
    Number of occupations in, 136
    Oldest settlements, 61-62
    Railway speed in, 28
    Rates of interest in, 63
    Senators and Representatives, 177
    Ship building in, 17-18
    Signal service, 143
    Tin mines in, 58
    Treaties of with China, 126-127
    Vast possessions of, 93
    Wages in, 17
    Wealth of, 42, 98

  “Unless you can muse,” etc., 119

  Utah, woman suffrage in, 166


  V.

  Vaccinating immigrants, 40

  Vallandigham, C. L., 130

  Valleys, greatest river, 67

  Valparaiso, burning of, 50

  VAN BUREN, PRESIDENT—
    And President Polk, 52
    Descent of, 20
    Vice President, 49

  Vauxhall Gardens, 164

  Venezuela, freedom of, 25

  Venice, burning of, 49

  Vespasian and Colosseum, 68

  Vessels, American, sold, 98

  VICE PRESIDENT—
    Election of, 94
    Salary of, 177

  Victoria, Province of, 51

  Victoria, Queen, children of, 72

  Surname of, 98

  Victoria Nyanza, source of river Nile, 176

  VIRGINIA—
    And W. Virginia, 62-63
    Description of, 183
    Early history of, 126
    Gold mines, 57
    Population, 183
    State debt of, 41

  Vote of States, Nov., 1882, 23

  VOTING—
    Age required in different States, 181
    Property qualification for, 145


  W.

  WAGES—
    In England and America, 17
    Of printers in Chicago, 174

  WALES—
    Area of, 31
    Title of Prince of, 49

  Walker, Captain J., sketch of, 170

  Walking, best, 143

  Wallace, Sir William, sketch of, 74-75, 169-170

  WAR—
    Civil, battles of the, 109-110
    Franco-German, 40
    Mexican, cause of, 183
    Of 1812, cause of the, 183
    Of 1861-65, killed and wounded, 74

  Warner, Anna, 97

  Warner, Susan, 97

  Washington, descent of, 20

  Washingtonian Society, 22

  WASHINGTON TERRITORY—
    Crops and herds of, 100
    Description of, 99
    Facts about, 87

  WATCH—
    First, 3
    Affected by electricity, 179

  “Watch and Ward”, 8

  Water, why it freezes soft, 20

  Waterloo, battle of, 47-48

  Watts, Isaac, 178

  Wealthiest States, 158

  WEALTH—
    Of Nations, 142
    Of States, 98
    Of United States, by States, 42

  Weather signs, 24-25

  WEIGHTS—
    At poles and equator, 179
    Of various kinds of lumber, 107
    Of various substances, 183

  “We” in journalism, 121

  Wellington, Duke of, 54

  WELSH—
    In Chicago, 23
    In New York, 23

  West, French explorers in, 90

  WEST INDIES—
    Natives of in Chicago, 22
    Natives of in New York, 23

  WEST VIRGINIA—
    How formed, 62
    Capital of, 175

  WHEAT—
    Amount of alcohol in, 163
    Duty on, 11
    In Illinois, 1882, 105
    In Ohio and Nebraska, 161
    Smut in, 165

  WHIG PARTY—
    Death of the, 49
    Origin of the, 19

  WHISKY—
    First use of, 95
    Production of, 171

  Whisky war in Pennsylvania, 90

  White, Henry Kirke, 178

  Whitney, Eli, inventor, 114

  WIFE—
    Dower, right of a, 144
    Land entry by, 73-74
    Property of, 176

  WILLOW, BASKET—
    Curing of, 113
    Farming, etc., 101
    Sale of, 101
    White, how to kill, 176

  Wilson, Henry, change of his name, 181

  Wingfield, Edward M., 14

  Winter, limits of, 108

  Wise, Professor, the balloonist, 71

  Witchcraft, history of, 150

  Wolsey, Cardinal, sketch of, 32-33

  WOMAN SUFFRAGE—
    History of, 14
    In New Jersey, 134

  WOMEN—
    Homestead rights of, 85
    Married, rights of, 144
    Of age, when, 177

  WOOD IN UNITED STATES—
    Amount used as fuel, 38-39
    Amounts used for other purposes, 39

  WORLD—
    Nations of the, 42-43
    Population of the, 37-38

  Worms after a shower, 184

  Wyoming massacre, 89

  WYOMING TERRITORY—
    Bad lands in, 153-154
    Fossils in, 154
    Governor’s term and salary, 57

  Wright, P. C., 130

  Wright, Silas, 52-53


  X.

  Xenophon, sketch of, 75

  Xerxes’ army, size of, 176


  Y.

  YALE COLLEGE—
    Founding of, 109
    Wealth, attendance, etc., 134

  Yeddo, burning of, 50

  Yokohama, burning of, 50

  York Shilling, 54

  Younger, Cole, 177


  Z.

  Zero point of thermometer, 58

  Zinc, where found and use, 14

  Zodiac, signs of the, 30-31

  Zones of the sun, visible, 20




  Transcriber’s Notes

  pg 7 Changed: But two thinge have not been explained
            to: But two things have not been explained

  pg 8 Changed: appeared in The Semi-Weelky Inter Ocean
            to: appeared in The Semi-Weekly Inter Ocean

  pg 8 Changed: Moralism and and Christianity
            to: Moralism and Christianity

  pg 11 Changed: During the war he wss not
             to: During the war he was not

  pg 15 Changed: the field should be one-third the lenghth
             to: the field should be one-third the length

  pg 16 Changed: he became President of Washington ann Lee College
             to: he became President of Washington and Lee College

  pg 22 Changed: Railroad consists of a single row of colums
             to: Railroad consists of a single row of columns

  pg 24 Changed: all kinds of animals by securing the passsage
             to: all kinds of animals by securing the passage

  pg 27 Changed: An improvment which, it is claimed
             to: An improvement which, it is claimed

  pg 30 Changed: Representations of the zodacal signs
             to: Representations of the zodiacal signs

  pg 30 Changed: divided into twelve equal parts, coresponding
             to: divided into twelve equal parts, corresponding

  pg 33 Changed: there are indications that the Territary
             to: there are indications that the Territory

  pg 35 Changed: educational remedies for these appaling evils
             to: educational remedies for these appalling evils

  pg 40 Changed: BRIDGES AND RYTHMIC VIBRATION
             to: BRIDGES AND RHYTHMIC VIBRATION

  pg 40 Changed: music when crossing a supension
             to: music when crossing a suspension

  pg 40 Changed: and William of Innspruck
             to: and William of Innsbruck

  pg 40 Changed: each having an exterior collonade
             to: each having an exterior colonnade

  pg 44 Changed: Please give the the origin
             to: Please give the origin

  pg 45 Changed: a royal actavo of 1,442 pages
             to: a royal octavo of 1,442 pages

  pg 46 Changed: and to prevent a repitition
             to: and to prevent a repetition

  pg 50 Changed: from north to south, containtng
             to: from north to south, containing

  pg 51 Changed: In the event of crimes committted
             to: In the event of crimes committed

  pg 53 Changed: the House went into commitee
             to: the House went into committee

  pg 60 Changed: subjects in the popular enclyclopedias
             to: subjects in the popular encyclopedias

  pg 63 Changed: two eminent astronomers and mathemeticians
             to: two eminent astronomers and mathematicians

  pg 63 Changed: Where opportunities for profitable investiment
             to: Where opportunities for profitable investment

  pg 64 Changed: to persuade them them to submit
             to: to persuade them to submit

  pg 66 Changed: such as sulphur, phosporus, etc
             to: such as sulphur, phosphorus, etc

  pg 68 Changed: assisted in the expulsion of Lydamis
             to: assisted in the expulsion of Lygdamis

  pg 69 Changed: passeth publicly for the periphasis
             to: passeth publicly for the periphrasis

  pg 72 Changed: Her eigth is Leopold
             to: Her eighth is Leopold

  pg 75 Changed: Observer in the Cambridge Univergity
             to: Observer in the Cambridge University

  pg 76 Changed: dissatisfied with with some of their doctrines
             to: dissatisfied with some of their doctrines

  pg 77 Changed: A sketch of Socrates has rately been given
             to: A sketch of Socrates has rarely been given

  pg 78 Changed: What length of time will if require
             to: What length of time will it require

  pg 79 Changed: repayment for this purpose of the public deposites
             to: repayment for this purpose of the public deposits

  pg 80 Changed: bills of credit, not exeeding
             to: bills of credit, not exceeding

  pg 80 Changed: increased to $3,000,000, and approtioned
             to: increased to $3,000,000, and apportioned

  pg 81 Changed: and a residental qualification
             to: and a residential qualification

  pg 82 Changed: and France, satisfed that the United States
             to: and France, satisfied that the United States

  pg 84 Changed: What is abestos
             to: What is asbestos

  pg 87 Changed: Which is best adapted to Northeners
             to: Which is best adapted to Northerners

  pg 90 Changed: being retained upon the statue book
             to: being retained upon the statute book

  pg 99 Changed: safe from Indian depredatious
             to: safe from Indian depredations

  pg 99 Changed: except in districts where artifical irrigation
             to: except in districts where artificial irrigation

  pg 100 Changed: At this period he satarized
              to: At this period he satirized

  pg 100 Changed: attacking the inconcistencies and political
              to: attacking the inconsistencies and political

  pg 108 Changed: and the equinoctiol points
              to: and the equinoctial points

  pg 111 Changed: Quartenary to Quaternary (2 places)

  pg 112 Changed: the houses of Augustus and Macænas
              to: the houses of Augustus and Maecenas

  pg 112 Changed: HOMEOPATHATY IN THE UNITED STATES.
              to: HOMEOPATHY IN THE UNITED STATES.

  pg 112 Changed: voted for this apprrpriation
              to: voted for this appropriation

  pg 113 Changed: too modererate tariff
              to: too moderate tariff

  pg 115 Changed: The latest edition of “Lippincott’s Gazeteer
              to: The latest edition of “Lippincott’s Gazetteer

  pg 120 Changed: The real cause was the faulty construcion
              to: The real cause was the faulty construction

  pg 121 Changed: three small rooms in the Ousi Saint Michel
              to: three small rooms in the Quai Saint Michel

  pg 125 Changed: and that the latter ammounted to 65
              to: and that the latter amounted to 65

  pg 131 Changed: 8. To harrass loyal men
              to: 8. To harass loyal men

  pg 133 Changed: such States as had cumpulsory attendance laws
              to: such States as had compulsory attendance laws

  pg 134 Changed: would never stop, when when suddenly
              to: would never stop, when suddenly

  pg 137 Changed: Southern Pecific Railroad
              to: Southern Pacific Railroad

  pg 141 Changed: the sales are never consumated
              to: the sales are never consummated

  pg 153 Changed: and in this country by John W. Fawken
              to: and in this country by Joseph W. Fawkes

  pg 153 Changed: indurated clays, sands, marls, and occassional
              to: indurated clays, sands, marls, and occasional

  pg 161 Changed: for a series of reminisences
              to: for a series of reminiscences

  pg 178 Changed: as others wise the receiver cannot tell
              to: as otherwise the receiver cannot tell

  pg 180 Changed: has occured on Sunday fourteen times
              to: has occurred on Sunday fourteen times

  Punctuation normalized throughout book.



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