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Title: Putnam's Automobile Handbook: The Care and Management of the Modern Motor-Car

Author: H. Clifford Brokaw
        Charles A. Starr

Release date: June 22, 2021 [eBook #65673]
                Most recently updated: October 18, 2024

Language: English

Credits: Charlene Taylor, Brian Wilcox and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)


*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PUTNAM'S AUTOMOBILE HANDBOOK: THE CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF THE MODERN MOTOR-CAR ***

Transcriber’s Notes:—

Italic text is clothed with _underscores_.

Bold text is clothed with =equal signs=.

The spelling, hyphenation, punctuation and accentuation are as the
original, except for apparent typographical errors which have been
corrected.




[Illustration:

  Courtesy of Allen Motor Co.

SECTIONAL VIEW OF A MODERN AUTOMOBILE WITH FOUR-CYLINDER ENGINE]




  Putnam’s
  Automobile Handbook

  The Care and Management of the
  Modern Motor-Car

  By

  H. Clifford Brokaw

  Principal

  And

  Charles A. Starr

  Of the Staff
  of the Automobile School of the West Side Young Men’s
  Christian Association of New York City

  _Illustrated_

  G. P. Putnam’s Sons
  New York and London
  The Knickerbocker Press
  1918




COPYRIGHT, 1918

BY

G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS


The Knickerbocker Press, New York




FOREWORD


Much of the material, here assembled for the first time, has been
printed in the automobile section of New York City newspapers. It
has stood the scrutiny of the wisest men in the automobile trade and
has been read eagerly by owners within the sphere of the newspapers’
limited circulation; some of it has been reprinted in papers all over
the country, which is evidence enough of its practical value.

The publication, however, has been without sequence and all of it
has not appeared in any one paper. Moreover it has been reassembled
and rewritten and much has been added to round out the story of the
automobile and to adapt the material to the use of everyday men who do
not understand or care for the more technical works.

It should not be taken as the last word concerning the auto. That
will not be written until after the automobile has been driven out of
business by the airplane or something else and is as obsolete as the
oxcart of a century or two ago. There is nothing new in the principle
of the gas engine, but new appliances and new methods are constantly
being invented and discovered.

All that is herein contained is the result of years of experience
at the Automobile School of the West Side Young Men’s Christian
Association, New York City. This was one of the pioneer schools and
for fourteen years has turned out more than 1000 trained drivers each
year who know their engine and working parts thoroughly. Last year the
number was nearly 2500. Naturally in handling these thousands of bright
men the instructors were stimulated and themselves learned as they
taught. The consensus of this ripe experience is given here.

Lest there be misunderstanding, it were better said at once that if the
reader has come to this book to learn how to be a garage mechanic, how
to qualify as an expert in automotive technique, or how to learn common
sense, he should at once seek another source of information. This book
makes no pretensions of teaching the last word in automobile repair.
But if the automobile owner desires to have a working knowledge of his
car, to know how to find and overcome the ordinary ills and troubles to
which it is subject, and how to diagnose and prescribe for it when it
begins to wheeze or squeak or groan or knock, let him read on. The book
is for him.

In other words this is not a _sine qua non_, but a friend in need; it
is not a know-it-all, but a first-aid treatise. It is a leaf—several
in fact—from the book of experience, relating not to the engineering
problems of the automobile, but to the things which the engineer
overlooked or could not solve, and which the ingenuity of men who lay
no claim to the title of engineer, has enabled them to learn so that
they may take a bucking auto and make it feed out of their hands and
stand without hitching.

One of the first essentials of an automobile is that it shall go, and
that no amount of perversity shall prevent the owner from “driving it
back home under its own power.” Anyone may be towed in, if there is a
horse or another automobile handy; the wise owner will prepare himself
to avoid this. Except for serious breaks of parts, or forgetfulness
which permits oil or gas supply to run out, there is seldom reason why
the average owner should not “get out and get under” to find out what
the trouble is and, having found it, to remove the cause and start the
engine. It usually should take only a few minutes. System in locating
trouble and knowledge of what to do to remove the trouble are within
the compass of all; if there also reside within the individual a few
grains of common sense, his problem is simplified, his troubles are
lightened.

Let it be said also that this book does not in any way pretend to
supersede an automobile school for the owner who desires to make all
his ordinary repairs, and do more puttering about the car than the
average owner cares for. All owners would save the cost of instruction
many times over and repay the lost time by taking a course of
instruction in a reputable school. Many Y. M. C. A. branches all over
the land have well equipped schools, and there are many others in the
cities; there are also many where time spent would be wasted. There are
several in one of our large cities where the expense is very small, but
it is dear at any price. The “course” consists largely in putting the
student to work in a garage as an apprentice, where his instruction
is confined to verbal orders of how to repair a car which comes in.
In time, of course, the student comes across a large variety of
troubles, depending upon the character of the garage trade. Meanwhile
the garage-auto-school proprietor permits the student to pay for the
privilege of doing the repair work at the institution. No wonder the
course is advertised as unlimited!

It should be understood that this book does not pretend to tell all the
troubles attaching to automobiles and how to end them; but it covers
the general run of difficulties experienced on the road and a close
study of its pages and an application of its advice will make an owner
who has the least mechanical genius independent of the garage man, with
his delay and extravagant charges; at least it will enable him to get
to the home garage in most cases, where repairs may be effected with a
minimum of expense and annoyance.

Upon this basis and with this understanding, the automobile owner may
safely pin his faith to what follows and plunge at once into its depths
without fear.

  H. C. B.
  C. A. S.




CONTENTS


  CHAPTER                                               PAGE

        I.—WHAT TO DO ON PURCHASING A CAR                  1

       II.—SOME THINGS TO AVOID                            7

      III.—WHAT AN AUTOMOBILE IS                          12

       IV.—WHAT MAKES THE ENGINE GO                       21

        V.—EQUIPMENT AND ACCESSORIES                      26

       VI.—IF WELL “SLICKED” THE ENGINE RUNS              33

      VII.—WHERE LUBRICATION IS NEGLECTED                 39

     VIII.—SOMETIMES THE CAR SMOKES                       46

       IX.—THE CARBURETOR AND ITS FAILINGS                51

        X.—GETTING THE MOST OUT OF A GALLON OF GAS        58

       XI.—THINGS WHICH MAKE GAS BILLS HIGH               63

      XII.—CARE OF THE TIRES                              69

     XIII.—SKIDDING MAY BE MINIMIZED                      76

      XIV.—“CAN’T-SLIP HEELS” LESSEN SKIDDING             84

       XV.—AVOID NEWLY OILED ROADS                        90

      XVI.—WATCH YOUR BRAKES                              93

     XVII.—WHY THE AUTO STEERS EASILY                    101

    XVIII.—THE ELUSIVE “JUICE”                           108

      XIX.—PUTTING THE KICK IN THE SPARK                 116

       XX.—WHAT’S THE TROUBLE WITH MY BATTERY?           123

      XXI.—WHY GEARS STRIP                               130

     XXII.—THE GEAR-SHIFTING BUGABOO                     137

    XXIII.—THE MUFFLER                                   143

     XXIV.—YOUR BEARINGS                                 149

      XXV.—DRIVING THE CAR                               156

     XXVI.—WHERE EXTRA CAUTION IS NECESSARY              178

    XXVII.—AN AUTO FURNACE FOR WINTER                    184

   XXVIII.—THE COOLING SYSTEM IN WINTER                  191

     XXIX.—OVERHEATING THE ENGINE IN SUMMER              197

      XXX.—SOME OTHER HOT-WEATHER TIPS                   203

     XXXI.—HOT-WEATHER TIRE EXPANSION                    209

    XXXII.—GUARDING AGAINST FIRE                         214

   XXXIII.—DON’T RUN AWAY FROM A FIRE                    220

    XXXIV.—DEATH IN THE GASOLINE                         224

     XXXV.—SHIFTING GEARS ON HILLS                       229

    XXXVI.—KEEPING THE CAR SLEEK                         236

   XXXVII.—SOME THINGS A TOURIST SHOULD KNOW             244

  XXXVIII.—LITTLE KNOCKS ARE HARDLY BOOSTS               251

    XXXIX.—SOME OTHER CAUSES OF KNOCKING                 255

       XL.—CHASSIS KNOCKS                                262

      XLI.—KEEPING DOWN THE AUTO UPKEEP                  267

     XLII.—HUNTING TROUBLE                               272

    XLIII.—MORE TROUBLE                                  280

     XLIV.—DON’T TAKE THINGS FOR GRANTED                 285

      XLV.—BLOWING YOUR OWN HORN                         294

     XLVI.—WOMEN AS DRIVERS                              300

    XLVII.—MISCELLANEOUS RULES                           308

   XLVIII.—THE GOLDEN RULE OF MOTORING                   317

  INDEX                                                  331




ILLUSTRATIONS


        PAGE

  SECTIONAL VIEW OF A MODERN AUTOMOBILE
    WITH FOUR-CYLINDER ENGINE                 _Frontispiece_

  CHASSIS PLAN OF THE SAME AUTOMOBILE                     14

  SECTIONAL VIEW OF A FOUR-CYLINDER ENGINE
    WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO PARTS CONNECTED
    WITH LUBRICATION                                      34

  REAR WHEEL AND BRAKE DRUM REMOVED,
    SHOWING EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL BRAKE
    BANDS AND MECHANISM                                   98

  THEN HE WENT TO SCHOOL TO LEARN SOME
    MORE ABOUT HIS CAR                                   125

  DIAGRAM OF THREE SPEED AND REVERSE GEAR                132

  BLOCK OF STEEL, AND THE GEAR WHEEL WHICH
    WAS HAMMERED FROM IT                                 138

  BRAKE LEVERS AND LINKAGE, SHOWING EQUALIZING
    ROD AND SPRINGS                                      246

  SHE IS ACCUMULATING KNOWLEDGE OF AN
    INTRICATE MACHINE—AND SHE IS FASCINATED              305




Putnam’s Automobile Handbook




CHAPTER I

WHAT TO DO UPON PURCHASING A CAR


The man who buys a car will receive from the salesman a certain amount
of instruction as to running it. He will be taught how to manipulate
the pedals and levers, switches and other devices of the equipment and,
if necessary, how to run the car. He will be given, also, certain books
of instructions.

It is presumable that almost any man will remember enough of the
salesman’s patter to enable him to get home with the car, and that some
bits of memory as to the instruction books will remain. But will the
owner get out those books and go to school awhile with them? Not if he
is the average owner. Probably he looks upon them as mere catalogues
for ordering repair parts—well enough when needed. Do not make that
mistake. There is no other book printed, no matter how complete, which
supersedes or which can be substituted for the manufacturer’s book
concerning his own car. It was not printed just to consume paper and
ink; the manufacturer had no idea you would cut out the pictures and
paste them about the garage. He and his assistants spent a large amount
of time and a larger amount of gray matter in preparing those books so
that you, Mr. Owner, would know how your car is built, what it ought to
do, and why it won’t unless you do certain things. The books contain
in a small compass practically everything about your particular car.
The owner should master the contents first of all. Nothing can take its
place.

If the owner has not read the instructions, lay down this volume right
now, go to the garage, and get the books and read them over. If you
haven’t read them they are still in the car. The manufacturer made
certain that the owner could not claim the books were not received,
by tacking them fast under the seat or elsewhere so that they could
not get away and so that a forgetful salesman would not overlook this
important matter. Get them out and lay the basis of what is to follow.

Doubtless the owner will find that the manufacturer has, for instance,
given certain instructions concerning lubrication, perhaps has
specified certain kinds of lubricants. Now, no matter how much you
may know about the subject of lubrication, rest assured that the
manufacturer has had an engineer study out the lubrication of his car
and what he writes concerning it is the last word and it should be
followed implicitly. All that is contained in these pages upon the
subject of lubrication is explanatory and corrective and in no way can
take the place of the manufacturer’s advice for the particular car.

The same thing is true as to tires, or brakes, or steering gear, or
any other part of the mechanism. Read his book first and then turn to
the appropriate chapter here and you will find no divergence, only
interpretation, clarification, supplementary advice.

Probably it would be well to remind the owner that nine-tenths of the
complaints which reach the manufacturer or his service stations, show
that the owners making the “holler” confess that they had not read the
books given them with the car. It has become such a serious thing that
at least one manufacturer has started schools for purchasers of the
make, where, at a nominal compensation, they may be made to read the
instructions and be given a visualization of what they mean. All owners
cannot visit the centers where such schools are maintained, and all
manufacturers do not maintain them now, though it may be necessary in
the near future. The fact that it is necessary, however, should leave
the impress upon the reader’s mind of the importance of the subject.

The owner, whether he possess a “flivver,” or an edition _de luxe_,
has about as much money tied up in his car as he feels he can devote
to that form of pleasure or to business. It is an investment which
will, or will not, bring commensurate returns in money, or moments,
well spent; it can be made an indispensable aid to both business and
pleasure, or it may become an unsufferable nuisance in either. The
value of a car depends not upon the amount of the purchase price, but
upon what can be gotten out of it: its service, its dependability and
general reliability; that and the low cost of upkeep and operation.

Would it not seem reasonable, therefore, for the owner to give as much
thought and study to the machine which propels him and his merchandise
as to the machine in the factory which produces the merchandise; ought
he not to understand how and why and wherefore it propels him—or why
not?

Few men there be who would consign their bodies to the mercy of wind
and waves if they did not believe that a competent captain and engineer
were aboard the craft, or to a railway train were there not an engineer
and conductor at hand to look to his safety. Why should he place
himself and loved ones in a motor car and start off on a trip with an
uncertain hand at the steering wheel, with no one aboard competent to
rule the engine, or to know if all other parts of the mechanism are
properly adjusted, when a maladjustment may mean danger and even death?

One would not waste sympathy upon the owner himself in case of an
accident through ignorance, but the fate of others in his keeping
prompts the sounding of a warning.

Years ago traveling sign painters decorated trees and rail fences and
barns along the railways with injunctions of a religious nature, such
as “Prepare to Meet Thy God.” The last time the writer was back “at the
farm” this identical message confronted him from a big rock alongside
the railway crossing, as it did thirty or more years ago. Only this
time it seemed appropriate, for there was more recklessness shown than
one cares to witness regularly—it is too nerve-racking.

When one considers that a defective brake, a worn-through steering
knuckle, or any one of a number of broken parts—broken because
neglected—may be the particular weapon selected by the fool-killer,
the owner who cares for his bones, or for the lives of his passengers,
would better spend a few hours occasionally in looking after his car
and in finding out all that is possible about it.

Even though the owner can afford a chauffeur who “knows all about an
auto,” it is noticeable that chauffeurs have a way of forgetting, that
they loaf on the job shamefully, that they conspire with the supply
dealer to run the cost of upkeep to skyline altitudes, and are little
more immune from road troubles than the common or garden variety of
owner. The owner who knows can detect all these lapses from strict
rectitude, to the comfort of his person and the safety of his bank
balance.

So, now, having turned to the manufacturer’s books of instructions and
pondered over the warnings here given, the reader may safely pass on to
the chapters dealing with the beast he is called upon to tame.




CHAPTER II

SOME THINGS TO AVOID


When a certain character of history, long touted as “the wisest guy
ever,” uttered his famous “Wisdom crieth aloud in the street,” and
along with it, “Fools hate knowledge,” he must have had a vision of the
present day, when there is so much and so little known about the chief
mode of transportation, the automobile; so much by those who really
have studied its mechanical principles, and so little by those who are
running them about the highways. Yet in this day of automobile schools
and service stations there is no need of a single individual being
ignorant, nor of his coming under the condemnation of the same wise
one: “The careless ease of fools shall destroy them.”

Give me an individual of average intelligence in overalls and jumper
and a mind devoid of the “I know it” error and 99.99 per cent. of such
can be taught to “make the auto auto as it really ought to auto.” The
chief obstacle is the half knowledge—half error—which some possess.

Josh Billings once said: “I’d rather not know so much than know a lot
that is not so.” The reader will get the idea.

One of the hardest things for the average man to learn is not to do
useless things. Over and over folks will do things contrary to all
rules and instructions and make extra work for themselves. In a school
it is a good thing, perhaps, for it enables the instructor to point
out the futility of going at the thing wrong end first. There was one
class at the West Side Y. M. C. A. school particularly stupid in this
respect. They were set to locating engine troubles, forgot all about
the rules and took turns cranking the engine, expecting in that way to
find out why the engine would not run. The instructor, looking into
the classroom, found how things were going. All but one student were
intent upon turning over the engine; that one man stood in one corner
grinning, apparently having a good time with himself. The instructor in
feigned amazement called out to him:

“Here, why are you not cranking the engine, too?”

With a grin perfectly idiotic the fellow drawled out:

“What’s the use of cranking if she ain’t goin’ to run?”

The reader can figure out for himself the relative degrees of idiocy
or stupidity in that class. The instructor quickly set them to work by
rule and they all knew in a few minutes that troubles are not located
by cranking alone. The reader who will give careful attention to the
instructions herein contained, and who will follow closely the rules,
will not be cranking the engine when he should be cleaning a spark
plug, or adjusting the carburetor, or mending a broken wire. He will
learn that there is a sequence in every little job about the auto which
tends to lessen the labor and to produce the best result, just as there
is in keeping a set of books, or in running a farm.

The carpenter who does his work without plans usually is dubbed a
“wood butcher.” The inference is that the man who would care for his
automobile should learn to do it in a systematic way, according to
rule, doing everything always the same way and in the same order.
Thus the labor becomes a habit and is performed quickly and easily.
At the same time habit must not be allowed to become a rut; the owner
must preserve originality and initiative, and native ingenuity is
invaluable.

Particularly it is wise to avoid the idea that at the first sign of
something wrong one knows just what the trouble is. Probably no one
thing has caused more unnecessary work and unnecessary expletive than
jumping at a conclusion. Have a rule and go by it. Under the chapter
relating to troubles there will be found a rule for locating them. It
does not matter so much where one starts if it is followed through when
started. Experience will lead one in time to select the starting point,
either under the heading ignition, or gasoline, or other heading,
the symptoms indicating generally to the experienced ear what is the
matter; but there is so much chance of error in this guess that the
rule must be remembered and closely followed.

It takes three things to start a gas engine running: gasoline in the
proper mixture, compression, and ignition. To keep it running we must
add a lubricating and a cooling system. There must also be free exhaust
for burned gases. While there are many phases of each, it is necessary
for the owner to get these things fixed in his, mind first. Everything
else is extraneous.

There is something else to avoid. Avoid giving offense to the policeman
on the street, and avoid running away if you have had an accident or
are hailed by the traffic man. It does not pay, and will make added
trouble, unless you are as fortunate in explanations as was a fellow
who was caught by the officer in front of the Automobile School. He
had hit someone and instead of stopping as the law provided, he gave a
hasty look, saw no policeman, and shot ahead, turning the next corner.
He dodged in and out of several streets, not seeing the motorcycle
policeman chasing him. When caught and stopped he was asked why he was
running away.

“Me running away?” he asked. “I was not running away, I was just trying
to find a cop to report the accident.”

It worked that time, but it is not safe to trust the expedient under
other circumstances.




CHAPTER III

WHAT AN AUTOMOBILE IS


It matters not whether one call it an automobile, a tin lizzie, a gas
wagon, or what not, it consists of a steel frame upon which are mounted
wheels, an engine, appliances for connecting the engine to the driving
wheels, a fuel supply tank, a system for producing ignition at the
right moment, and appliances for regulating the speed of the engine and
the direction of the car. A seat for the driver and sundry pedals and
levers are needed to accomplish speed and steering control, and sundry
other parts have their place, but the above covers in a general way the
necessities of an automobile.

An automobile, as the name suggests, is a car which contains its own
propelling force and to which it is not necessary to hitch a horse, or
steam engine, or something else to make it go. This in spite of the
fact that occasionally it _is_ necessary to hitch something else to an
auto to make it go.

The assembly, generally speaking, consists of the chassis,
corresponding to the running gear of a wagon; the engine, mounted on
the chassis; and the body.

The chassis usually is made of angle iron riveted together in form
convenient for supporting the other parts. This rests upon the springs
which take up the road shocks in part, and the springs rest upon the
axles.

The rear axles—there is a separate axle for each rear wheel—are fixed,
that is, they keep the wheels from oscillating, and they are joined
in the center by the differential, a device driving the axle shafts
by which one wheel is permitted to revolve at a differing speed as
compared with the other, in turning a corner. Since, in turning, the
outer wheel must travel a much longer distance than the inside wheel,
if no device were installed to take up this difference, the outer wheel
would scrape over the ground on every curve, or the inner wheel would
spin without forward motion. In either event it would be disastrous to
tires.

To keep the differential housing from twisting, a torque rod or tube
connects it to the frame; to keep the rear axles at right angles to
the frame and to transmit the driving thrust to the load, radius rods
connect the axles to the frame forward.

The forward axle, unlike in an ordinary wagon, is fastened to the
chassis frame, through springs, and does not turn. On either end is a
yoke from which is suspended a steering knuckle, the wheel turning on a
tapered spindle forged with the knuckle. The two knuckles are fastened
together by a tie rod, which has some form of a turn buckle by which
the wheels may be made to run parallel, or practically so. As a matter
of fact the wheels are not parallel. They foregather slightly, so that
the lines, projected forward far enough, would meet and make a pointed
effect, like the bow of a boat. Its effect is to bring a slight but
constant pressure upon both wheels and makes them less likely to swerve
through contact with road unevenness. Also the wheels undergather, so
that the load is brought over the center of knuckle support, minimizing
the strain.

This deviation of the wheels from true produces a very slight wear on
the tires, but it is more than compensated for by the other advantages
noted. The deviation is worked out scientifically and the owner need
not trouble himself about it. His only concern is that the tie rod
be not bent so that the foregather is increased, when there would be
excess wear of tires.

[Illustration:

  Courtesy of Allen Motor Co.

CHASSIS OF A MODERN AUTOMOBILE WITH FOUR-CYLINDER ENGINE]

The brake drums are attached to the rear wheels and have inside and
outside bands with mechanism to tighten them against the drum providing
the necessary friction. The levers which connect the bands to the brake
pedal or emergency lever are termed the brake linkage.

The motor, or engine, rests upon the chassis frame forward, being
fastened thereto by bolts. Forward of it is a radiator, if it is a
water-cooled motor, to which it is connected by pipes; the cooling
system may be either pump or thermo-syphon type. Some few motors are
air-cooled. The principle of cooling is that the motor should be kept
just cool enough to prevent the lubricating oil from burning off the
cylinder walls.

Attached to the motor are the carburetor, in which air and gasoline
are mixed properly for rapid combustion, wires to supply ignition to
the mixture at the proper time, a device for giving lubrication, and
exhaust pipes leading to the muffler, the latter designed to stifle the
noise of rapid explosions, which otherwise would be deafening.

The ignition system may be either battery and coil, or high-tension
magneto which has its own coil and distributor, or a combination of
both these systems. Where there is a self-starter there is a storage
battery, which supplies current to the starting motor, and from which
the ignition current is drawn, and a generator to keep the battery
charged, and the generator may be provided with a circuit breaker and
distributor, or a separate magneto or coil may be used.

The lubricating device may either be a gravity or force-feed oiler
system with pipes leading to the various bearings, or the chief
lubrication may be by the splash system, where a reservoir of oil is
kept under the crank case from which it is pumped to oil pans under the
cranks, being splashed by projections which dip into the oil and throw
it all over the inside mechanism.

Also attached to the carburetor is the pipe from the fuel supply tank.
This supply may come by gravity or under pressure, and a late device
which is furnished with many cars is a vacuum gravity system, the
gasoline being drawn from the main tank, by a vacuum created in the
intake manifold, into a small container attached under the hood, whence
it flows by gravity to the carburetor, maintaining a uniform supply.

The motor consists of one or more cylinders, inside of each being a
piston which fits tight, the escape of gas being further prevented by
piston rings which seal the cylinder with the aid of the lubricating
oil. The pistons are attached to a connecting rod by a wrist pin,
the connecting rod being attached at the other end to the crank which
rests in bearings. The action of the engine is that by drawing down the
piston a vacuum is created in the upper part of the cylinder called the
combustion chamber. At the right moment an inlet valve is opened and a
charge of gas and air, called mixture, is sucked in. The valve closes
and the piston rising compresses the charge. When the piston reaches
its highest point a spark is introduced through spark plug or igniter.
This fires the mixture, bringing a rapid expansion, and this drives the
piston downward, producing force. This revolves the crank shaft, which
turns the force into rotary motion. This operation repeated rapidly
furnishes the motion which drives the car. The fly wheel carries the
crank over the strokes which do not produce power.

There are four strokes to each motor cycle. The first, which takes in
the mixture, is called the suction stroke; the next is the compression
stroke, the third is the power stroke, and the last is the exhaust
stroke when the burned gases are expelled from the combustion chamber.
These four strokes take two complete revolutions of the crank shaft, so
that the four _cycle_ is really two _circles_.

Power having been created and turned into motion, the next step is to
connect it to the propelling or drive wheels. The first device for
controlling the power is the clutch, which provides means of applying
or cutting off the power or motion quickly without stopping the engine.
This is done by friction in some form. The most common are the cone
clutch, where male and female cones are engaged by pressure, the
friction transmitting the power to the driving shaft; and the multiple
disc clutch, where numerous thin discs of metal or metal and textile
material are compressed together by a lever and transmit the power.

To provide for varying speeds and for reversing, also extra power
to the rear wheels for hill climbing, sandy roads, etc., gears are
necessary. In a general way this is a set of cog wheels of varying
sizes, so arranged on parallel shafts that by engaging different size
gears on the shafts a certain speed will be transmitted, other gear
sets producing another speed or a reverse motion. The diagram in
Chapter XXI. shows the usual form of construction. Three speeds and
reverse usually are provided, though some cars have four speeds. These
gear sets are engaged successively until the desired speed is reached.

From the gear case the power is transmitted by the drive shaft, which
has one or two universal joints to take up any misalignment and to
enable installing the engine level and yet transmit the power to the
driving axles, through the differential, at another level or angle, or
at varying angles due to spring action.

Upon each of the wheels is a tire consisting of a rubber and fabric
casing, enclosing a soft rubber tube with a valve by which it may be
inflated. The purpose of the tires is to absorb road shocks and make
riding easy, as well as to keep the car from jolting to pieces. The
tires are of varying composition and form and are attached to the rims
in differing ways. Many auto trucks use solid rubber tires.

Without going into detail, the foregoing gives the makeup of the car
and the simple principles of its operation. To control the car requires
various other parts. The first is the steering wheel and its mechanism.
The wheel is mounted on a shaft running within a tube, and to the lower
end of this shaft is a worm controlling a gear, and by levers and ball
joints operating the steering knuckle on one of the front wheels, the
other being operated simultaneously by the tie rod connection. On the
steering wheel or steering column are mounted the spark-timing lever
and the throttle lever. The spark lever regulates the time of the
spark within the combustion chamber and the throttle the amount of
mixture admitted to the combustion chamber.

At the feet of the driver are the pedal for engaging the clutch, that
for applying the brake, and the accelerator pedal, which operates the
throttle as well as the lever before mentioned. The throttle lever on
the steering column is for the regular running adjustment, while the
accelerator pedal is for temporary increase of the mixture in starting
or in speeding up. There may also be a pedal for the self-starter,
though the switch often is upon the dash. On the Ford and some other
cars the gear shift is controlled by pedals, but usually the shift is
made by a lever placed convenient to the right hand of the driver.
With it is installed also the emergency brake lever, which is used for
locking the car when standing and for alternating with the foot brake
on long hills.

On the dashboard may be mounted the ignition and lighting switch, the
speedometer, sight oil feed, and sundry other dials and switches,
depending upon the fastidiousness of the owner. Where there is a
self-starter there is a charge and discharge dial, the ammeter, which
tells whether the generator is working, and how.




CHAPTER IV

WHAT MAKES THE ENGINE GO


As has been stated on a previous page, it takes three things to start
an engine and three more to keep it going. The first three essentials
are a proper mixture of gasoline and air, ignition at the right moment,
and compression.

Gasoline will continue to burn after ignition, but, contrary to the
common idea, it will not explode unless confined, and not even then
unless it has vaporized and the vapor is mixed with air. It takes
about two hundred cubic feet of air to a pint of gasoline vaporized
to produce good combustion, though the air supply is usually much
more than this to insure carrying off the unburned nitrogen from the
air. For starting and speeding up, more gasoline is admitted to the
vaporizing chamber as the rich mixture ignites more quickly, but for
running, a leaner mixture produces better results.

But whatever the mixture which is burned, there would be little or no
power produced if the mixture were not confined under pressure. It is,
of course, a fact that a tank filled with gasoline vapor and air will
explode with great force if ignited, though there be only the ordinary
atmospheric pressure upon the tank. But it must be remembered that
if the pressure were sixty or seventy pounds to the square inch the
explosion would destroy everything in the vicinity. Taking advantage of
this fact the designers of the gasoline engine provided for compressing
the gas before ignition, to produce the greatest amount of power for
driving the car. Valves are provided which admit the charge of mixture
to the combustion chamber, closing tight after the charge is received.
Then the piston rises, compressing the contents of the combustion
chamber until a pressure of between forty and seventy-five pounds per
square inch is reached. It is upon the principle of the muzzle-loading
rifle or shotgun, or in blasting, where the charge is tamped down, or
confined by wads, and the exploding powder is held until the pressure
sends the bullet on its errand, or rends the rock.

Just as the piston reaches the highest point, and the compression is at
the maximum, a spark is introduced into the combustion chamber. Under
the pressure the gases burn much more rapidly and the explosive force
is greater. The gas does not burn instantaneously, however. It takes
a distinct interval of time for all the gas mixture to ignite; for
this reason, when the engine is running under its own power, the spark
comes just before the time of greatest pressure, and before the piston
reaches top center, so that by the time the piston starts the downward
stroke the highest efficiency of power will have been reached. For this
reason the spark-timing control lever is advanced after the engine is
started to give the best results. But the engine is always cranked with
the spark fully retarded.

The carburetor, meanwhile, has been called upon to send into the
combustion chamber through the intake manifold and intake valves a
charge of gas mixture; the quantity is regulated by the throttle. For
starting, a lever is manipulated which depresses the float in the fuel
chamber of the carburetor, permitting an extra supply to be drawn into
the mixing chamber, thus making the mixture richer and more readily
fired. When the engine has started running, the throttle is closed to
a point where the motor does not race. The correct running position is
given by the manufacturer and experience will soon determine where the
best results are obtained.

The ignition system must deliver to the combustion chamber at the right
instant a spark of sufficient intensity to fire the charge. Whether the
electric current is obtained from battery or magneto, it must be hot
enough to do its work and there must be a timing device which will send
the spark into each cylinder when it is needed. These come in several
forms and are described in detail in the manufacturer’s instruction
books, in connection with the ignition and wiring diagrams.

The compression is maintained when the piston rings and grooves are
free from gummed oil or carbon and move freely; when the cylinder walls
are not worn oval by a slapping piston, or creased by carbon, and when
a film of lubricating oil is constant on the side walls and when valves
are properly seated. Loss of compression means loss of power and the
cylinders should be tested every little while to make sure that no
cylinder is failing to do its duty. More will be said concerning this
later, as well as of minor things which may affect the compression.

As has been mentioned, to keep the engine running for any length of
time there must be a cooling system, a system of lubrication, and a
free exhaust. Once the owner comprehends the simplicity of gas-engine
operation, he can begin to trace each part of the operation, learning
all there is to know concerning the several steps in his own motor, and
absorbing the specific knowledge which will enable him to care for his
car efficiently and economically.




CHAPTER V

EQUIPMENT AND ACCESSORIES


With every car are furnished all the things required for operation,
including lamps, tire pump, jack, tire-repair kit, a variety of
wrenches to fit all nuts and bolts, oil can, set of spark plugs
and generally an extra one; hammer, screw driver, cold chisel,
magneto-adjusting wrench, and some other things, varying with the car.

There are any number of additions which may be made in the way of
tools, or of devices which some motorists deem desirable. Some of these
things are a speedometer, a clock, trouble lamp attachable to a socket
on the dash, a mirror to enable the driver to see what is going on
back of him (compulsory in New Jersey and some other States), cigar
lighters, foot warmers, and elaborate lights for the limousine. The
owner is cautioned, however, against loading up his battery with a lot
of electrical devices which use up current very fast. Not so as to
tools; one may err in having too few rather than too many.

While it is true that a woman with a hairpin and a piece of string
can fix almost anything under the sun, the autoist would better not
trust to his wife’s ingenuity, but be a little better prepared for
the emergencies of the road. It does not do any good to know what the
matter is when the car balks unless one has the tools and material to
do the necessary repair work or adjustment.

Every new car is equipped with certain tools, but some owners have no
interest in these tools and lose most of them in a short time, so that
when needed they are missing, while other owners add sufficient tools
to equip a good-sized machine shop.

A wise selection of tools for the car will provide everything at all
likely to be needed on tour, and yet capable of being packed in such
a compact space that it does not become an annoyance through the room
occupied, nor weigh down the car. The special tools furnished should be
preserved with great care, because nothing else fills the bill quite
so well. To these might be added some few tools and parts not needed
often, but when they are, their absence is a source of delay and is
temper-provoking.

Recently the author was asked to go about fifty miles into the country
to bring in a machine which had refused to run and had been stored in a
barn over night. He found that the interrupter points had become glazed
so that no spark was being procured. A special file is manufactured for
the particular purpose of cleaning off these points. As one of these
was not in the car, it was necessary to disassemble the spark timer
completely, take out the points, and then find a piece of flat hard
stone upon which the points could be cleaned. This did the work all
right, but much time could have been saved if the interrupter point
file had been carried in the car.

Likewise no wrench was available for adjusting the points and it was
necessary to go to a nearby blacksmith shop and saw out a temporary
wrench for the purpose. Word has come from France to the National War
Work Council of the Y. M. C. A. that one of their supply cars serving
the huts in the trenches was laid up nine days for the lack of a small
magneto wrench.

Many an owner has had the experience of being caught out on the road
by a storm and having to put on non-skid chains. How often have they
found that, though these chains were in good condition when leaving
the garage and when they were put on, after running awhile over rough
roads at a fair speed, some of the links wore through and began to
thrash against the mud guards. This is not only annoying, but often
does real damage to the guards. Most owners have stopped more than once
to wire the loose ends to the side chains to stop the banging, and it
certainly would be more satisfactory to carry a supply of links and
a chain tool so that the broken ends could be removed and new links
inserted.

Of course, the loose ends can be pried off with a screw driver and new
links pounded fast with a hammer, but you will have to remove the chain
to do it and it takes time, and much exasperation can be saved by using
the proper tool.

A folding pail is very useful, especially when one has to go up very
long hills and finds that the water in the radiator has boiled away.
The cooling systems for automobile engines to-day are very efficient
and it is only in exceptional cases that the water will boil out of the
radiator, and that is just the reason why an occurrence of that sort is
disastrous, because one is not expecting it and is not prepared for it.

In sandy country and on dirt roads one often will have occasion to jack
up a wheel to change a tire, and will find that the jack sinks into
the loose sand or dust instead of lifting the car. A block of wood an
inch thick and about six inches wide and a foot long will be found a
big help under such circumstances. Many drivers also have had to use
a fence rail to jack up a car because some one borrowed the jack from
the car and neglected to return it. Even though tire trouble is not
expected, it is well to make sure there is a jack in the car and also a
handle for the jack. The jack is more often found than the handle.

Working about an automobile means a lot of grease and grime on the
hands, and possibly oil or grease upon parts of the car, so that it is
well to carry a small bag of waste or rags. If the grease or dirt prove
obstinate, a little gasoline, drawn from the drain cock at the bottom
of the carburetor, will cut it and enable you to clean the hands fairly
well.

It is a good idea to have a three-in-one or similar tire-valve tool
with which it is possible to remove the valve plunger, cut threads in
the valve stem so that the plunger may be properly seated, and cut
threads on the outside of the stem so that the cap will screw down
tight. In some cases where the valve stem is battered in changing a
tire, air cannot be gotten into the tire if these threads are damaged.

Many persons object to carrying a tow rope for fear it will be
understood that they have doubts of their ability to get home under
their own power; but in addition to affording a connection to some
other source of power, a tow rope may be used to help a brother in
distress and is superior to chains in very sandy or muddy places, when
wrapped about the tire.

An extra set of electric-light bulbs may save considerable trouble and
annoyance, because the traffic policemen to-day will accept no excuse
when at least one light is not burning.

If you do not take your wife’s first-aid kit—the shoestring and
hairpin—you had better be provided with a spool of soft iron wire, the
ordinary stovepipe wire. It is wonderful how many little temporary
repair jobs may be done with its aid. Some drivers like to have a small
hank of strong twine also.

There are many other things which might be added to the list of useful
things to have along for emergency, all of which may be stowed in the
tool box or under a seat. They may not be needed once a year—perhaps
never—but like the insurance policy, when you do need a tool you need
it pretty badly.


AUTOMOBILE FIRST-AID KIT.

  1. Wrench for adjusting ignition interrupter points.
  2. File for cleaning above points.
  3. One set of ignition brushes. (In box labeled.)
  4. Several extra spark plugs, cleaned and adjusted ready to use.
  5. Tow rope.
  6. Half-dozen valve plungers for inner tubes.
  7. Three-in-one tire-valve tool.
  8. Tire pressure gauge.
  9. Jack and handle. (Be sure about the handle.)
  10. Squirt can full of oil.
  11. Voltmeter, or hydrometer, for testing battery.
  12. Box of assorted nuts.
  13. Box of assorted cotter pins.
  14. Box of assorted cap screws.
  15. Box of assorted washers.
  16. Spool of copper wire and one of soft iron wire.
  17. Full set of electric-light bulbs.
  18. Bag of clean waste or rags.
  19. Two blocks of wood, 6″ × 12″ × 1″.
  20. Full set of fuses—if fuses are used.
  21. Folding pail.
  22. Chain tool and several cross links.

  The nuts, cap screws, washers, and cotter pins of regular
  assortment and packed in boxes are carried by supply stores. These
  and several of the other articles may be packed in a cigar box for
  stowing away.




CHAPTER VI

IF WELL “SLICKED” THE ENGINE RUNS


If we scuff our feet on the bare pavement we wear out our shoes,
develop a lot of heat, and notice considerable resistance; but if we
step on a banana peel, a piece of ice, or a patch of oil or grease, our
passage is facilitated, and our feet are likely to slide out from under
us and we sit down with little effort. Now this is just like the auto
engine. If the parts were all made perfect and fitted together properly
and the engine started without lubrication, there would be so much
friction that the parts would very quickly wear out.

As a matter of fact an engine could be wrecked in less than half an
hour’s running, unless there were something introduced to prevent
friction.

The lubrication of the modern auto engine is so simple that most
owners do not realize its importance. It is the things which normally
take care of themselves that are most likely to be neglected; the
things about which we know the least, when they do go wrong, cause the
greatest damage, not the things with which we have become familiar
through frequent tinkering.

The instruction books issued by the manufacturers say to inspect the
oil reservoir of the engine each time before leaving the garage to see
if the required amount of oil is there; and this inspection should not
be neglected; with most owners it is “by guess and begorry.”

The most usual scheme of engine lubrication used to-day is to carry a
certain amount of oil in a compartment in the bottom of the crank case,
called the sump. There is a pump which operates whenever the engine is
running and which pumps the oil to some sort of an indicator on the
dash, so that the driver can see if it is circulating. From this point
it flows by gravity to the splash pans located under the connecting
rods, and above the sump. Here the oil is held at such a level that
when the crank shaft revolves the ends of the connecting rods dip into
the oil and splash it over practically all the working parts of the
engine. This splashing and agitation of the oil creates a fog of oil
in the crank case, and the rapid motion of the piston and other parts
circulates the vaporized oil over the moving members, so that a film of
oil is deposited even on those parts where the splash itself does
not reach.

[Illustration:

  Courtesy of Tide Water Oil Co.

SECTIONAL VIEWS OF A FOUR-CYLINDER ENGINE WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO
PARTS CONNECTED WITH LUBRICATION

  A Sump
  B Oil Pump
  C Crank-case
  D Troughs for Oil
  E Connecting Rods
  F Oil Cups
  G Main Bearings
  H Crank Pin Bearings
  I Cylinders
  K Pistons
  L Wrist Pins
  M Basin in which Crank Shaft Gear Runs
  N Piston Rings
  O Oil Pockets
  S Drain Cock or Oil Gauge
  T Push Rods
]

The pump circulates more oil than is used and the splash pans are
arranged with overflow openings so that the excess simply drops back
into the sump and again is passed through the system by the pump.

It is this oil which enables the engine to move without friction. It
is the effect of the banana peel under your heel in that it makes the
parts slip over each other easily. In addition to this the oil between
the piston and the cylinder wall makes a seal which prevents gas from
leaking by on compression and explosion strokes. If too much oil is fed
a great deal will be drawn past the piston on the suction stroke and
get in the cylinder where it will burn, forming carbon and giving out
smoke from the exhaust.

In this type of system the principal causes of trouble are too much
oil in the sump, so that the level reaches above the splash pans,
and projections upon the connecting rods that are so large that too
much oil is splashed when the level is normal. In the latter case the
trouble often may be remedied by narrowing the projections of the
connecting rod which dip into the oil. It is not wise to shorten these
projections, because it is very difficult to get an even graduation
that will insure sufficient oil without giving too much.

If the oil should run out while the car is in use, the engine will get
stiff, lose its power, and the friction of the unlubricated parts will
generate sufficient heat to melt out the lining of the bearings, and
if the engine runs for any length of time in this condition it may be
wrecked beyond repair.

This means that although the oiling system needs very little or no
attention, it should be inspected each time before leaving the garage
and on the road occasionally if long trips are taken, to make sure that
oil is present in sufficient quantity and is circulating.

Oil in a sense does wear out and in this sort of a system it should be
replaced with new oil occasionally. Some of it will work up past the
piston and be burned up and some will work out around the different
parts of the engine and be lost, but most of it will remain in the sump
longer than it is advisable to use it. All of the gasoline that is
taken into the cylinder is usually not consumed. Some of it is forced
past the piston on the compression stroke into the crank case, where
it condenses and mixes with the oil. This thins the oil sometimes to a
point where it has little or no lubricating value. Also the oil on the
inside of the piston head burns and drops down into the crank case,
and there is some wear of the moving parts which causes a deposit of
metal in the oil. These things, together with the small amount of road
dust sucked in through the breather pipe, make the oil in a short time
unfit for use.

In this circulating splash system, where the oil is used over and
over again, the oil should be drained out entirely about every 1000
miles, more or less, depending upon the grade of the oil and fit of the
piston. The following things all enter into the lubricating value of
the oil after 1000 miles’ performance:

  Grade of the oil
  Fit of the pistons
  Temperature at which the engine is run
  Grade of the gasoline
  Adjustment of the carburetor.

There are some other things, but the above are the chief factors. It
would be well to acquire the habit of examining the oil every few days
to determine just how it stands up in the particular engine.

After the oil is drained out, a half gallon or so of kerosene should be
poured into the sump and the engine run for about one minute or less,
the idea being to get a complete circulation of kerosene through the
lubricating system. The kerosene should then be drained off and the
splash pans under the connecting rods be wiped out if possible. The
screen of the oil pump also should be removed and washed carefully in
kerosene and replaced. Then the sump should be filled to the proper
level with fresh oil.

Aside from getting under the car to remove the drain plug, this is not
a dirty job. Still one would better put on old clothes and overalls to
prevent the possibility of getting grease on a perfectly good suit.

While oil is expensive, it is poor economy to use it beyond its useful
stage, because damage may be done to the machinery which will cost much
more than a year’s supply of good oil.




CHAPTER VII

WHERE LUBRICATION IS NEGLECTED


In some of the minor and oftentimes hidden parts of an automobile are
found frequent sources of trouble. There are places to be lubricated
of which many an auto owner has no knowledge. They wear slowly but
constantly, and unless given proper attention will erelong give trouble.

There are a number of these lesser bearings which tell the expert
whether the car has had proper care. In fact, in looking over a used
car the man who knows naturally turns to these first to find out how
well the car has been taken care of. Experience shows that even where
other parts show normal, or practically no wear, these lesser bearings
show absolute neglect, and these are “the little foxes that spoil the
vineyards” in the auto world.

Practically every owner will fill up the oiler to insure engine
lubrication, because that is a regular task; most men will remember
to keep oil in the transmission case and the differential housing;
probably a lesser number will put grease in the wheel bearings when
needed. As the latter is not required very often, it is frequently
forgotten.

What are the neglected parts? Well, when the expert looks into the
condition of a car, one of the first places he inspects for wear is
at the steering knuckles. One must realize that they are under a
pretty heavy load, and that, while the motion is not great, there is a
continual motion there, even when the car is driving straight ahead.
Very few have learned that it needs a constant supply of good, heavy
grease to prevent wear at this point. It is worth while to screw down
on the grease cups on the steering knuckles every time oil is put in
the engine. When the grease cup is screwed down so that it cannot be
turned further, it should be filled immediately. There should be enough
grease there to keep forcing it out, so that grit cannot get into the
bearing.

Underneath the floor boards there are a number of parts which need
attention, but being out of sight they are often out of mind. They
are a little inconvenient to get at, also. Under there we have the
universal joint. This is another joint in which the motion is not
great, but the load is heavy and continuous. That is the next place
that usually shows hard wear. There are one or two modern designs
which have housings covering this joint which may be filled with
heavy oil and it then takes care of itself for a month. It should be
inspected and the oil replaced once a month.

Certain universal joints, not generally used, however, are supplied
with grease cups, which need attention every time the car is used, just
as much as the oiler in the engine.

Also underneath the floor boards are the levers and arms used for
controlling the clutch and brake, the self-starter and the accelerator.
All have bearings, used occasionally, but enough so that they should
be kept lubricated or they will wear. This is especially true of the
clutch and brake linkage, particularly in city running, where the
clutch and brake are in constant use. Usually this linkage has no means
of lubrication other than oil holes, into which a drop or two of oil
only may be placed. Naturally it will not last long and oil should be
dropped in the holes at least once a week.

This is also true of the brake linkage on the rear axle. Often at that
point no provision whatever is made for oiling. It is simply a matter
of flowing oil around the joint and letting it work in. If the brake
linkage wears and weakens and it becomes necessary to apply the brake
with extra force in an emergency, it will give way.

The spring shackle bolts usually are equipped with grease cups and they
do not suffer quite as much as other points, but often the passages
become clogged and one may screw down on the cup and only force the
grease out of the thread of the cup, instead of into the bearing, for
the grease-cup cap fits loosely upon the thread.

Many cars come from the factory with the grease holes clogged with
enamel, or hardened grease, so that no great amount of grease could
be forced through in turning down the cap. Cars are allowed to run so
long sometimes in this condition that the shackles have worn through,
allowing the body to drop down on the axle.

Very often complaint is made that a new car will develop a squeak very
soon after it is tried out—an elusive sort of a squeak that seems to
be first one place and then another. The owner who has this experience
will probably find upon examination that the spring shackles have not
been lubricated, either because the hole was clogged, or for some
other reason. It is recommended that in such cases the car be jacked
up and all the shackle pins be driven out and all the grease passages
inspected and cleaned thoroughly; also that heavy grease be applied
directly to the bolt when it is put back in place.

This will take a little time, but it pays, for it is a matter of
experience that if the pins are not driven out and the holes opened up
for inspection it will take a solid month to force the grease through
by screwing down the grease cup, and until this passage is open there
can be no lubrication of the joint.

Wheel bearings ought to run for six months if properly packed, but
there is no way of telling when the bearing needs attention except by
inspection and it is well to look them over regularly. When inspecting
the rear-wheel bearings, if the construction is of the type where the
wheel hub is keyed on to the shaft, it is well to inspect the key to
determine whether it is tight. Out of four cars recently inspected
three were found with a loose key.

There are two dangers when the key is loose. One is that the key way
becomes rocked out of shape and the key cannot be fitted tight again.
The other is that shaft and hub may become so worn that the taper is
destroyed and a tight fit is made impossible, and of course the only
remedy is to replace both. This condition will often account for a
knocking or rattling, which will be felt throughout the car and the
cause often be supposed to be located far from the real place. For
instance, in one case the driver thought the knocking was in the gear
case, until shown the loose hub.

The spring leaves need lubrication once a season. Tools are sold for
separating the leaves enough to apply a lubricant made especially for
that purpose.

Another part which shows hard wear quickly is the valve push-rod guide,
especially in overhead valve construction the ones on the forward end
of the motor. Dust blowing over the radiator collects on these forward
guides and wears them rapidly. This condition is indicated usually when
the crank case becomes covered with oil blown up from the loose joint.
Modern designs have taken care of this to a large extent by enclosing
the push rods in a casing, and many owners have put in housings
themselves when they discovered the difficulty.

Overhead valves, worked by a rocker arm, must be lubricated every time
the car is taken out. The lubrication is not included in the ordinary
lubrication scheme of the engine, but must be done separately.

Careful attention to these minor points will result in greatly
lengthened life for the car, and in a much higher value when it is
traded in for another car. The man who buys a used car would better
inspect closely along these lines if he desires to buy something
better than a bunch of junk. The owner should not trust to his
chauffeur the care of these parts, unless he has found out that the
man knows of the importance of lubrication, nor should it be taken for
granted that the garage man is attending to them. Make sure yourself
is the best rule. It is well to remember that “many a mickle makes a
muckle” in wearing of auto parts, and look after the little things.




CHAPTER VIII

SOMETIMES THE CAR SMOKES


The officer will get you if you don’t watch out, if you leave a trail
of smoke behind you; then it will be:

“Good morning, Jedge, your Honor.”

“Guilty? Two dollars, please.”

“Cheap,” you say. Yes, if it were only the two dollars; but there is
the time lost in appearing in court and then, really, you know, to make
that smoke you were burning money.

Such smoke comes from two sources: Burning too much gasoline and using
too much lubricating oil; usually the latter. Excessive use of gasoline
comes from faulty carburetor adjustment, or poor design of carburetor
or intake manifold, or keeping the engine cylinder at too low a
temperature, because of the water being too cold in the cooling system.

In the latter case the carburetor may vaporize the gasoline properly,
but it condenses in the cylinder and does not burn well and the part
which is not consumed passes off as black smoke, which issues from the
exhaust pipe.

We must have a certain amount of oxygen to consume the gasoline
entirely. The size of the cylinder limits the amount of air (from which
the oxygen is taken) which may be taken in and if the carburetor is
adjusted to feed too much gasoline, there may not be enough oxygen
present to consume it all. Practically speaking, what is not consumed
forms carbon or smoke.

The obvious remedy is to adjust the carburetor so that no more gasoline
will be fed to the engine than is required for running. In cold weather
it is necessary, usually, to supply heat to the ingoing air at the
mixing chamber of the carburetor, so that the vaporization will be
complete.

A light blue smoke coming from the exhaust pipe indicates too much
lubricating oil. This may be due to feeding too much oil or to running
the engine a great deal with the throttle nearly closed. In order to
draw a charge of gas into the cylinder the piston travels partly out
of the cylinder and forms a vacuum. With the throttle wide open a high
vacuum is not obtained because a large amount of gasoline and air is
allowed to come in and fill the cylinder. When the engine is throttled
down by closing the throttle, the air cannot enter in such a large
quantity, and in consequence there is a decided vacuum in the cylinder
on each intake stroke of the piston. This vacuum has a tendency to draw
oil up past the piston into the combustion chamber, where it burns and
forms smoke. This is why, when the machine is left at the curb with the
engine running for any length of time, it will often be found to start
away with clouds of smoke issuing from the exhaust.

In the same way, when the engine is running slowly, air passes through
the carburetor so slowly that the gasoline is not broken up into very
fine particles, consequently it does not fully vaporize and is very
easily condensed. It forms liquid gasoline in the intake pipe or
cylinder. This is called “loading up” and is responsible for black
smoke when the machine is started.

One way of overcoming this is to supply a larger amount of heat than
usual to the mixing chamber. Most carburetors are not designed to take
care of this condition and the only remedy would be to stop the engine
instead of allowing it to run while standing at the curb.

To overcome smoke from the oil which is drawn up past the piston, it is
customary to have a groove turned in the piston under the lower piston
ring, with five or six holes drilled in the groove through the piston.
The piston ring then scrapes the oil from the cylinder wall into the
groove and it is led back into the crank case through the piston walls.
This prevents it from working up into the combustion chamber. Many
manufacturers have this scheme on the very new models and repair men
are using it on older models which were not turned out with it.

Sometimes the oil level will be found too high. This may be corrected
often by lowering the oil troughs, or by filing off the dip on the
bottom of the connecting rod so that it touches the oil with a narrowed
surface.

In addition to the smoke resulting from too much gasoline or oil there
is a large amount of carbon deposited in the cylinder which takes up
space in the combustion chamber and raises the compression so high
that pre-ignition occurs and the engine knocks. The car must then be
taken to a repair shop to have the carbon burned or scraped out. This
is expensive work and besides the car is laid up and one loses its use
while the scraping is being done. The owner will see that he has been
spending a lot of money to supply gasoline and oil that he didn’t need
to use just to make smoke and carbon and expense and that he has lost
from every point of view.

Smoke should not be confused with steam which issues from the exhaust
pipe in cold weather. One of the products of combustion in the gas
engine is water, a natural result of the breaking up of a hydro-carbon.
This usually passes off at a high temperature as an invisible vapor. In
cold weather it condenses immediately it strikes the air and is visible
in the form that we call steam. Really it is a fog that we create.
Therefore do not let the policeman summons you for having a smoking
engine, when it is only steam issuing from the exhaust pipe. If he
doesn’t know which it is you probably can convince him, by the color.
If it is white it is steam, if it is black it is gasoline smoke, and if
it is light blue it is the smoke from the lubricating oil. Therefore
watch your exhaust for there are many eyes watching you just now in
parks and city streets.




CHAPTER IX

THE CARBURETOR AND ITS FAILINGS


One of the frequent and most annoying troubles to which automobile
engines are subject has to do with the carburetor. With one of
the standard carburetors or vaporizers which is properly adjusted
there should be, and usually is, no serious difficulty in ordinary
conditions, but if there is one part of the engine which seems
possessed to kick up its heels it is the carburetor. Particularly
is this so in the frosty months, when the gasoline and air do not
mix properly and do not vaporize when they do mix. This is of easy
solution, however. Simply warm the intake a few minutes and it will
take care of itself thereafter.

In these days of indifferent gasoline automobile drivers are
complaining constantly that the carburetors are giving unusual
troubles. The carburetor is the lungs of the engine. Well, did you
ever breathe in a crumb of cake and then for a while have all your
faculties suspend operation while the lungs sought to expel the
intruding substance? That is just what happens when you get a crumb of
something in the needle valve, or in the intake valve of the vaporizer.
One little, good-for-nothing, insignificant speck of dirt, so small as
to be almost invisible, will put the best carburetor literally out of
business, and the only thing to do is to remove the speck.

There are several good makes of gasoline strainers which reduce
this trouble to a minimum, provided one will drain off the strainer
occasionally to let the dirt run off. Straining the gasoline supply
through wire gauze or chamois does not obviate the difficulty, for
gasoline tanks are prone to acquire a slight sediment.

A few drops of water in the gasoline which reaches the carburetor will
make trouble likewise, for it will not vaporize, and, what is more,
it will not let anything else vaporize. Probably no one is trying to
dilute the gasoline with water and sell you such a mixture, but there
are some mighty careless men in the gasoline trade. It reminds one of
the farmer caught selling watered milk, who pleaded that there was
a pump in the milking yard and some of his men must be careless in
passing by it. The chamois skin will remove this impediment, for water
will not pass through it.

Another trouble which afflicts motor-boat engines more than the
automobile motor has to do with the weather. The motor-boat carburetor
requires frequent adjustment, due to changes of the weather. On a
dry, warm day the gasoline vaporizes easily and the maximum charge
is readily exploded in the cylinder, giving a maximum of power. On a
wet, cold, heavy day, one must slightly decrease the supply, or the
cylinders will clog, the engine will knock, and one will think harsh
things if they are not audibly expressed. The automobile engine, not
being so constantly over the water, will not have this trouble so
much, but it is probable that most drivers fail to take this into
consideration and perhaps do not know that it is a cause of trouble.

A very slight leak in the intake manifold gaskets likewise makes all
sorts of trouble, since the supply of mixture to the cylinders will
vary according as the vibration opens up the gasket and stops the
suction by which the cylinders are supplied. A leaky piston ring will
do this for one of the cylinders. If worn, or frozen fast by carbon, it
will fail to keep the piston tight, the mixture passes by the leak, if
sucked in, and there is no compression and no explosion or irregular
firing. This will make one think sometimes that the carburetor is at
fault, whereas the engine really needs an overhauling.

In fact, if one is having engine trouble which is hard to diagnose, one
should try out the piston rings to see if they are doing their duty.
This is very simple, for all practical-test needs. Crank the cylinder
up to high pressure and let it stand a couple of minutes. Then open pet
or priming cock and see if there is any pressure left. On the two-cycle
engine this is a good test, and by trying the cylinders in turn piston
ring trouble may be located.

On the four-cycle engine the valves must be considered also, for
they may leak and the pistons be perfectly tight, but in such an
event it will be found almost impossible to get good pressure on the
cylinder, since it leaks through the valves while the piston is making
the compression stroke. Don’t condemn the carburetor until you have
determined whether either of these things is occurring.

The carburetor should be drained occasionally to prevent the
accumulation of sediment, which will later clog the needle valve, and
at least once a season should be taken apart and cleaned. Time spent in
this way well repays the owner.

In all that has been said thus far no account has been taken of poor
gasoline. By this is not meant gasoline with water or dirt in it,
but a poor quality. Nowadays there is such a demand for gasoline for
automobiles and motor boats, that the producers have had to market much
of a low grade, or, as is generally the case, have mixed the first
quality with the cheaper grades, producing a medium quality.

The seeming necessity of utilizing these low grades of gasoline makes
it necessary to change the carburetor forms, and one sees now a
tendency to do away with the old, long intake, either by raising the
carburetor to the cylinder level, with a horizontal intake only, or
with an internal intake manifold, the carburetor being attached to the
cylinder block. Several makes of carburetors using one of these methods
are said to vaporize even the low grades of gasoline, while some later
models are claimed to handle kerosene successfully.

For the motor boat there are several makes of vaporizers which will
handle either gasoline or kerosene, and all intermediate grades, by
slight adjustment. It is possible that some ingenious builder will
devise a similar vaporizer for the automobile engine, if gasoline
continues to decline in quality, and to be short in supply as well.

An easy test to see whether the carburetor is working right is to
run several blocks with the throttle practically closed, then, when
the road is clear, press sharply upon the accelerator pedal, which
opens the throttle wide and should make the engine speed up and the
car jump forward. If it is sluggish it will denote a too rich mixture,
and if it sputters and perhaps backfires, it is too lean. But if, with
smooth yet rapid action, it makes the car speed up, that is “pep.” The
amount of pep which a car is said to possess is gauged by the quickness
with which it responds to the acceleration, either by the pedal or by
throttle lever, changing the car from slow or moderate speed to full
speed. That, too, without jerky action or tearing the motor apart.

While this test, showing the presence of pep, will denote that the
mixture passing through the carburetor is correct, absence of pep does
not always mean that it is wrong. Therefore it is not wise to jump to
the conclusion that the adjustment is wrong. In fact the adjustment
should not be changed unless it is fully certain that it is wrong.
If the car has been running with the carburetor working properly and
no one has changed the adjustment, it may safely be assumed that the
carburetor adjustment is correct. Adjustments are not changed except by
someone’s fingers.

Do not be like the new chauffeur who, having trouble, at once descended
upon the carburetor. Another chauffeur whose car was standing near
advised:

“I wouldn’t touch that, boss.”

“Well, there’s something the matter and I guess it’s here,” said the
troubled one.

“I wouldn’t touch it, boss; try somewhere else.”

“Oh; let’s see what’s on the inside of it,” impatiently exclaimed the
new chauffeur, and he proceeded to unscrew and unbolt the parts.

Of course, he had to send to the garage for a repair man and finally
was towed in for complete reassembly and readjustment of the part.

The lesson in all this for the owner is that he should learn the
make-up and peculiarities of his carburetor, understand its common and
uncommon ills and thus be able to remedy a trouble which would mar
a trip or the general serviceability of the car. It is unnecessary
to go into the detail of any make of carburetor, because if the
manufacturer’s instruction book does not contain full information and
sketches of the make used, a special carburetor book may be obtained
from the maker. But there is no excuse for failure to master the lungs
of the engine and to learn how to keep them breathing properly.




CHAPTER X

GETTING THE MOST OUT OF A GALLON OF GAS


With the price of gasoline constantly mounting skyward and tires
following when not leading the rise, while everything else needed
for automobile upkeep is ascendant, it is timely to assert the need
that the owner consider his expense and renewal costs. And when it is
considered that labor and repair parts have pirouetted along with the
other things, it behooves the owner to devise ways of decreasing his
running expenses and to learn how to get as much as possible out of a
gallon of gas, and every mile out of his tires they can be coaxed to
give.

There are many little expenses about running a car which total a
considerable sum. A nickel, a dime, a quarter, a dollar, do not seem
much at the time, but they pile up the cost per mile frightfully. Not
everyone can be like a friend, who, when cautioned about the way his
chauffeur was running up the cost of his several cars, replied:

“I don’t want to know what my cars cost. If I did, my business instinct
would doubtless make me dispose of them all, and I do not want to do
this. The cars are a luxury and I don’t want to know what they cost.”

A car which lasts with ordinary care one or two years, if given
intelligent care by the owner might be made to last three to five
years. This means taking unusual precaution and having a thorough
knowledge of the working parts and of how to keep them in condition,
and it means doing faithfully and persistently the things necessary to
keep everything in order.

When it is considered that under prevailing conditions it may not be
possible to get a new car as often as it has been in the past, it might
be as well to take care of the cars we have rather than let them go to
rack and ruin for lack of care. A good many automobiles are wasted more
than they are used. In some cases this is due to carelessness and in
others by lack of knowledge of what to do and how to do it.

Take tires, for instance. The cost due to neglect is often greater
than the cost of actual wear. Some of the things which cause excessive
wear and deterioration of tires are driving into holes in the street,
or in deep ruts, turning corners at too high speed, stopping the car
so quickly with the brake that the wheels slide on the pavement, and a
harsh clutch which jerks the car suddenly from a standstill, causing
needless wear. Then there are such things as letting the front wheels
get out of alignment so that they do not run parallel, or nearly so,
the action being that the tire is slid, instead of being rolled, over
the road. There should be a slight toe in, for mechanical reasons, as
explained elsewhere, but if this is allowed to go beyond the proper
limit it costs money.

Adjusters tell us that a very large percentage of tire failures is
caused by under-inflation, which allows the tires to flatten and breaks
the side walls. Every tire should be tested with a gauge and not with
the eye or hand and kept to the pressure named by the tire maker.

To get the greatest life out of a tire it should be watched continually
for small cuts through the rubber to the fabric. Most tires will be
found after a short service to have from two to a dozen such cuts.
These will allow sand to work in and loosen the rubber and then
moisture gets in and rots the fabric. There are preparations with which
these cuts may be healed in a few minutes; serious cuts, especially
where the rubber is loosened from the fabric, should be taken at once
to the vulcanizer.

While oil and grease of good quality cost money, their proper use will
save many times their price in replacement of parts. On the other hand,
a waste of lubricant makes unnecessary expense. Especially with a new
car, oil and grease should be carefully watched until the bearings have
had time to work in. That is the time when expense for replacement of
bearings is most likely.

It is not generally realized that a large number of things enter
into the economical use of gasoline. To get the most out of a gallon
of gasoline all moving parts must work properly. This means proper
lubrication. The brakes should not drag; each cylinder of the engine
should fire properly; the clutch should not slip, and the carburetor
should be in proper adjustment. It is not well to adjust the carburetor
unless you are sure it is at fault. Excessive carbon in the cylinder
causes a decided loss of power, due to back pressure on the piston, and
the partial clogging of the muffler indirectly consumes extra gasoline.
The importance of keeping the muffler free is not usually understood.

To insure each cylinder getting its proper power without waste, the
engine should be driven with the spark lever advanced as far as
possible without causing back pressure. The spark-plug gaps should be
properly adjusted to insure a thorough ignition of the charge; the
spark plugs should be kept clean to prevent the loss of a charge of
gas through non-ignition, likewise the interrupter points, and the
distributor should be kept clean and properly adjusted.

To use all the gas that is taken into the cylinder there should be no
loss of compression through leaky valves, or weak valve springs, or
poor gaskets on spark plugs or valve caps; and it is equally important
that pet cocks, cylinder head, where there is one, and piston rings are
tight, so that gas will not be wasted.

It is not safe to leave these things to the chauffeur and the garage
man. The owner should learn himself how to make all these adjustments.
If he does so he will find that his propelling machine will work
better, and that he will not only have more use and pleasure out of it,
but he will save a very appreciable part of the cost of up-keep.




CHAPTER XI

THINGS WHICH MAKE GAS BILLS HIGH


There are other things which affect the amount of gas consumed which
need the attention of the automobile owner. One of the common things,
mentioned in the preceding chapter, concerns the intake manifold, which
has to do with the distribution of the gas mixture from the carburetor
to the several cylinders. A leak at the carburetor side would prevent
drawing into the manifold a sufficient supply of the mixture, so that
the cylinders would be scantily supplied—perhaps one or more not
supplied at all. Likewise air would be drawn into the manifold through
the leak, and this would thin the mixture coming from the carburetor.
As the mixture in the cylinders would be thin it would not compress
properly, the firing pressure would be poor, the mixture would fire
badly or not at all, and the power would be lessened.

The natural thing to do when the misfiring is noticed is to open the
spray or needle valve, admitting more gasoline to the mixing chamber
and making a higher consumption with no gain in power. The proper thing
to do, however, is to look for a leak in the manifold.

If the leak is on the cylinder side of the manifold, it might be at
one or all of the cylinders. The result would be the same as in the
case just cited, a poor supply of the mixture, or some of the cylinders
might be properly supplied and work all right, while others might be
short of the mixture and might not fire at all. The loss might be
sufficient to affect seriously the power and lessen the speed of the
car.

The manifold ought not to become loosened in the ordinary use of the
car. There have been cases where vibration has done it, but the usual
trouble is where the manifold has been removed for some purpose and
improperly replaced. Copper and asbestos gaskets ordinarily are used,
and these may be dented or jammed out of shape so that the joint is not
tight, or there might have been no shellac handy, or the bolts may not
have been tightened enough. Whatever the reason, the leak makes a weak
mixture, and the first thought of the chauffeur or the average garage
man is to increase the gasoline at the spray nozzle of the carburetor
to make the mixture of the right proportion to fire. On account of the
mixture being made in the intake manifold, instead of the carburetor,
as it should be, the work is not efficiently done and gasoline is
wasted, the result being the increase of the expense account.

One of the most common causes of gas loss is from leaky supply pipes.
Where there is a solid pipe from tank to carburetor the only leak,
barring a break or perforation of the pipe, would be at the connection
with the tank or the carburetor. Vibration might cause the joints to
loosen, though if they are put together properly with shellac, soap
or some equivalent, and are thoroughly tightened, there ought not to
be any loosening. It is needless, but how often we see a car dripping
gasoline at considerable loss. It is also dangerous, for a stray flame
or spark may ignite the gas.

There is another leak of the same nature which is quite as expensive,
and that is of lubricating oil. If you do not believe it to be
prevalent or serious in extent, you have only to watch places where
automobiles stand frequently along the curb and notice the pools of
oil on the pavement. These come from leaky crank cases, transmission
gear cases, rear-axle gear (differential) cases, or from a faulty
distributor. In most cases it is only a matter of tightening a few
bolts or connections occasionally; but with oil at present prices it
is a serious matter.

Another leak which needs to be corrected frequently is at the valves.
So much has been written about the care of valves that it would seem
superfluous to refer to it, but regrinding and proper care pay big
dividends in efficiency and should be on the regular program. There is
a leak at the valve, however, seldom mentioned, though quite as serious
as the others, which is due to worn valve stems.

The valve stems should fit snugly in the guides; if they do not, air
will be drawn past the stem into the cylinder on the suction stroke
and thin down the mixture so that the engine runs irregularly, unless
more gasoline is supplied at the spray nozzle, and throttling down to
a reasonable idling speed is impossible. If the exhaust valve guide is
worn there will be a hissing sound that is objectionable.

The purpose of repeating this caution as to mixture thinning is to make
it plain that wherever there is a leak between the carburetor and the
cylinder it lets in air and thins the mixture so that it is necessary
to feed in more gasoline to get a mixture that will fire and that is
wasteful, for a mixture made anywhere else than in the carburetor is
less efficiently accomplished.

The burned gases pass out through the exhaust valve side and in so
doing often deposit small pieces of carbon, which keep the valve from
seating properly and let perfectly good mixture escape. If not cleaned
often, the heat and constant tapping of the valve against the seat will
hammer the carbon fast to the valve or seat as though it had been fused
there. Carbon must be scraped off frequently and as often as necessary
the valve should be reground into the seat.

Piston rings which are not pinned often work around until the slots
are in line and the mixture will blow through. If the rings will not
stay in place a pin should be put in the ring groove on the piston to
prevent the ring from working around and the slots should be staggered,
so that no two are in line. Naturally the rings must be kept free from
carbon or gum from the oil or they will freeze to the groove and leak
mixture.

In older cars the cylinder may be worn oval, so that the piston and its
rings do not fit. When the cylinder is oval the piston will not pump in
the mixture properly, and when the explosion occurs much of the burned
gas will be forced down into the crank case. One of the products of
combustion is water, which is exhausted in the form of vapor. When it
gets into the crank case and condenses, forming water, it collects
under the oil. In cleaning out and replacing the oil, if water is
found, it always indicates a tendency to oval in the cylinder. This is
caused by the thrust of the connecting rod being against one side on
the up stroke and against the other on the down stroke.

With everything else there may be a loss of gasoline by reason of poor
adjustment of the carburetor. The adjustment should be such as to make
the mixture as lean as possible and have it fire readily, and to have
the float not too high. One sure indication that the mixture is too
rich is when black smoke is given off. Black smoke always indicates
excess gasoline—burning money. As has been told in another chapter,
there is another kind of smoke to guard against, but if the owner will
make sure that he is not exhausting black smoke he need not worry about
the price of gasoline, and a little judgment and care will eliminate
many of the items of upkeep expense.




CHAPTER XII

CARE OF THE TIRES


When a tire buyer is told by the dealer that a tire is guaranteed for
so many miles, the manufacturer expects to make good—he expects if
the tire falls down on performance to replace it, or at least make an
allowance for the mileage short. As a matter of fact they do not have
to do this on thousands of tires which are defective, for the reason
that the auto owner has not kept his part of the bargain. Nine times
out of ten this is because the user of the tire does not know how it
ought to be treated and doctored and cajoled into doing all that it is
expected to do.

Tires are a great deal like human beings; are just as finicky and
contrary; and it takes a great insight into their make-up if one would
get the most out of them.

One of the chief causes of tire deterioration is lack of care—absolute
neglect. Drivers send their machines over all kinds of roads,
regardless of ruts, and stones, and glass or junk in the roadway, and
then cannot understand why the tires are all cut up about it. Worse
than that, they do not seem to understand that a cut tire needs as much
and as prompt attention as a cut finger—perhaps more, for nature will
mend the one; the other has no such luck.

The first thing to do when one discovers a cut is to clean it out and
jiffy in one of the good solutions sold, which will cement the edges
together or press in the putty-like repair material. If the cut is not
too large or too deep it will mend easily and give little trouble, if
care is taken. If it is a large cut the vulcanizer should be visited.
The cement should hold long enough for that. It will keep out water,
which rots the fabric easily, and sand, which makes blisters along the
tread. Only a slight patch is needed if done promptly, but if water and
sand get in it is almost impossible to vulcanize in a patch, and when
it is done it probably will not last.

Tires should be inspected regularly and often and attended to
intelligently. This will save the automobile owner much annoyance and
cut down one of the big items of maintenance.

Some drivers, too, never seem to think of favoring an auto tire at
times of greatest strain. They will whirl around a corner as fast as
their nerve and the traffic policeman will allow and then wonder why it
is that the tread wears away so quickly. They do not seem to understand
that under such circumstances there is a steady grind of tire upon
pavement, and grind means wear.

Another set of drivers will run along for weeks without noticing that
the steering gear is out of true. Perhaps the machine has hit something
and the equalizing rod is bent just a trifle, making the front wheels
far from parallel. It may not be enough to see with the eye, but it is
off true and one or both of the tires grinds with every revolution. The
speed with which the tread will wear away depends upon the character of
the roadway. On gravel or macadam roads it is fast. The manufacturer
will not replace a tire worn out that way if he can detect the cause,
and experience has taught him where to look for it. One man wore a pair
of front tires through to the fabric in a very short run and raised
a fuss because the replacement man disclaimed responsibility after
testing the wheels. The roll and slide motion combined will work havoc
with the best tire and should be corrected.

A harsh clutch does the same thing in a little different way. A
clutch which grips too hard will cause the wheels to slide and wear.
The brake, also, should not be too positive, but be adjusted to work
easily, so that the wheel will stop turning just as the momentum is
spent, to prevent sliding. Both brakes should be adjusted alike, or
one will grip the wheel fast and the other turn. The gripped tire will
scrape along and the pavement cuts the tire like a rasp.

Another set of men forgets that oil and grease and gasoline are the
natural enemies of tires. They allow the machine to stand in the garage
where there are pools of oil or gas. Gasoline will dissolve gum rubber.
It will disintegrate the tire, which is a combination of rubber,
soapstone, and other things, so that it wears out quickly. Lubricating
oil and grease hasten the decay of rubber and shorten the life of the
tire. Besides there is no sense in wasting oil and gas, and if someone
else allows it to spill on the pavement the wise man will keep out of
the mess.

In wet seasons there is especial need for care of the tire. Rubber cuts
easily when the sharp edge of the cutting agent is wet. Tire workers
dip their knives in water to facilitate the work. Go out on a road
where there is glass, or sharp stones dripping from a rain, and the
tire is an easy mark. A wet day on a sharp gravel road will fill the
tires full of small cuts.

Tubes should be kept in the shoes where possible. If folded up they are
likely to harden on the creases and crack on the surface, blowing out
easily. Tubes in excess of shoes carried should be rolled up carefully
and be kept in a bag to prevent chafing on tools or box.

Tires cost the owner about the same as the car if he does much running.
In a general sense the set of four tires used on any car bears a
certain proportion to the selling price of the car. On the cheaper
makes of cars the tires cost new approximately $60 per set. They
increase in price in direct ratio to the price of the car. They are
usually guaranteed for five thousand miles, and as the average owner
makes at least ten thousand miles per year, he uses up two sets of
tires. Taking three years as the average time the owner will keep the
car before trading it in, would mean six sets of tires. Taking the
car which uses the $60 set and we find that six sets of tires would
cost $360, or pretty near the first cost of the car. Few owners give
consideration to this fact.

Another way of figuring the cost of tires is that in upkeep expense
tires figure for one-third of the total, gasoline and oil for another
third, and wear and tear on the car the remainder. Upon this basis the
owner should give one-third of the total care to the tires. But few, if
any, do.

When the car is stored for the winter, or for any length of time at any
other season, the car should be jacked up and the tires deflated until
the pressure is less than half the normal. Where the car cannot be left
jacked up the tires should be removed from the car and hung up high and
dry where there will be neither extremes of heat nor cold, though heat
is more injurious than cold.

It is good practice, if, on coming to the garage, it is found that one
or more tires are deflated below normal and there is no time to pump
them up, to lift the weight off the tire with jack or otherwise, so
that the strain will be removed from the walls of the tire between the
rim and the floor or ground.

Do not put tires where they will be subject to strong sunlight, which
decomposes the rubber. Oil and grease left on the surface do the same
thing. Clean the tires of mud and grease after every trip. Keep the
small cuts healed and the big blisters will not occur.

Make friends with the vulcanizer and take his advice as to repair of
your tires. That’s his business. If too far from a vulcanizer, buy a
small outfit and spoil a few casings and tubes learning how to do the
small jobs, and send the big ones to the shop by express.

Remember in mending tubes and casings that cleanliness is before
godliness. You may be a perfect church member, but if you do not
observe perfect cleanliness the mend will not stick and in the end may
lose you your church membership by provoking you to violent words.

Throw away the valve insides every once in a while on general
principles and put in new ones. Learn how to test the tubes by dipping
them under water when inflated and looking for air bubbles. Test the
valve the same way, at the same time. Bubbles may indicate why the tire
will not keep pumped hard.

Rubber is porous to a slight degree and you must expect loss of air
from that cause both in the tires on the wheels and that held in
reserve. Make sure of the pressure by the tire gauge.




CHAPTER XIII

SKIDDING MAY BE MINIMIZED


When you are out driving next time watch the cars ahead of you and
notice how many of them have wobbly rear wheels. You can by this
means tell fairly well who is a careful driver and whose car has been
skidding about the streets and has brought up sharply against the curb,
or car track, or rut, or some other obstruction over which the wheels
would not slide, and which was sufficiently solid to give them a hard
knock.

No man can appreciate what a skid means until he has had one and then,
perhaps, he will not live to appreciate it. No amount of preaching
seems to do any good. He must sow his wild auto-driving oats and learn
from experience. Because of this, it is recommended that each driver
who has not had a real skid yet, pick out a very broad and wet street
paved with asphalt where there is no traffic in sight. Let him drive
the car fifteen miles an hour up the middle of the street, then give
the steering wheel a sharp turn to the left, at the same time applying
the brakes. The resulting sensation of absolute helplessness will be
remembered for an hour or two—at least. For those who wish to continue
the lesson, try allowing some other driver to repeat the operation,
while the experience seeker occupies the back seat.

Now the skid against the curb or other obstruction may not have
demolished the wheel, but it left its mark in cracked spokes, or bent
rim, or if the car was of a certain type of construction it may have
bent the axle shaft itself. If the wobble is due to a bend in the rim,
it wears the tires excessively and if the spokes have been a little
cracked it weakens the wheel; if the axle shaft has been bent, it is
causing undue wear in the bearing; and under all of these conditions
there is too much wear of the tires.

During the winter skidding is prevalent, much more so than at other
seasons. This is due to the fact that snow and ice keep the pavements
wet or icy, according to the temperature. There is another element
entering into the situation, however; most folks who travel at this
time of the year, because of the cold and discomforts of motoring,
desire to get there and so travel faster—the very fact that they are
uncomfortable causes them to pay less attention to driving with care.
The result is that they run up close behind some other vehicle, which
stops quickly; then they jam on the brakes hard and skid. Or, a car
comes out of a side street suddenly, making it necessary to swerve
quickly to one side, or stop, and the result is a skid in either case.

A rather unusual case of skidding is thus related by a driver:

 I was driving up Broadway, in New York City, and to make the hill
 north of 157th Street had put on a little more speed, for the car was
 not a good hill climber. A block or two above the subway station a boy
 on a sled darted out of a side street and swung to continue down the
 Broadway hill. To avoid hitting him I jammed on the brake hard, and
 began to skid. There was a wagon at the curb and on the other side of
 me an auto going in the same direction and there was not room to turn
 out.

 I saw that if my car continued to skid it would swing in front of the
 sled. It is unusual to skid going up hill, but there was so much loose
 snow, with ice underneath, that the skid chains did not take hold.
 There was but an instant to act, much less time than it takes to tell
 it, and I released the brake and let in the clutch. This stopped the
 skidding and the car shot forward just in time to let the boy go by.

Probably the greatest cause of skidding is turning the corner at too
high speed. This often causes a skidding of the front wheels as well
as the rear wheels—that is, the car is going so fast that the front
wheels do not get traction enough to change their direction and when
they attempt to make the turn they skid and the car goes for the curb.
Applying the brake usually will overcome this skid.

In a rear-wheel skid the worst thing one can do is to apply the
brake. It is best to let the car coast, turning the front wheels in
the direction in which the rear end of the car is skidding; if it is
trying to go to the left, turn the front wheels that way. If there is
something in the way, so that it is necessary to stop, the brake may be
applied a little as the wheels take hold, leaving the clutch engaged,
which prevents locking the wheels, as the engine is pulling against the
brake and there is not so much danger of locking the wheels. It keeps
the wheels revolving slowly, so that you get a better traction for
stopping.

It takes a greater pressure applied laterally to start the wheel
sliding than to keep it skidding once it is started, and you can bring
the car to a standstill much quicker if you can keep the wheels from
sliding. A little practice will teach the driver just how much he can
apply the brake without causing the wheels to skid.

The bent axle has been mentioned as a result of skidding. It may also
be a cause for skidding, for it sometimes happens that by hitting the
curb hard, or the wheel of another car, or a street car, the rear axle
gets out of true—perhaps the spring-seat bolt will shear off—and the
wheels will not track with the front wheels. This will cause skidding.

When there is not snow during the cold months, often water is used to
sweep or flush the streets. Wet asphalt is always slippery, whether it
is warm or cold, but in cold weather it often freezes and the pavement
is dangerous and skidding is almost certain unless care be taken. The
street-car tracks are another cause of skidding. Often it is necessary
to give the front wheels a considerable turn to get out of the track
when necessary, and, especially if they are wet—and they are wet when
other parts of the pavement are dry—the rear wheels will continue in
the tracks, causing a bad skid. Under no circumstances should one
habitually drive in the car tracks when the streets are wet.

If the brakes are adjusted unevenly, so that there is a little more
pressure on the one wheel than the other and therefore stops it a
little more, it will cause skidding. Another case may come from giving
the steering wheel a little twist just as the brake is applied.
Occasionally in an emergency stop the driver will give a hasty glance
behind to see if a car is close upon him. The hands follow the eye,
it is said, and this will often give the slight twist that causes the
wheels to slide.

Some cars skid because the weight is not balanced on the wheels—that
is, there is too much weight on front or rear wheels. There is a
remarkable difference in cars in this respect and it might be well
before buying a car to try it out on its likelihood to skid.

There are numerous designs of non-skid tires and they do prevent, or
decrease, skidding to a very large degree on some cars. While they help
in some cases, it is not well to depend upon them entirely. It is the
general practice now to use non-skid chains. On muddy roads they are a
necessity and on wet asphalt are almost as essential and chains should
be used under such circumstances; but as they cause excessive wear on
the tires, they should only be used when needed. The driver should not
allow himself to be either too hurried or too lazy to put them on and
take them off according to the condition of the pavement. Better to do
this a dozen times a day rather than wear out a set of tires or skid
into the curb or a street car.

They should be adjusted loosely, so they can creep around and wear
the entire circumference of the tire slightly but evenly; if they are
so tight they cannot creep, the cross chains will cut away the outer
rubber right down to the fabric. A great many tires are ruined in that
way. Tires cut this way cannot be turned back to the manufacturer for
replacement, for the adjuster will know at once what caused the wear.

Be sure there are a sufficient number of cross chains so that it will
not be possible for the brakes to stop the wheel between the cross
links, for in that event it will slide just as badly as though no
chains were used. As a car is more likely to skid going down grade
than on the level, it follows that extra care should be exercised,
and that the driver should slow speed for a stop farther away than
would ordinarily be necessary, and that the stop should be gradual.
One should watch closely on a hill, for there is a greater coasting
momentum and a greater tendency for the rear wheels to slew around,
because of the weight upon them.

After all, the greatest preventive of skidding is care. The driver who
keeps his eyes and wits about him will have his car under control in
situations which might possibly cause skidding. It is an essential of
economy in tires and wheels and some other parts of the mechanism, and
it is an essential in safety, for some very bad, even fatal, accidents
have come from skidding at an unfortunate moment, when care would have
prevented it. It is no fun to incur injury to person or car, or to pay
for repairs or excessive renewals; he who would avoid causes for much
of this should beware of skidding.




CHAPTER XIV

“CAN’T-SLIP HEELS” LESSEN SKIDDING


If your auto is not equipped with “Can’t-Slip Heels,” the green or pink
plugged shock absorbers, the same as you wear on your own heels to keep
from skidding over the sidewalk, perhaps it were well to look into it
a little. Autos as well as men take to skidding quite easily, and not
infrequently come to grief.

We use rubber heels to absorb shocks and jars just as we use rubber
tires on the auto to absorb road shocks. We find in both instances
that in wet weather the pavement becomes lubricated and a slip or skid
is likely to result in damage to person or car. In the case of rubber
heels it was found desirable to provide some means to prevent slipping,
and plugs were inserted which grip the ice or slippery surface and hold
fast. Tire manufacturers have developed all sorts of devices, such
as projections and recesses, vacuum cups, etc., in the tread of the
tire, to keep them from slipping. In one case the device has been very
successful, where the manufacturer has inserted strips of cotton fabric
in the tread of the tire, on the same principle as the plug in the
rubber heels.

The fabric, really a thick canvas, projects a very little beyond the
rubber surface, and gives the tire a better traction than plain rubber
would have on a slippery pavement, and makes one of the best non-skid
combinations. You doubtless will remember that rubbers worn smooth are
more slippery than the leather heels with their nails; or that the
rubber heels which have no plugs get very “slick” and are worse than
nothing. It is exactly the same with rubber tires.

No matter with what non-skid device tires are equipped, there is always
the danger of slipping when the pavements are wet or slushy, and the
fact that such equipment is used should not make the driver think that
he can drive at high speed with safety. On ordinary wet pavements very
satisfactory results are obtained with most of the regular non-skid
types of tires. Where ice or packed snow or surface mud is encountered,
chains are better. In very deep mud, loose sand, or loose snow, heavy
rope wrapped around the tire between the spokes will probably be found
best. In an emergency, when caught out in the country, it might be
necessary to cut up a blanket or find some other substitute for the
rope.

When there is a telephone pole or post near at hand when the car
becomes stuck in loose snow, sand, or deep mud, often the car may be
pulled out if a tow rope long enough is handy. Fasten one end of the
rope to the pole and the other to the forward part of the rear wheel.
Then start the engine and if the rope is strong enough and it is
stretched tight enough, as the wheel revolves it will start the car
forward. Take a fresh hitch on the pole and try it again. A few inches
at a time it will pull the car forward, a distance equal to about the
diameter of the wheel, and in time get the wheel out of the rut or hole
so that it may grip the solid earth again.

The flat steel stud tires are absolutely worthless on ice; they are
good skates, but for gripping the ice they are failures.

The great majority of skids are due to excessive speed. The author
has been told by a driver who drifted into another car and broke both
headlights that he was only going ten miles an hour. This was probably
true, but unquestionably he was going too fast for the condition of the
streets and his tires. It is quite necessary that the driver should
know how his car is going to behave under all conditions and drive
accordingly.

Occasionally the crown of the road will cause a slip of front or rear
wheels to the side that cannot be prevented by a reduction in speed;
but the careful driver will at least drive slow enough under such
conditions to make whatever damage might occur from this cause as light
as possible. Wherever a road has a crown there is always increased
danger of skidding, but often these roads that have a hard slippery
section in the middle have a narrow strip of gravel or dirt on each
side. Where this is the case it would be better to drive with one pair
of wheels in the dirt rather than to keep in the middle, where slipping
is almost unavoidable.

In other cases, where there is no dirt strip, it is perhaps better
to keep right in the middle of the road and to use great caution in
turning out for other vehicles.

Rounding a corner at high speed is, of course, a direct invitation
for a very serious skid. Making sharp turns of the steering wheel on
straightaway is also dangerous. When driving in traffic on slippery
pavements, care should be taken not to follow another vehicle too close
and to judge stops far enough in advance so that the car may be brought
to a standstill, if necessary, several feet before the desired point
is reached. In other words, the brakes should be applied very carefully.

In extreme cases it may be found impossible to apply the brakes at all
without skidding, and it will be necessary to practically allow the
car to drift to a standstill. Brakes which are adjusted so that one
takes hold a little stronger than the other will also cause a skid, by
permitting one wheel to turn and twist the car about.

When skidding does occur, about the only thing the driver can do is
to turn the steering wheel in the direction of the skidding, with no
pressure on the brake. This will correct the skid before damage is
done, provided the speed is not too great. Another help in preventing
skidding is to leave the clutch engaged and the engine pulling slightly
when the brake is applied. Of course, before the car is actually
brought to a standstill the clutch must be released, or the engine will
stall. The slight pull of the engine when the brake is applied prevents
the locking of the rear wheels, and in that way prevents skidding in a
large measure.

On any stormy day a short tour of any of the much used avenues in any
city will disclose a variety of machines which have had their skid and
are against the curb with broken wheels, if nothing worse. It seems
as though no amount of advice will teach the driver to use care on
slippery pavements. He must have his own skid before he learns his
lesson.

The season for skidding is always with us, however, and every patch of
ice, or a frozen or wet street surface, or a muddy country road gives
the warning “Drive Carefully.” It behooves the owner, therefore, to
provide his car with the best safety devices to be had, whether it be
chains, rope, tires with plugs which encircle the tread, or whatever
may be necessary. He will do this if he has had his skid; if he hasn’t,
probably no amount of advice will have the slightest effect upon him.




CHAPTER XV

AVOID NEWLY OILED ROADS


Tourists going out on week-end trips into the country, and country
owners who go into strange sections, should pay strict attention to
signs which say in effect: “Danger, Road Being Oiled.” It does not
matter in the least whether you believe in signs or not, pay attention
to all such; it may save an upset, or at least skidding into the ditch.
An oily macadam road is more slippery even than a wet asphalt pavement.

The danger is greater from the fact that the road is crowned—that is,
it rises in the center and slopes off on either side to a ditch. If
you get off the crown on an oily road the machine is pretty sure to
slide toward the ditch. In running over an oily road it is necessary
to keep on the crown as much as possible and when one has to pass
another vehicle, if he cares much for his safety, he had better slow
down, or come to a stop, and let the other fellow worry about getting
by. An ounce of caution before is worth several horse-power of energy
in getting the car back after it goes in the ditch or tries to climb a
telegraph pole.

Recently the author had occasion to visit Orange County, New York, and
struck a piece of very heavily oiled road near Goshen. It apparently
had been oiled the night before and the workmen had not finished
putting on the binder. It was thick with oil. The road makers knew it
was dangerous and put up a sign similar to that quoted above, but a big
car ahead went down a little slope leading to the oil and the driver
failed to heed the sign quickly enough, and when we caught up with him
he was in the ditch. Coming up were half a dozen other cars sliding all
around but trying to get to the ditched car to give assistance.

The big car had slowed down somewhat, else it would have gone over
into the field, but it had turned completely around and was headed in
the direction whence it had come. The other cars were sliding in every
direction. When he found his car beginning to slide, the author very
cautiously stopped, for his car was just moving. On inquiring of the
driver of the skidded car, he was told that when the latter had found
himself skidding around he had jammed on the brake, and, of course,
just as might have been expected, the rear of the car went right
around. In going up the slight rise of ground, the author met other
cars and had to leave the crown of the road. Immediately the rear tires
began to slide and he went for some distance with the rear pair of
wheels trying to slide down into the ditch while the front pair were
holding fairly well to the road. As soon as he could get back on the
crown of the road again, of course the car straightened out all right.

Any car which struck the oiled road on high speed would have turned
over or smashed against a telephone pole and probably everybody aboard
would have been hurt, if not killed; so it is wise not to be so
absorbed in entertaining one’s friends that warning signs are missed.




CHAPTER XVI

WATCH YOUR BRAKES


Look well to the condition of the brakes on your car before starting on
a trip. See that they are in good shape even if you do not have time to
look over the engine. The brakes are more important than the engine. It
needs an engine in at least fair condition to get anywhere, but if you
do not have brakes you may get too far—too eternally far.

Manufacturers of cars have recognized the importance of the brake
appliances and have given considerable attention to the improvement of
the brake, designing more efficient operating mechanism, increasing the
size of the braking surface and improving the quality of the friction
materials, and also in protecting the brakes from excessive wear due to
grit and dragging of bands when not in use.

The brakes, moreover, on the average car of modern design, are
sufficient for all general use, if used intelligently and if they are
given a moderate amount of care. But like most other parts of cars,
some owners give them no attention whatever, and consequently there is
frequent failure and often it is a matter of life and death when the
brakes refuse to work properly.

First of all, owners should understand that there are two sets of
brakes on the car, which operate independently of each other, and
each brake should be capable of holding the car at a standstill on
practically any grade, or, as the chauffeur usually puts it, “sliding
the wheels.”

A recent experience with a Ford car illustrates the need of the owner
thoroughly understanding his braking system. This was a case of a
new car where the owner had not yet become very familiar with the
mechanism. He came to a very long and fairly steep hill. He released
the clutch and applied the brake as he had been taught, and got about
two-thirds of the way down the hill when the brake lining burned out
and the brake no longer held the car. Then, because he forgot what he
ought to do (or else did not know), the owner lost his head and thought
he was going to smash, and of course did. The car ran into the ditch
and upset, bent the front axle, broke the mud guards and top bows, and
mixed things up generally, but fortunately no one was hurt.

This was all unnecessary, for on this particular car he had three other
means of braking. He could have pushed the pedal which engages the
low-speed gear and kept the car at low enough speed to negotiate the
hill in safety. Or, he could have pushed the reverse pedal, which on
this particular car would have acted as a very efficient brake. And,
also, he might have applied the emergency brake, as on any other car.

As every car is equipped with two distinct sets of brakes, drivers
should learn to use first one and then the other on long grades, and
this may be helped out considerably by using the motor as a brake—that
is, by cutting off the ignition and allowing the machine to push the
engine under compression, and even more by engaging a lower gear before
cutting off the ignition, so that there is a greater leverage obtained
to retard the car. Likewise, long grades should be descended at a
comparatively slow speed in cases where the brake is at all necessary,
because the higher speed develops more heat and the brake lining is
more likely to burn out.

Of course the brake lining has been improved so that it does not
actually burn out very readily, but under extreme conditions it will
become charred and lose its frictional qualities.

Perhaps one of the greatest causes of brake failure is oil. Now the oil
which gets on the brakes usually works through the rear-axle housing
from the differential gear. The owner may be a little too enthusiastic
about lubrication and may put too much oil in the differential and it
travels along the inside of the axle tube. The wheels are so placed
on the axle that this oil can get out only by working over the wheel
bearing and into the brake drum. It will often be noticed that the oil
collects mostly on the right-hand brake. This is because the crown of
the road, and perhaps the ditch alongside of the road which is used
in passing other cars, tilts the car so that the right-hand wheel is
lower than that on the left-hand side. Even where too much lubricant is
not used, it seems that some cars have a tendency to leak oil from the
right-hand wheel housing.

Usually this trouble may be overcome by taking a long, thin strip of
hard felt of the proper thickness to fill the space between the axle
shaft and the axle housing, and winding around the shaft in helical
form, so that the action, when the shaft is turned, is to force the oil
back toward the differential. Of course, if the felt is not wound in
the right way it would have the opposite tendency and draw the oil out
into the wheel bearing.

For this reason the felt should be wound, starting from the wheel end,
in a direction opposite to the forward motion of the wheel, covering
the axle for a distance of six or eight inches. The felt should be
fastened to the shaft with shellac and bound in three or four places
with cord.

While oil on the brake bands is not desirable, oil on all of the
bearing points of the brake mechanism is highly desirable. Some time,
when driving in a city, take notice of the number of times the brake
is applied. Then stop to think how each action is taking place in the
brake mechanism. This ought to bring one to realize the necessity of
lubricating the bearing parts. These need more frequent oiling because
they are placed where they pick up more than the usual amount of dust
and grit. If the lubrication of these parts is neglected they are
likely to wear unduly and become so weakened that a sudden emergent
strain would mean a break; and this might happen at a time when failure
means death to the occupants of the car.

Brakes of modern design are so arranged that the bands clear the drum
entirely when they are disengaged. This is done by means of springs and
other devices placed around the drum at different points. These springs
should be inspected occasionally to make sure that they have not
become broken or otherwise fail in the performance of their functions.

Another cause of brake failure is due to the lining wearing thin and
allowing the copper rivets, with which it is fastened to the band, to
come in contact with the brake drum. This in time scores grooves in
the drum and greatly reduces the braking effect. It is not economy,
therefore, to wear the brake linings entirely through. When they become
thin the linings should be inspected, and be replaced as soon as the
rivets begin to show wear.

The usual practice is to have four brakes, one on each rear wheel
operated by the service-brake pedal and one on each rear wheel operated
by the emergency lever. The emergency brake is designed more for
holding the car at standstill after it has been stopped, but may be
used alternately with the service brake on long grades. The service
brake should be kept in such condition that it will bring the car to a
stop within a reasonable distance at any car speed, and it should be
understood by the driver that the emergency brake is not intended to be
used to help out the service brake which holds poorly when a quick stop
is desired.

[Illustration: REAR WHEEL AND BRAKE DRUM REMOVED, SHOWING EXTERNAL AND
INTERNAL BRAKE BANDS AND MECHANISM]

Many manufacturers term the second brake the hand brake, rather than
the emergency brake, to discourage the idea that it is to be used to
help out when an extra quick stop is desired. Too many owners go upon
the assumption that one good brake is all that is necessary, and allow
one to get into such condition as to be useless when the other fails
unexpectedly, or when it is desirable to use the two sets alternately.

As to the adjustment of brakes, it is very important, in order to get
the best braking effect—and to save wear on the tires as well—to have
both brakes of a set give about the same friction. There are two places
where adjustments may be made, one at each brake and one on the brake
linkage, usually on each side, but possibly on the single rod connected
to the pedal. By means of these two adjustments it is possible to have
the bands clear the drums when the brakes are released and at the same
time have each brake start to take hold at the same time and with equal
force. The equalizing bar helps out in small variations, but cannot be
expected to take care of the entire adjustment.

When one considers the multitude of accidents because the “brake
gave way” and of the risk taken by others who fail to care for this
important bit of mechanism, it would surely suggest to the careful man
that he study the construction of the brake upon which he depends on a
down grade and that he give it enough attention to know that it is in
working order. If he does not value his own neck enough for that, he
should at least have a care for those who share the danger.




CHAPTER XVII

WHY THE AUTO STEERS EASILY


Visions of disaster come to the automobile driver at the thought of
running without the steering tie rod. One thinks of wheels trying to go
in divergent directions and of ultimate destination in the ditch. As a
matter of fact, it is possible to run along quite a while at moderate
speed with only one wheel connected to the steering apparatus, and
experiments have demonstrated that this can be done at quite a lively
gait, on a speed track, whether straightaway or oval. There are several
other peculiarities about the front wheels of an automobile which are
not fully understood by automobile men, unless they have had technical
training.

Most people think the front wheels of an automobile should be
perfectly true in every way; that is that they should run parallel,
but as a matter of fact they do not run parallel from any viewpoint.
The front wheels actually toe in to a slight degrees—that is, the
distance between the front part of the wheels should be one-quarter to
three-eighths of an inch smaller than the distance measured between the
back parts. The tire manufacturer will tell one that the wheels must be
in perfect alignment if full service is to be gotten out of the tires.
This is true in a degree, but auto manufacturers understand that there
must be a slight foregather.

Theoretically there would be a wear on the tires if they were at all
out of true, but when it comes to the practical consideration of an
automobile there are certain variations of this which are necessary to
make the operation of the car safe and a matter of ease.

Of course there cannot be too great a difference in the alignment, but
a very slight difference is necessary to enable the steering to be a
matter of certainty. There will be, of course, an intangible amount of
wear, but it does not cut any particular figure in the life of the tire
and it gives a stability in the steering which cannot be neglected.

Perhaps it can best be illustrated by referring to two types of boats
which are familiar to most persons. One is the scow with the square
nose, which is very hard to steer either with or against the tide; it
is pushing flat against the water and there is no lateral pressure to
keep it steady. The pointed-bow boat, the ordinary type, has a pressure
upon each bow so that there is a constant resistance against any
extraordinary pressure from either direction. This makes it necessary
in steering to exert a certain pressure to turn the boat about. In
actual practice it keeps the boat from wobbling. The same is true
when applied to the front wheels. If they are perfectly aligned there
will be no tendency to give one way more than another and very little
pressure would tend to turn the wheels aside and make the car wobble.
Experience teaches that this actually occurs.

At the automobile school, of course, there are many novices learning to
steer a car, and they are taken out by experts. Where the wheels are
actually aligned perfectly the wobbling effect, especially where the
mechanism is a little worn, is very disconcerting to the student. Now,
if the wheels toe in there is exactly the same pressure effect working
from opposite directions. Each seeks to go slightly out of true and
each offsets that tendency in the other. This naturally keeps the car
steady and the wheels pass over slight obstructions without turning
them in the slightest degree; only a rut or some large obstruction
would cause them to turn and this would be the case under all
circumstances.

In case there is wear due to neglected lubrication or otherwise, the
wobbling tendency is especially noticeable. With the wheels toeing in
slightly this is overcome, because pressure is exerted on the knuckle
pins, keeping them firmly in place, even though there be considerable
wear. The pressure being from both sides, it naturally takes up the
play in both knuckles the same as with a chain when it is drawn tight.

Nor do the front wheels run in an absolutely vertical position, for
they are set to undergather. This is done to save the tremendous strain
upon the knuckles and make it possible to have these much lighter
than would otherwise be the case. The fact of the undergather, of
course, takes the strain off the steering knuckle pins. Were the wheels
absolutely vertical they would set two or perhaps three inches outside
the knuckle. The weight line being directly through the knuckle to the
ground, there would be a leverage of two or three inches which would
put a tremendous strain directly upon the knuckle; where the wheels are
undergathered, the line of weight intersects both the knuckle and the
tread contact, removing the item of leverage completely, and the wheel
necessarily bears its full proportion of the load without undue strain
upon the knuckle or pin.

Sometimes the pins are inclined fore and aft, that is, the bottom is
farther forward than the top. This is to help in keeping the wheels
pointed straight ahead by making the wheels into sort of a caster, so
that they trail easily. The knuckles are directly over the center of
the wheels and the line of weight would be directly downward, but the
pins point forward. In this way, as engineers readily understand, the
line of weight is moved forward and the weight is carried ahead of the
contact point of the tire with the ground. Anyone who has ever ridden a
bicycle understands the principle of this. In the old velocipedes where
the wheel fork was vertical, it was very difficult to steer. Bicycle
manufacturers discovered that by projecting the fork forward and
transferring the weight line in advance of the wheel, they were able to
make a machine which would naturally go straight ahead. The principle
is exactly that of the caster. The roller trails along after the weight
and so moves freely, even over obstructions, where it would be hard
going if the roller were directly under the weight.

Now, as a matter of fact, wheels which are set in the manner described
may run for a considerable distance without the tie rod, which fastens
the knuckles together. It is usually understood that when the tie rod
breaks there is bound to be a smash at high speed, and under most
circumstances this might be true, but at moderate speeds it often
happens that the car runs a considerable distance, steering perfectly,
after the tie rod has been broken.

The author had an experience of this kind. He was going up Riverside
Drive in New York City, toward the viaduct. After he had gone almost
across the viaduct he was startled to see what looked like the tie rod
protruding out in front of the car, although the car was moving along
with no sign of trouble. The car was stopped and it was found that the
bolt had jumped out of the knuckle on one side and that the tie rod had
actually swung out in front, and not until then had it been discovered
that there was any trouble.

Going back over the route across the viaduct and some distance beyond
did not disclose the missing pin, but the conclusion was reached
that it must have come out on the hill leading to the viaduct. Yet
the wheels remained perfectly straight and the car steered properly,
although there were no very sharp turns, and the car did not go to
smash as it ought to have done in theory. It was the caster effect
which saved the car from an accident. The trailing effect described
kept the wheels running straight even after the tie rod was out of
commission.

Some time later it was learned that the same thing actually had
occurred in one of the big auto races. It so mystified the driver and
his mechanician that they decided to experiment. They fixed up a car
without a tie rod and started to speed up on the track. They attained
quite a high speed without mishap and slowed down and drove to the shed
as though the steering gear were regularly equipped.

However, it is not recommended that any automobile owner neglect to
have his steering apparatus regularly inspected and to see that the
pins are kept tight and that the wheels do not get too much out of
alignment. The pin might drop out when going down a steep hill or when
running at high speed, and tires do wear out when the wheels are too
much out of alignment; but the instances cited show that sometimes
strict theory and actual practice do not always meet.




CHAPTER XVIII

THE ELUSIVE “JUICE”


It takes good “juice” and lots of it to run a modern auto; not the kind
that Uncle Sam has put a ban upon, for that ran the auto into the ditch
oftener than most anything else; but something quite as hot and with at
least an equal amount of “kick” in it—the electric “juice.”

Probably this is the least understood element in running a car, if one
may judge by the troubles reported. Large numbers of autoists have no
idea of the functions of the batteries and wires and switches and other
parts of the electrical equipment, and when anything goes wrong they
are helpless.

In dealing with the electrical equipment of a machine the owner should
understand that a complete circuit is necessary in order to have the
current do its work; that is, starting with the battery as the source,
a wire leads the current from the battery through the switch to the
device to be operated, and then the current must be led back to the
battery before it will do any work. It is not sufficient simply to lead
the current to the device; if there is no way back to the battery it
will not get even as far as the switch. It won’t travel except on a
round-trip ticket.

In looking for trouble electrically the first thing to inspect is
the battery. See that it is charged—has current in it. That can be
determined by using a voltmeter (for dry cells an ammeter) or a
hydrometer. Then each successive terminal from the battery should
be tested. For instance, there is a wire to the lighting switch. It
is insulated and the first place to test after making sure that the
battery is O. K. is at the switch. If there is no current there the
wire may be broken or the terminal connections poor; but whatever the
trouble may be, you have narrowed it down to one small stretch of wire.

The next step would be to test where the wire leaves the switch to
go to the device to be operated. If the current gets to the switch
and does not get out of it, it is apparent that the trouble is in the
switch, or if it gets to the switch but not through the fuse, the fuse
is at fault.

If the current leaves the fuse and does not get to the lamp which
the switch controls, then we know that the trouble is in that wire
somewhere; if it gets to the lamp but the lamp will not light, we know
it is in the lamp; if we can trace it through the lamp, but it does
not reach the battery, we know that it is the wire leading back to the
battery which is at fault.

If the current is carried back through the frame of the car, as is very
often the case, frequently the ground connections are poor or there is
a break in the ground. Thus, we might attach a ground wire to a piece
of iron on the dash, and if this is of wood that piece of iron might
be insulated from the remainder of the metal work of the car and the
ground connection would not be complete.

Recently the author came across some electrical troubles which were
rather mysterious to the owners of the cars, but proved to be simple
under systematic search. One man worked all of one Sunday morning,
with the help of several sympathetic owner friends trying to find out
where an extra wire on his switch should be connected. He could not get
the engine started, the horn would not blow, the headlights would not
light, the starting motor would not turn over, but the dash and tail
lights, which were in series, did light.

A little experiment developed the fact that when the starting pedal was
depressed the dash light grew very dim. This, of course, indicated
that it was not possible to draw a very large amount of current from
the battery, or that the battery was either in a discharged condition,
or that the connections leading from it were poor. It was found that
when the wire connected to the battery terminal was moved, the light
would brighten up. This wire was disconnected and cleaned carefully
to make sure that the contact was good. When it was assembled again
no improvement was shown, so it was taken apart again and a careful
inspection showed that one end of the taper on the inside of the
terminal had a slight shoulder, which prevented the taper end of the
wire from being drawn into place snugly. Therefore a very light contact
was made and sufficient current could not pass to operate the starting
motor. This shoulder was removed with a penknife and the engine started
without difficulty. Several hours’ time would have been saved if the
owner had started to look for the trouble at the source of the current
instead of puzzling over the end of a wire that was not intended to be
connected to anything and had nothing to do with the trouble. It was
simply an extra wire for use if some new device should be installed.

A week later this same man was unable to start his engine and again
worked over it several hours before calling for help. This time the
lights were all right, but the engine would not start. To determine
the condition of the battery, he turned on a light and depressed the
starter pedal as before, to see if the light would dim very much under
the heavy load; as it did not, it was decided that the battery was all
right this time.

The hood was open and it was observed that when the starter pedal was
depressed the fan did not revolve and therefore the engine was not
being turned over, though one could hear the starting motor buzzing
plainly. This showed that the overrunning clutch of the starting motor
was slipping. As correcting this trouble was a shop job, they cranked
the engine over by hand, but still it did not start.

To make sure that a spark was being delivered, the wire leading from
the ignition coil to the high tension distributor was disconnected and
given about 1/16 inch gap. As soon as this was done it was plain to see
that a spark was being delivered, and the engine started immediately
also. Making a slight gap in the secondary circuit increases the
intensity of the spark at the plug and often aids in starting a balky
motor. This was an occasion when an outside spark gap was of value.
After the engine was warmed up, it was started several times without
difficulty.

Another fellow who was in trouble had a “sick” horn. It sounded like
a man who has a cold clogging his vocal organs—that is, it gave a
cracking or rattling sound instead of a musical note, if the sound of
a horn can be called musical. This type of horn has a notched wheel
which revolves and strikes against an iron pin riveted into a disc.
The disc in this way is made to vibrate, giving the desired sound. An
examination showed that the pin had become loose and rattled. It was
explained to the owner what the trouble was and he was told that the
pin was of hardened steel and as it was rather difficult to rivet it,
it might loosen up again. He replied that he would not worry about
that, because now that he knew what the trouble was he could easily get
it fixed again or replace it if necessary.

Another fellow had a horn which would not play because it had become
grounded and blown the fuse. The ground was removed, but as no fuse
could be obtained, a single strand of very fine wire from an ignition
cable was substituted in place of the fuse. This wire was small enough
to burn up before other short circuits could do damage to battery or
wiring.

Still another fellow had his car laid up for a week while he tried to
find out what was the matter with it. He had sent magneto and coil to
the factory for repairs and when they were returned to him a new type
of coil was provided. He wired it up the best he knew how, but the
engine would not start. Checking the wires over very carefully, they
seemed to be placed properly, but a spark could not be obtained. Going
to the source of the current, a test of the dry cells with an ammeter
showed that they were dead. The fellow had lost a week’s use of the car
because, having decided that the trouble was at the magneto or coil, he
did not look anywhere else. He should have started at the battery to
trace the current.

Another case which came under notice was where one of the headlights
failed to light. A test showed that the current came to the lamp. To
make sure the lamp was not at fault the one from the opposite side was
substituted, but it would not light. The lamp was grounded by an extra
length of wire and it worked all right. Then it was found that the
ground wire, which was located back of the reflector inside the lamp,
had become loose.

Most of these troubles point to the fact that a complete circuit is
necessary to have an electrical current do its work. Therefore, when
trouble occurs, the source of the current should be examined first and
then the current should be traced through its entire path leading from
and returning to the battery.

It might be a good idea for the owner on winter evenings to get out
the wiring diagram of his car and trace the current from the battery
through each light, through the ignition system, through the horn, and
through every other electrical device used on the car, including the
generator and starting motor.

Also it might be good practice for the owner to carry his wiring
diagram with him when touring, so that the garage man, if there be
trouble, may be helped to quickly locate it. But if the winter evenings
be spent wisely in studying the electrical equipment, or even the
entire car, or perhaps invested in a course of instruction at a good
school, the owner might be independent of the garage man for the most
part and besides have the satisfaction of knowing that when anything
does go wrong he can find it and in most cases fix the trouble. The
release from worry ought to be worth the time spent in learning how.




CHAPTER XIX

PUTTING THE KICK IN THE SPARK


Motors are a good deal like men. Very many of them, when everything
is wide open and they are hitting it up at top speed, have excellent
performance, but spit and sputter and knock a bit when compelled to
travel at a lesser pace.

This is not moralizing, but the natural deduction from the complaints
which are constantly received. A great many drivers want to know why it
is they cannot throttle down the engine; they say it will pull well at
medium or high speed, but skips at the lower speeds.

Where magneto ignition is used, this often may be overcome by adjusting
the interrupter points for a little wider gap. That makes the
interrupter points open a little earlier and causes the spark to occur
when the magneto armature is in a more favorable position, and the
spark therefore has more kick in it.

The interrupter points usually are adjusted for normal running
speed, or a little higher than medium speed. Increasing the number
of revolutions per minute of the armature causes a distortion of the
magnetic field, which tends to follow the armature. This distortion
is not so great at lower speeds. To overcome the distortion, which in
effect twists the field around so that the points do not open at the
period of greatest current potency, we must change the time when the
points open and cause the spark; therefore, to get the best spark it is
necessary to have the points open earlier. Widening the gap between the
points accomplishes this.

If the engine misses at high speed, close the points a little to make
the opening come later and when in better armature position, the action
being just the reverse of the foregoing paragraph.

Widening the gap of the spark plug also will help to overcome skipping
at low speeds. At low speeds a full charge of gas is not drawn in and
compression is low and temperature low in consequence; the mixture is
not so near the self-ignition point when the spark occurs as it is at
higher speeds. Therefore a better spark is needed to ignite it. By
widening the gap in the plugs the secondary current is held back until
it acquires high enough potentiality to jump the greater gap; so that
when it does occur an exceptionally powerful spark is obtained.

This may be demonstrated with the use of a vibrating coil. Set one
of the cylinders on top of compression ready to ignite. Turn on the
current and while the vibrator will buzz the spark inside the cylinder
is not strong enough to ignite the charge. Now detach the spark-plug
wire and hold it close to the outer plug terminal and turn on the
current. The extra gap will increase the strength of the spark in that
cylinder and it will ignite the charge, starting the engine. This has
led to the use in some cases, of outside spark gap attachments.

Widening the gap and getting a longer spark is not what ignites the
charge. It is simply that the greater gap causes the current to build
up to a higher pressure, or voltage, before it will jump the gap, so
that when it does occur it is of greater intensity.

There are several other things about sparking not generally understood
by the novice. The general opinion is that the greater insulating
surface of a plug there is inside the cylinder the less likelihood
there is of short circuiting and consequently the more certain will be
the spark occurrence. This is only partly true; it is true so far as
short-circuiting is concerned; but where the surface is too great and
soot or carbon is deposited upon the insulator surface, the carbon acts
as a condenser and absorbs the secondary current. The effect is that
it will not build up a sufficiently high voltage to jump the gap. Very
heavy insulation on the secondary wires absorbs current in the same way.

The fact that the spark jumps across the points of the plug when it
is in the open air does not necessarily mean that it jumps when the
points are under compression in running conditions. A current which
will cause a spark to jump a half-inch gap in the open air, will cause
it to jump a gap of only 1/32 inch under normal running compression.
Failure to appreciate this often results in a man thinking his ignition
is all right when there may be a crack in the insulation so small that
it scarcely can be seen with the naked eye when cleaning the plug, or
there may be a porous spot in the porcelain, either of which would
leak current under compression. Many manufacturers test the porcelains
to see if they leak, using a spark gap of 3/4 inch under a very high
voltage.

If there is carbon on the porcelain, the current very often will travel
through this under high compression, because there is less resistance
offered by the carbon than by the spark gap. It short-circuits the
plug and there is no ignition. Yet, when this same plug is removed and
tested in the open air, there will be a good spark; the resistance of
the gap in the open air would be less than the resistance offered by a
path through the carbon coating. If on testing a plug in this way there
seems to be a good spark, yet the cylinder will not fire, clean the
plug thoroughly and try it out in the cylinder. If it still does not
fire, try a plug which you know is all right and see if it fires. If it
does, you may know that the old plug leaks current somehow and probably
needs a new porcelain.

It is a common error with motorists when cleaning a spark plug to
polish up the points and call it a job. What really is required is to
remove all of the carbon, which is a fair conductor of electricity,
from the porcelain or mica and get these back into the insulator class
again.

The conditions which allow the adjustment of the interrupter points
in magneto ignition to accommodate certain speeds, do not arise when
battery ignition is used. Battery interrupter points are usually
adjusted for an opening of 1/64 inch and the gap at the spark-plug
points must be greater usually than when magneto ignition is used,
because the spark given by battery systems is naturally of less volume
than that given by the magneto. Therefore the gap must be greater to
intensify the current as before described.

The interrupter points sometimes become coated with an insulating
glaze, composed of oxides and dirt hammered by the action of the
movable interrupter point, or hammer. The points will have the
appearance of being all right; there will be no pits or points;
nevertheless there may be enough insulating material there to keep the
current from flowing and no spark will occur in consequence. The points
may be cleaned by inserting a very thin file between the points when
they are open and then allowing them to close on the file, being held
together with no more pressure than the spring exerts, and working the
file back and forth until the glaze is removed. It is necessary to
have a flat surface, so that care in using the file is needed, and, as
platinum is more valuable than gold at present, it will be apparent
that as little filing as possible should be done.

The condenser is another point of possible trouble. The condenser
increases the volume of the spark about twenty-five times. We often
find that a very weak spark may be caused by a partial breaking down
of the condenser, or occasionally to the fact that it is disconnected
at the terminal. Condensers are usually hidden away so that the novice
cannot locate troubles of this nature, but an excessive sparking at
the interrupter or vibrator points, with a very weak spark at the plug
points, indicates that the condenser is not working properly. When this
sparking occurs have an expert examine the condenser for trouble.




CHAPTER XX

WHAT’S THE TROUBLE WITH MY BATTERY?


With the coming of the shorter days in the year a frequent complaint
to garage man and battery or electric-system expert has to do with the
battery, though in nine times out of ten the man with the kick does
not know that it is the battery. He will talk about the lights failing
every once in a while, or the horn refusing to honk on demand. But in
the majority of cases it is the battery which is at fault.

It is more difficult to keep the battery charged at that time of the
year than it is in the summer. The reason is that the sun sets earlier,
and just as our electric light and gas bills mount at home, because we
light the lamps earlier, so it is with the auto. The driver who obeys
the law uses more current.

One complaint came from an owner who was experiencing trouble with his
electric plant. The lights would not work right when he was running.
Starting out there was light, but after running a short time there was
trouble. The lamps were fitted with dimmers and these would not work at
all times; sometimes one would light and the other fail. He went to the
garage repair man and then the dimmers would not work at all. He went
to an expert electrician, who looked over the battery and declared it
to be all right, but on the ground that he was a battery expert and not
a wiring expert he could not say why the lights would not shine and the
owner had visions of stern policemen and the possibility of having to
face a traffic judge, and he sought advice elsewhere.

In the meantime his troubles multiplied. The horn—electric—refused to
honk at times and got so that it worked only after the car had been
running half an hour or so. This was the case the writer was asked to
diagnose.

While trying to determine the cause, questions asked developed that
the owner was employed during most of the day and only ran his car
nights, except that he was making long trips on Saturday and Sunday,
and ran quite late into the night both days. During the week nights his
trips were short, with numerous stops. This caused frequent use of the
self-starter. He found it took longer to start the car, a natural
result of the cooler weather.

[Illustration: THEN HE WENT TO SCHOOL TO LEARN SOME MORE ABOUT HIS CAR]

These facts suggested that the battery was being starved; that is, that
it was not getting enough charge to keep it at its best. There seemed
to be no trouble with the wiring and the owner was told he had better
have the battery charged and see if his troubles did not end. They did.
Then he went to school to learn some more about his car.

His trouble was that he did most of his running at night and as he
carefully observed the speed laws, consequently the generator did not
generate very much extra current and the battery was being recharged at
a very low rate and being discharged at a rather high rate. In other
words, he was chopping off both ends—burning both ends of his candle.
He was using an excessive amount of current and generating less than
usual because of running at night, starting often, and running slow to
observe the speed laws. Up to a certain point, the amount of current
which goes into the battery is increased in proportion to the speed of
the car.

Generators are constructed so that they will deliver a normal charge to
the battery for normal running; they must not be constructed so they
will send out excessive current, or they will overcharge the battery,
and that is harmful. The sun sets much earlier in winter and the cool
weather makes it necessary to use the starter more. In warm weather one
little kick will start the car off; in cold weather it takes often from
half a minute to a minute.

Most engines now are equipped with carburetor check and priming devices
to facilitate starting when the engine is cold, but even with these
more current is consumed in starting the engine than when it is warm.

Then, too, the storage battery drops off in efficiency as the
temperature is lowered and will not deliver so much current on a full
charge as at a higher temperature. This comes at a time when there is
a greater call on the battery, and where a battery fails under such
circumstances, it is wise to get an occasional charge to help out the
generator.

It is becoming the practice to take all current for lights, ignition,
and other purposes direct from the battery, using a generator to
recharge it. Inside of a year at the most the bottom of the battery
will become filled with a sediment from the plates. This causes an
internal short circuit and the battery will discharge itself inside
instead of outside. At least once a year a battery should be taken
apart and the sediment be cleaned out.

Some generators are constructed so that they can be adjusted to deliver
more current on demand; that is, there is one adjustment for summer and
one for winter running. Wherever it is possible to do this it should
be done. Otherwise, when a battery loses voltage, it can be taken off
the car and be charged. It need not be necessary to leave it for a
twenty-hour charging period; if taken soon enough it can be charged in
six to ten hours, or, when the car is laid up over night. Two nights
would be enough at any rate.

As a matter of fact, in self-starter practice, everything is done to
the storage battery that formerly was included in the list of battery
“don’ts.” On account of the exceptional demands of self-starters,
batteries have been improved so that they stand this to some extent;
but the improvement has not kept pace with the extra demand put upon
the battery.

Some of the old “don’ts” are:

You should not charge the battery at a high rate when completely
discharged.

It should not be charged at a high rate when almost fully charged.

It should not be overcharged too often; occasional overcharge is good,
but not too often.

It should not be discharged at a very high rate.

Most self-starters are of the two-unit type; they have a generator for
recharging the battery and a motor for cranking the engine. In other
self-starters the two units are combined; the same instrument, when
current is fed to it from the battery, kicks off the motor and when
driven by the engine acts as a generator.

When self-starters were first introduced they had all sorts of devices
to offset the high-current demand and regulators and cutouts to comply
with the battery-makers’ directions in recharging. These devices were
complicated and could not be depended upon, and consequently were
discontinued, and it was put up to the battery to stand the abnormal
conditions. The battery makers have been trying to offset this and to
a certain extent have succeeded, but as it is directly against former
practice—for every one of the “don’ts” is disregarded in self-starter
systems—the makers have not been able to rectify conditions entirely.

On account of these conditions the life of a storage battery may be
considered to be about one and a half years, and if it lasts as long as
that it is considered to have done its work and to be entitled to be
retired.

But if your battery seems to fail with the coming of short and cool
days, do not discard it until you have tried having it recharged, for
possibly you have simply been overworking it and not feeding it enough
current to keep it in condition.




CHAPTER XXI

WHY GEARS STRIP


Some of the most unnecessary and expensive repairs to an automobile are
those connected with its transmission. It is not only exasperating, but
unnecessary to be told that the gears of your car are stripped, or that
the teeth are broken so that smooth running is impossible, if indeed
the car can be run at all.

It is not in the permanent mesh gears, where shaft motion is turned
into axle motion, that the trouble comes. Properly set and packed the
rear axle gears never should make trouble. But it is in the shifting
gears of the transmission, where gears come to mesh at varying rates
of speed, and with the number of revolutions, load, and several other
things to complicate the situation, that there is wear and tear—largely
tear.

If an automobile could run at an unvarying rate of speed, if there
were no hills which require the translation of speed into power, or if
the engine controls alone could give sufficient speed regulation to
cover the emergencies constantly arising, the transmission might be
simplified into a mere coupling and reverse. But simplify as you will,
there must be provision for varying speeds and these must be attained
while the car is in motion, and this means the meshing together of
finely built gears revolving so fast the teeth cannot be seen.

It is no novelty to hear a grinding or clashing within the car when
a careless chauffeur starts, or when he changes from one speed to
another. If the owner knew what was going on inside to make all that
noise, a new chauffeur would have a job quickly and there would be laid
down starting, speeding, slowing down, and stopping rules as stringent
as those of the traffic policeman.

The illustration gives the mechanism of a simple transmission gear
case. The engine shaft J has on the end a gear wheel A, and on the face
of the gear are four engaging teeth I. The end of the shaft J is hollow
and in this revolves one end of the transmission shaft K, which is
square. On it are two gear wheels of varying size, D and E, one having,
say, thirty teeth and the other forty. The smaller is yoked to the
larger and both slide along the square shaft when moved by a lever.
The gear D has on its face engaging teeth I, corresponding to those on
the engine shaft gear A, and when the two are engaged the transmission
shaft revolves at the same speed as the engine shaft, giving the
highest speed of which the car is capable.

[Illustration]

To provide for varying speeds, another shaft is suspended in the
transmission case, on which are other gears. If gear A has twenty
teeth, B will have, say, forty. This reduces the motion of the gear
shaft to one-half that of the engine shaft. Farther along the gear
shaft, gear F, with twenty teeth, engages gear E with forty, further
reducing the speed, so that the transmission shaft revolves one-fourth
as fast as the engine shaft, making the low gear, or slowest speed.

When the car is standing, of course, gears E and F are not engaged, but
the engine is running in neutral—that is, no gear on the transmission
shaft is engaged, gear E being shifted just far enough to miss gear F.
To start, it is customary to disconnect the engine and move the lever
so that gears E and F engage. If the speed of the engine shaft be 600
r.p.m. that of gear F would be 300 r.p.m., or 6000 teeth pass a given
point per minute (300 × 20)—something of a buzz-saw motion. Into this
revolving mass of teeth the forty teeth of gear E, which is at rest,
must penetrate and mesh. It does not require much of a mechanic to see
that the meshing must be quite perfect or there would be a clash and
grind that does no good to delicate machinery. So it is good practice
to allow enough time after the clutch is released for the moving shaft
to come to rest.

Once the car is under way and it is desired to increase the speed,
the lever is shoved forward, moving the transmission gears forward
until gear D engages gear C. These are the same size and have, say,
thirty teeth each. But they are not moving at the same speed. Gear C,
revolving at 300 r.p.m. puts 9000 teeth per minute past the engaging
point, while gear D, moving at 150 r.p.m. puts just 4500 around per
minute. The difference of 4500 represents the possibilities of
clashing and breaking or stripping the gear. The wise chauffeur just
at the instant of shifting the gear, would throttle down his engine
one-half and bring the number of revolutions of the gear shaft to
approximately that of the transmission shaft, which is kept in motion
by the momentum of the car. He also will hesitate in the shift—that is,
stop for an instant in neutral before completing the shift, to allow
for adjustment. It is possible in this way to lessen the difference in
teeth speed. If it were possible to make both gears revolve at exactly
the same speed the shift would be noiseless and frictionless. This is
practically impossible in actual running, though in theory it can be
done. But they may be brought near enough to minimize the clash.

In shifting to high speed from medium, the engine should be throttled
more closely and the shift lever should hesitate again, if one would
avoid the thump and jerk commonly felt when the high gear is thrown in.
The engaging teeth of gears A and D will stand a sledge-hammer blow,
but “constant tapping wears away the hardest rock,” you know, and the
best gears made wear and break. Besides there is the jar to engine and
car to consider. Constant jerking and jumping rack the mechanism,
chassis, and body and shorten the life of each, so that economy, if not
comfort, would seem to dictate care by the driver.

In reversing the operation—that is, going from high to medium and
medium to low, one needs to reverse the directions given for increasing
speed. Still assuming the engine shaft to be running 600 r.p.m., gear
D would have that speed and would throw 18,000 teeth per minute (600 ×
30), while gear C, as before, would be going at 9000 teeth per minute
(300 × 30). It would therefore be wise to stop in neutral, engaging
the clutch to speed the engine up, and then release the clutch before
engaging the lower gear, bringing gear C to somewhere near the speed
of gear D. In practice it is approximated by not releasing the clutch
fully when changing to lower gear, thus preventing the clutch from
reducing its speed. To accomplish this speedily, however, the car speed
must be reduced considerably before attempting to make the shift.

Going on to lowest speed, gear E would now be moving at 300 r.p.m.
and gear F at 300 r.p.m., but gear E’s forty teeth move at 12,000 per
minute and gear F’s twenty teeth at 6000 p.m., to correct which one
should speed up the engine, or check the car, in the same manner as
just described.

In reversing, to back the car, the gear operation intensifies the
problem. In the illustration, gear G operates gear H constantly, the
action being to reverse the motion in the latter, and when gear E
engages gear H to reverse the motion of the transmission shaft and thus
back the car. In addition to the difference in speed and variance of
teeth revolutions, there is added the contrary direction of the two
gears which are to engage. To throw back on reverse even at moderate
speed menaces the gears and shakes things up uncomfortably. Fortunately
it is almost invariably necessary to fully stop the car before
reversing, and necessity of caution in backing prompts very low speed
throughout the operation.

Care in operating the gears will add much to the life of the car and to
the pleasure of the owner, and chauffeurs should be instructed in the
proper handling of the speed and reverse levers. It racks one’s nerves
when riding to hear gears clash and grind on a passing car, and many of
the taxis seem to have this trouble.

The chauffeurs run the cars on a slap-dash method and disregard of the
gears is a part of it all, but it costs the owner much in upkeep and
renewals.




CHAPTER XXII

THE GEAR-SHIFTING BUGABOO


Probably the chief bugaboo of the new owner is gear shifting. This
is evident from the fact that the average motor-driving novice will
leave the gear in high when the car is slowed down practically to a
standstill, and make the engine labor in order to pick up speed again,
rather than run the risk of making a noisy shift. He has learned from
his brief experience that, in addition to the noise he creates, he does
not mesh the gears anyway, and has to start off from a standstill.
Consequently he does not shift gears, but makes the engine start on
high-speed gear.

This, no doubt, is the cause in a large measure of the great popularity
of six-, eight-, and twelve-cylinder engines, since with motors of this
type the gear shift is not so necessary. There is a greater range of
speed; a greater flexibility and power may be delivered at lower speed.
Even the manufacturers of four-cylinder engines have designed their
motors for higher speed with greater gear reduction, which makes it
easier for the engine to pick up the load from the very lowest speed,
consequently making the car more popular with the prospective owner.

Inventors are continually at work trying to devise simple methods of
bringing about an adjustment of load to speed without actually sliding
the gears into mesh, and one very popular type of car is arranged so
that no sliding of gears is necessary, and another one or two leave out
the gears entirely.

However, the three-speed sliding-gear transmission seems to be the
most satisfactory, considered from all standpoints, including cost of
manufacture, ease of repair and care required, consequently the owner
should learn at once how to manipulate the gear lever with a minimum of
noise, which is largely a matter of practice.

If a man should get into a strange car he could hardly be expected to
shift the gears noiselessly under all conditions; but a man who owns a
car and drives it should very quickly learn the peculiarities of that
particular car and be able to make the required gear shifts with ease
and confidence.

[Illustration: CYLINDER OF STEEL, AND THE GEAR WHEEL WHICH WAS HAMMERED
FROM IT]

Shifting gears at the proper time saves racking the entire mechanism
of the car. It usually is not very difficult in the average car to
shift to a higher gear, although some car owners manage to stir up
considerable noise in doing this. One of the sources of trouble in
this respect is a dragging clutch. But most cars now are equipped with
a clutch brake, and by depressing the pedal far enough this brake is
brought into play and overcomes the tendency to drag.

Usually the best results can be obtained in shifting from first to
second gear by speeding the car up a very little on first, shifting
out of first and hesitating an instant in neutral and then shifting
into second. Unless the clutch-brake action is harsh the clutch pedal
should be depressed all the way in making this shift. The procedure is
the same in shifting from second to third. Care should be exercised,
however, not to speed the car up too much before shifting, and the
throttle should be in closed position and the accelerator pedal
released during the time of the shift.

Changing from high to a lower gear is where the most of the trouble is
experienced and this is usually due to the fact that the car is being
driven at perhaps twenty-five to thirty miles an hour and the driver
for some reason or other thinks he is going to have use for the second
speed. Immediately he proceeds to shift; the result is audible for
half a mile. Usually no difficulty would be experienced in shifting to
a lower gear if the car speed is diminished sufficiently. As a general
rule, when shifting to a lower gear the speed of the car should be a
little less than when shifting to a higher, between the same relative
gears.

In ordinary driving the gear need not be shifted to first speed except
when the car is brought to a standstill and on a level road the
second-speed gear need not be employed until a speed as low as five to
ten miles an hour is reached. The gear should be shifted when the car
speed has been decreased to this extent, and the driver should guard
against shifting before slowing down simply because his judgment tells
him he is going to have to use a lower gear, if he desires to make a
silent shift. There is a tendency to anticipate the necessity and then
to do it immediately and before it is required; the consequence is
noise.

When climbing steep hills it is desirable to make the shift at a little
higher car speed than on the level, otherwise the car may lose so much
momentum during the operation that the engine will be unable to pick
up the load and will stall. This is a rather difficult situation which
needs special handling.

In a great many cases a silent shift may be made on a hill by leaving
the throttle slightly open so that the engine speed will increase when
the clutch is released and make a very quick shift with the clutch but
partly released.

After the driver becomes a little experienced he may shift from third
to second without sound at practically any car speed that the engine
is able to deliver on second gear. This may even be found of value
when climbing steep hills and in anticipating necessary shifts. To
make this shift at high speed, release the clutch, shift gear lever to
neutral notch, engage clutch, and accelerate engine speed to a point
which experience tells you is the correct engine speed for second gear
at that car speed, disengage clutch and shift into second. This is a
matter for experiment and experience.

In starting the car grinding of the gears occurs because the owner has
not patience to wait the five seconds that may be necessary for the
clutch to stop spinning before meshing the gears.

Another source of annoyance which often leads up to a noisy gear
change, comes from the fact that occasionally it is not possible to
bring the first-speed gears into mesh when about to start the car.
This is due to the fact that the gear teeth line up so that the gears
cannot be slid into mesh. This may be overcome by leaving the lever
in neutral, engaging the clutch so that one gear will spin, and then
disengage the clutch again before shifting the lever. It may need one
or two repetitions of this before accomplishing the desired result, but
a little patience will save strain on the gear and a minimum of noise
in shifting.

A noiseless shift cannot be made from first to reverse or reverse to
first unless the car is at a standstill.




CHAPTER XXIII

THE MUFFLER


Much despised, detested by many automobile operators and neglected
by almost every chauffeur, and even “cut out” altogether when the
traffic policeman is not around, the muffler plainly ought not to be
so treated. It is deserving of careful consideration every once in a
while, if the owner cares much for efficiency and economy in operation.

The muffler is located under the car, and being out of sight is usually
out of mind. It is therefore often neglected or misused. And yet it
ought not to be. The muffler is placed on the end of the exhaust pipe,
and its sole purpose is to silence the exhaust of the engine so that
the driver of an automobile while taking pleasure himself does not
wholly deprive others of it.

Let us consider the use of the muffler. The exhaust valve opens while
the burned gas is still under a pressure of from twenty-five to thirty
pounds per square inch. If this were exhausted directly into the
air the resulting noise would stifle conversation in the car, annoy
everybody along the street, and quickly get the driver into trouble
with the police. The muffler prevents all this. It provides a chamber
in which these exhaust gases may expand and cool somewhat and at the
same time breaks up the pressure by allowing it to leak out slowly
through a number of very small holes, instead of letting it loose in
one “big noise.”

In the early history of the automobile, mufflers were not used and
everybody for blocks around knew when an auto was coming. As the
automobiles increased in number this became a nuisance and was stopped
by law. Then they sought—indeed had been seeking—a means of stifling
the sound. In the early muffler there was trouble because the gas would
back up in the cylinder and decrease the power of the motor. It was
thought there was no way to decrease the sound without decreasing the
power; therefore the manufacturers devised a valve to “cut out” the
muffler on the car whenever extra power was desired.

Sometimes the back pressure was so great as to interfere when driving
through heavy roads or up hills. The “cut-out” let the gas exhaust
directly into the air instead of going through the muffler. At the
present time nearly every city has a law prohibiting the use of
“cut-outs.”

As a matter of fact those well posted on automobile engines understand
to-day that the “cut-out” is absolutely unnecessary on a modern car if
the muffler is kept in proper condition. Muffler manufacturers have
been able to produce a design with which there is no back pressure at
all. For this reason manufacturers discourage the use of the “cut-out”
on their cars and some of them will no longer install one except as an
“extra.”

The average driver, however, does not know that his muffler needs as
careful attention as any other part of the mechanism and so he neglects
it. In these days of noiseless cars it requires a great number of very
small holes inside the muffler. These become clogged with soot or
carbon from the exhaust. The deposit collects very rapidly, especially
when the grade of oil used is poor or too much oil is used. It also
results when the carburetor is adjusted to give too rich a mixture.

When these small openings become clogged, the exhaust gases cannot
escape readily and naturally the cylinder of the engine is not cleaned
at the exhaust stroke. Result: It is impossible to bring in a full
cylinder of new gas on the next intake stroke. There is not a full
charge to explode and this means a loss of power to the engine.

Cases are known where the throttle was opened wide without any increase
in power. Trying to find out what the matter was the driver opened the
“cut-out” and this caused the machine to accelerate very rapidly.

In other cases when the engine was cranked, there would be a few
explosions, a sputter and a stop, and the reason was that the muffler
was so clogged that it was impossible to exhaust the gas from these few
explosions, the cylinder remained full of burned gas, and, of course,
could not take in a further supply. These, of course, are extreme
cases, but the writer had this experience not long ago:

He was riding in a car that could hardly make headway against a strong
wind blowing. This meant frequent use of the second-speed gear, which
in itself causes an undue use of gasoline. He found on experimenting
that the muffler “cut-out” pedal could be used in place of the
accelerator pedal; that is, when the muffler “cut-out” was open the
engine had considerable more power and immediately speeded up. In fact,
he kept the “cut-out” open most of the way home and had no more trouble
in bucking the headwind. The experience led to the discovery that the
muffler was almost totally clogged with carbon.

Of course, where the engine is stopped or there is a decided decrease
in power, the owner will hunt for the trouble, and find it, perhaps, in
the muffler. He might not notice less serious cases where, while the
muffler is somewhat clogged, it does not decrease the power strikingly;
but even in these less serious cases it will often be found that the
power of the motor may be materially increased by having the muffler
cleaned. Yet it is seldom done, even when the car is supposed to be
overhauled completely. Many drivers seem to think the muffler can take
care of itself. In looking over the inspection card of a well-known
make of car it was found that no provision was made for even looking at
the muffler. The service-station inspection orders contain no mention
of the muffler.

There is still another cause of the clogging of the muffler with
carbon, and that is the practice of putting kerosene in the cylinders
to clean them. The kerosene cleans the carbon from the cylinder walls
and that is what makes the trouble, for it is exhausted right into the
muffler. Some drivers understand this and when using kerosene for this
purpose open the muffler “cut-out”; this allows the discharge of the
greater part of the carbon into the air, but even then some of it finds
its way into the muffler and in time makes trouble.

A muffler of modern design, if kept clean, needs no “cut-out”
arrangement, but if it becomes clogged it is necessary to use a
“cut-out” when the full power of the engine is needed. The consequence
may be a trip to the police station and then to the court and then a
fine to be paid. It is evident, therefore, that if one wishes to get
power out of his car on an economical basis and wishes to escape fines,
he should look after his muffler.

Since instruction books, and even service-station inspection charts do
not say much about the muffler, and since it is evident that it has an
important part in the operation of the car, where the owner does not
find sufficient information concerning it from the instruction books
furnished him, he would better ask the agency to furnish him a special
muffler pamphlet, which will show its construction and care.




CHAPTER XXIV

YOUR BEARINGS


Ever stop to count up how many bearings there are about your car? If
you haven’t, you are likely to lose your bearings while you hunt for
the several hundred bearing points of the modern automobile.

A bearing is a support for a moving member, so designed as to minimize
friction and receive wear, and to permit of fine adjustment.

There are many types of bearings, some in which the metals are selected
with the idea of obtaining strength rather than non-friction qualities;
others have strong metal shells lined with a comparatively soft
non-friction metal. In these bearings moving members slide over each
other.

In addition to this we have the so-called anti-friction bearings, in
which balls, or straight, taper, or helical rollers are used, giving a
rolling rather than a sliding contact.

On the engine alone there are 102 bearings. This is figured on the
average six-cylinder motor; some of them have more than double the
number. There are, for instance, the following:

Six cylinders, 6 wrist-pin bearings, 6 crank-pin bearings, 4 main, 3
cam shaft, 12 cam, 12 push rod, 12 valve stem, 2 fan, 2 water pump, 8
ignition, 6 spark control, 6 carburetor control, 6 carburetor, 3 oil
pump, 4 self-starter, and 4 self-starter linkage bearings; total, 102.

The first named, cylinder and piston, not generally termed bearings,
are usually of cast iron, which gives comparatively long wear and in
which the friction is not great if well lubricated. When wear does
occur at this point it is necessary to rebore and have larger pistons
fitted.

The wrist-pin bearings usually are in the form of a bronze shell,
called a bushing, surrounding the wrist pin; when wear occurs it is
necessary to drive out the bushing and replace with a new one which
fits.

The crank-pin bearings are usually in halves, the metal babbitt or
bronze, surrounded by a steel strap or casing. When wear occurs,
the adjustment is made by taking out thin sheets of metal, called
shims, which allow the halves to be brought closer together. The main
crank-shaft bearings are of the same type.

The cam-shaft bearings are usually in bushing form, which must be
replaced with new ones when they become worn. The cam-follower bearings
may be just flat plates resting directly upon the cam, or rollers
running on a pin in the valve push rod. Wear in these parts would
usually be compensated for by adjusting screws on the valve push rods.

The push-rod guides are sometimes made of cast iron or other metal,
with babbitt or bronze shell in bushing form, and would require
replacement when worn.

The oil-pump bearings consist of a plunger working in a small cylinder,
with one end bearing against a cam, or a pair of gears driven from the
cam shaft. These bearings, being perfectly lubricated, seldom or never
require adjustment.

All of the bearings considered so far are cared for by the lubricating
system of the engine, which starts when the engine starts to run, and
as long as oil is kept in the engine they are quite certain to be taken
care of, barring accidental stoppage of the oil lead.

The fan usually runs on ball bearings which are lubricated with a
squirt can; being usually of the cup and cone type, they are adjusted
by tightening the cone. The water-pump bearings are lubricated by
compression grease cups; when the bearings become badly worn it is
necessary to drive out the bushings and replace them; generally the
shaft also will need replacing. When this shaft becomes worn out of
round, no amount of tightening of the stuffing box will prevent water
from leaking out.

The valve-stem guides are sometimes bushings, but more usually are
holes bored through the cylinder casting. In the former case, when
wear occurs the bushing may be driven out and a new one, with new
valve, installed; in the latter case, the holes must be reamed true and
larger, and valves with larger stems be inserted.

In the ignition system ball bearings usually are employed, with or
without means of adjustment. These are lubricated with an oil can or
packed in grease. There is one bearing of the ignition system which is
unique in that some manufacturers advise keeping it free of lubricating
substance of any kind. This is the rocker arm of the interrupter
on certain makes of magnetos. Other forms of interrupters are so
constructed that lubrication is advisable.

The carburetor air-valve bearing operates better if not lubricated,
but does wear and need replacing at times. The throttle bearings may
be lubricated and would certainly wear longer if this were done. When
they do wear air is admitted which is noticeable at low engine speed,
causing skipping and irregular running. Then the holes in the casting
must be enlarged and larger shaft inserted.

The throttle and spark-control linkage have a number of bearings, which
may be of the steel ball and socket type, or a wire bent to fit in an
eye. These pins should be frequently lubricated with a squirt can.
Usually they are not adjustable, so that parts must be replaced when
they become badly worn.

The self-starter motor and generator are usually equipped with ball
bearings and are lubricated with a squirt can. Both the motor and
generator have a copper commutator on which carbon brushes bear. These
are not bearings, strictly speaking, but they do require a very slight
trace of oil if the brushes have not been soaked in oil. The commutator
becomes worn occasionally and must be smoothed up with fine sand paper,
or, if badly worn, must be removed and trued in a lathe.

The other principal bearings throughout the car are usually of
ball or roller type, which may or may not be adjustable. Usually
the directions for the care and replacement are given in the
manufacturer’s instruction book.

In the steering gear there is a plain bronze bearing or bushing in
which the shaft is set out of center, so that when wear occurs by
twisting the bushing, the sector of the steering gear may be thrown
deeper into mesh with the worm and take up the play.

In the transmission gear, in which all other bearings are of the
ball or roller type, there will be found often a plain bearing on
the forward end of the square or fluted shaft called the pilot-shaft
bearing. This is one weak point in many otherwise satisfactory
transmissions. When this bearing wears, the operation becomes noisy
and the gears are difficult to shift. The transmission must be
disassembled, the bushing withdrawn and a new one pressed in.

The steering-gear linkage bearings are usually of the ball and socket
type, self-adjusting by means of springs. Steering knuckle bearings are
usually bushings which may be driven out and replaced when wear occurs.
It usually is necessary to replace the pins at the same time.

The universal joints of the propeller shaft become very noisy when
the bearings are worn. In modern construction these bearings are in
the form of bushings which may be replaced at small expense. The
brake linkage has many bearings, which are clevis and pin. These are
non-adjustable, and unfortunately are not often lubricated. When wear
occurs the holes may be drilled larger and larger pins be inserted, or
the parts may be replaced entirely.

Of course there are scores of other bearings in other parts of
the chassis, that with ordinary care last the life of the car.
The lubrication and adjustment are usually given in detail in the
manufacturer’s book of instructions and need no special caution other
than to advise following what is there printed.




CHAPTER XXV

DRIVING THE CAR


It takes more than a knowledge of certain small levers and pedals
and a deftness in manipulating clutch and brakes and gear shifts and
steering wheel, to make an automobile driver. Because of this fact the
Automobile School of the West Side Young Men’s Christian Association,
in New York City, has formulated a set of instructions to its students
for the road lessons, which are about the most complete, yet concise,
so far published. They are copyrighted and published by permission. It
may emphasize the foregoing chapter to first quote the introductory
paragraph which otherwise would have been omitted.

 The following applies particularly to the cars used in the school.
 Slight variations may be found on other machines, so it is well to get
 an instruction book from the manufacturers of the car you expect to
 operate and follow their instructions closely.

 =Before Leaving the Garage=—See that there is sufficient gasoline and
 oil in the tanks to carry you the distance you wish to go. Examine
 the radiator or tank to see that it is full of water. Have sufficient
 air in the tires. All grease cups should be filled and turned down
 properly. If batteries only are used, two should be carried, and one
 of them fully charged. If you are carrying only one battery, be sure
 that it is sufficiently charged to make the desired run. Have on the
 car at least one extra shoe and three extra tubes, with the ordinary
 equipment of tire pump, jack, oil gun, tire tools, tire patches and
 cement, and the regular kit of other tools. A set of non-skid chains
 will be found very useful on wet days; in fact it is not safe to run
 without them on wet asphalt. They should not be used however any more
 than is necessary, as they wear the tires excessively. A couple of
 extra spark plugs should be carried to save the trouble of cleaning a
 short circuited one on the road.

 =Starting Crank=—In a gasoline automobile, it is found that the motor
 must draw a supply of gas into the cylinder and compress it before
 this charge can be ignited to expand and give power. It is therefore
 necessary to have some means of turning the engine over to accomplish
 this. The starting crank placed usually on the front of the machine,
 just in front of the radiator and between the front spring horns, is
 for this purpose. It is operated, as a rule, with the right hand, and
 is rotated clockwise (the direction the hands of a clock travel). When
 there is a self-starter provided, the starting crank is carried in the
 tool box, and is used only when the starter will not operate.

 =Starting Pedal=—The starting pedal or button may generally be found
 somewhere on the floor board. Pressing on it connects an electric
 motor to the crank shaft of the engine and closes a switch that allows
 current from the storage battery to flow to the motor and crank the
 engine. This takes the place of the hand-starting crank.

 =Clutch Pedal=—It is quite often desirable to run the engine without
 moving the car, and it will also be found necessary at times to
 bring into mesh different gears so that more power or speed may be
 obtained. A clutch is, therefore, placed between the engine and the
 rear wheels. It is controlled by means of a pedal placed just back
 of the dash. The clutch is released by pressing on this pedal with
 the left foot, and when released the engine will continue to run, but
 will not deliver power to the driving wheels. When the pressure of the
 left foot is released from the pedal, the clutch will become engaged
 automatically by means of a stiff spring and the car will move forward
 or backward, according to which gears are in mesh. If the gears are in
 the neutral position, however, power will not be applied to the car
 when the clutch is engaged. The clutch must be released every time the
 gear-shifting lever is moved and whenever the brake is applied.

 Remember, it is =depressing= or =pushing= this pedal that overcomes
 the tension of the spring and =releases= the clutch, and when no
 pressure is applied to the pedal, the clutch is =engaged=.

 =The Running-Brake Pedal=—The running brake is used for bringing the
 car to a standstill. It is operated by means of a pedal placed just
 back of the dash and to the right of the clutch pedal. To apply the
 brake, first release the clutch by pushing on the clutch pedal, then
 push down or forward on the brake pedal with the right foot gently
 but firmly until the car is stopped. After removing the foot from the
 brake pedal the brake will be released automatically by means of a
 spring. Use the brake gently to save discomfort to the passengers,
 wear on tires and the machine in general. Do not run close to the
 point where the stop is to be made and then jam the brake on hard, but
 begin to apply it early and bring the car to a standstill gradually.

 =The Emergency-Brake Lever=—The emergency brakes are used chiefly
 after the car has been stopped and the operator wishes to leave it.
 They are applied by means of a lever operated by the right hand. This
 lever is usually placed just forward and to the right of the driver’s
 seat. It is fitted with a spring latch and when applied will lock on,
 and so is very convenient in stopping on a hill or when the car is
 left standing at the curb. The brake is applied by pulling back the
 lever. This brake can be used alone or in connection with the running
 brake for quick stops when necessary, but it should not be used for
 ordinary stopping as it is usually not designed for such work.

 =Gear-Shifting Lever=—This lever is usually placed forward and to the
 right of the operator’s seat, and to the left of the emergency-brake
 lever. It is operated with the right hand. By shifting this lever
 which engages different sets of gears, the machine may be made to go
 forward at different speeds while the engine turns at a practically
 uniform speed. It also controls the reverse gear. When the car is
 standing, the lever should be left in neutral position. When in this
 position, even if the clutch is engaged, the machine will not move. To
 start the car, release emergency brake, release the clutch with left
 foot, grasp the gear-shifting lever with the right hand and shift from
 the neutral position to the first speed notch, accelerate slightly,
 then allow the clutch to engage slowly and the car will start. After
 the car has started, release the clutch again and shift the gear lever
 to the second speed notch and engage the clutch quickly but gently.
 Repeat this operation for third and fourth speeds. =Always release
 clutch when shifting this lever.= Whenever the car is brought to a
 standstill, put the lever in the neutral position before applying
 emergency brake.

 =Accelerator Pedal=—This pedal operates the throttle on the carburetor
 and regulates the amount of gas going to the engine and thus controls
 the power which the motor develops. It is sometimes placed between the
 clutch and brake pedals, but usually to the right of the brake pedal
 and is operated by the right foot. More gas is permitted to enter the
 cylinders and therefore more power is obtained by pressing on it, and
 when released the throttle will be returned to its minimum position
 by means of a spring. Push on the pedal very slowly, for a slight
 movement greatly increases the power developed by the motor and a too
 sudden application of power will strain the whole machine. It should
 be pushed slightly when the clutch is engaged to increase the power
 of the motor, and should be released when the clutch is disengaged,
 so that the engine will not race. =The Throttle Lever=—This lever
 controls the throttle on the carburetor the same as the accelerator
 pedal but it has a spring latch, and when it is desirable to run the
 machine for some distance at a nearly constant speed, this lever may
 be used as it will stay where placed, thus relieving the right foot
 which would become tired of holding the accelerator pedal in one
 position for a long time. It is usually placed on the steering post
 above the steering wheel and is operated with the right hand. =Do not
 advance throttle lever too quickly.=

 =The Spark-Control Lever=—It takes some time after the spark occurs
 for the gas to get thoroughly ignited and give power. It is therefore
 desirable to have the spark occur earlier when the engine is running
 fast, so that the gas may be thoroughly ignited at the beginning
 and deliver power for full length of the working stroke. This means
 that the spark when advanced actually occurs when the piston is
 still traveling up on the compression stroke and so gets the gas in
 the cylinder at its maximum pressure when the crank passes top dead
 center. When the motor is cranked in starting it is turned so slowly
 that to avoid a kick back the spark must be retarded so that it occurs
 after the crank has passed top dead center. The spark-control lever is
 connected with the spark-timing device, and so controls the time at
 which the spark occurs in the cylinder. It is usually placed on the
 steering column above the steering wheel, and is operated with the
 right hand. On some cars it is moved forward and on others backward to
 advance the spark. When the engine is cranked in starting, the spark
 should be fully retarded. After the motor has started it can usually
 be advanced about two-thirds, but there is no set rule for this. In
 general, advance as the motor (not the car) gains speed and retard as
 it slackens speed. Keep the spark advanced as far as possible at all
 times but retard it if the engine labors or knocks.

 =Ignition Switch=—Usually placed on the dash. It is for the purpose
 of closing and opening the electric circuit and thus stopping the
 motor or allowing it to be started. It is generally provided with a
 removable plug or a key so that the car may be safely left at the
 curb. Be sure that switch is in “Off” position when the motor is
 stopped.

 =Steering Wheel=—The steering wheel is usually placed on the left-hand
 side of the car directly in front of the operator’s seat. By its means
 the direction of the car is controlled. When moving forward, turning
 the wheel counter clockwise will cause the car to go to the left and
 turning it clockwise will cause the car to go to the right. It should
 be operated with the left hand only unless steering is very hard, when
 both hands may be used. Grasp the wheel firmly with one or both hands
 but not with a strong, nervous grip, as this becomes very tiresome.
 If the hand is kept always in one position on the wheel when only
 slight turns are desired, there will be no difficulty in knowing by
 its position when the front wheels are pointing straight ahead. When
 turning corners the position of the hand on the wheel may be changed
 and both hands should be used. Do not attempt to turn the steering
 wheel when the car is not moving as this throws a very great and
 entirely needless strain on the whole steering mechanism.

 =Priming Device or “Choke”=—When the engine is cranked in starting,
 it is turned so slowly that the air going in through the carburetor
 has not sufficient velocity to draw the required amount of gasoline
 from the spray nozzle. The mixture that goes into the cylinder is
 therefore weak and cannot be exploded easily. To enrich the mixture,
 a valve is placed in the carburetor air passage, to choke off the
 air and feed more gasoline to the motor. This valve is operated by a
 lever or button usually found on the dash or attached to the steering
 column under the steering wheel. It is often combined with a device
 for making the mixture richer or leaner to take care of different
 weather conditions. Some engines will start nearly every time without
 priming the carburetor; others must be primed every time the engine is
 started. Do not prime to excess; as soon as the engine starts, return
 the lever or button to the running position.

 =The Gasoline Tank=—The gasoline tank carries the fuel that is to be
 fed to the engine. It will sometimes be found under the front seats,
 and may be filled by removing the cushion. In this system the gasoline
 flows by gravity to the carburetor and a small hole about the size of
 a pin will be found in the filler cap to allow the air to enter as the
 gasoline leaves. This hole should be kept clean, because if the air
 cannot enter the gasoline will stop flowing to the carburetor and the
 engine will stop running. Some cars carry the gasoline tank on the
 rear of the chassis under the body and air pressure is kept on the
 gasoline to force it to the carburetor. This pressure is obtained by
 a hand pump placed on the dash, and is kept constant automatically.
 This system differs from all others in that there should be no hole in
 the filler cap of the tank and the gasket on the cap should be kept in
 good condition to prevent air leakage. A gauge will be found on the
 dash and by this means the pressure on the tank can be determined.
 Other cars with the tank under the rear end of the chassis have a
 system of drawing the gasoline by means of a vacuum, to a small tank
 located by the carburetor under the hood, from which it flows into the
 carburetor by gravity. Still other cars have a gasoline tank in the
 cowl of the dash from which the gasoline flows to the carburetor by
 gravity.

 =The Lubricator=—The lubricating system is generally built into the
 crank case of the engine. The oil is supplied through a pipe or other
 opening found on the engine and a gauge or pet cock is provided
 to indicate the amount of oil in the motor. The system should be
 kept filled with a light to medium high-grade gas-engine oil. The
 lubricating system usually oils all internal parts of the engine only,
 the transmission, steering and differential gears being lubricated by
 heavy oil or grease placed in their respective housings, and all other
 parts of the car are taken care of by oil or grease cups. Any oil put
 into the engine should be carefully strained to remove dirt or grit.

 =The Water Tank=—The water tank or radiator is placed on the front of
 the car and should be kept filled with clear water. Any sediment that
 is allowed to enter the radiator will clog it and the engine will then
 overheat. During the winter it is well to fill the radiator with some
 anti-freezing solution. Alcohol is good for this purpose, mixed with
 water in the following proportions as desired.

   2     pints wood alcohol to 1 gallon water freezes at  0° Fahr.
   2-1/2 pints wood alcohol to 1 gallon water freezes at 10° below
   3     pints wood alcohol to 1 gallon water freezes at 20° below
   4     pints wood alcohol to 1 gallon water freezes at 38° below

 If steam is discharged from the radiator, examine the fan directly
 back of it and the water pump, and see that there is no clog in the
 pipes leading to and from it.

 =Tires=—Keep the tires free from oil and grease as they rot the
 rubber. Drive very carefully in wet weather because rubber cuts very
 easily when wet. Drive slowly around corners and start and stop
 without jerks; also be very careful not to rub the tires against the
 curb. Have all small cuts vulcanized so that moisture cannot get in
 and rot the fabric. Do not run on a flat tire unless it has been
 damaged beyond repair. Run slowly on the rim or wrap rope around it
 if no other tire is to be had. It is very important to keep the tires
 fully inflated at all times. If tires do not give satisfactory wear
 report it to the manufacturer at once. When the car is to be laid up
 for some time, place jacks under it to keep the weight off the tires.

 =To Start the Motor=—Place the gear-shifting lever in the neutral
 position, put the emergency brake on, retard the spark fully or if
 well acquainted with the motor, to a point where the spark will surely
 occur after the crank has passed top center. Open throttle about
 one-third. (After getting acquainted with the machine you will find a
 position for the throttle where the motor starts best.)

 Put the switch in “On” position. If the motor habitually starts hard,
 prime the carburetor with choking or enriching lever. If car is
 equipped with electric self-starter, press hard on starting button or
 pedal. When the engine starts, remove foot from pedal immediately,
 then close throttle and advance spark lever two-thirds. In cranking
 the motor by hand, grasp some part of the car with the left hand
 to steady yourself, place the feet wide apart, and stand close to
 the front of the machine. Grasp the starting crank with the right
 hand having it at its lowest position, or a little to the right of
 this point. Push the crank in as far as it will go and turn slowly
 clockwise until it engages the crank shaft. It will usually catch when
 about at its lowest position. When engaged, brace yourself firmly
 and pull up quickly on crank, turning it about one-half revolution.
 If after repeating this operation several times the engine does
 not start, it may be found necessary to spin the motor. This means
 cranking for a full revolution or more. In spinning the motor, care
 should be taken to always start with an up pull so as to gain momentum
 for the down thrust and so reduce the danger of a kick back to a
 minimum. After the engine starts, advance the spark about two-thirds
 and close the throttle. If the engine has been started on the battery
 and a magneto is used, switch immediately from the battery to magneto.
 Do not allow the motor to race. When running idle, it should turn over
 at its slowest speed.

 =To Start the Car=—Take your place in the driver’s seat, place left
 foot on clutch pedal, and press hard to release the clutch. Keep it
 disengaged while with the right hand the emergency brake is released
 and gear lever is shifted from neutral to the first speed notch. Then
 with the right foot press the accelerator pedal gently until the motor
 speed is increased a little and at the same time with the left foot
 allow the clutch pedal to come back, until the clutch starts to engage
 and the car begins to move. From this point decrease the pressure on
 the clutch pedal very gradually until the clutch is fully engaged,
 at the same time listening to the engine to see that it doesn’t
 slow down sufficiently to stall. If it shows signs of stalling,
 press accelerator pedal a little more to increase its speed, at the
 same time keeping a slightly greater pressure on the clutch pedal.
 Stalling the motor is the result of feeding too little gas with the
 accelerator, or of not keeping pressure on the clutch pedal during
 the time the clutch is engaging. The jerking of the car comes from
 feeding too much gas and engaging the clutch too suddenly. Both of
 these faults may be overcome by listening to the speed of the engine
 and keeping it right through the proper use of the accelerator pedal,
 and by releasing the pressure of the foot from the clutch pedal very
 gradually from the time it starts to engage until it is fully engaged.
 It is impossible to become a good driver until the ear learns to judge
 the speed of the motor by its sound and the left foot learns to engage
 the clutch gradually. When the clutch has become fully engaged, press
 accelerator pedal slightly to speed up the machine. As soon as it has
 attained fair momentum, release the clutch and at the same time let
 up on the accelerator pedal. Change gear lever immediately from first
 speed notch to second speed notch and let in the clutch quickly until
 you feel it take hold and then gradually, at the same time pressing
 slightly on the accelerator pedal. _When the clutch pedal is pushed
 out, the accelerator pedal should be released; when the clutch is let
 in, the accelerator pedal should be pressed slightly._ Change from
 second to third and from third to fourth if four speeds are employed,
 always releasing clutch when gear is shifted, and always accelerating
 slightly while the clutch is being engaged.

 Do not forget that the clutch is released when the clutch pedal is
 pushed out, and that it is engaged when the pedal is allowed to come
 back. Run on the high-speed gear as much as possible, and when it
 is necessary to drive more slowly release the clutch and apply the
 brake gently until the car is brought to the desired speed. Then if
 the speed of the machine is low enough to warrant it, release the
 brake and, with the clutch still disengaged, change from the high
 to the next lower speed notch and let in the clutch. If the car has
 lost much momentum it may be necessary to change to the lowest gear
 before letting in the clutch, otherwise the engine may be stalled.
 Do not drive too close to other vehicles or objects before releasing
 the clutch and applying the brakes as the brakes may not hold as
 well as you think and you may not be able to operate them correctly
 when in close quarters. If while the machine is standing it is found
 impossible to move the gear lever from neutral to first or reverse,
 leave the lever in neutral, allow the clutch to engage slightly, then
 release it quickly and shift lever to desired notch.

 =To Stop the Car=—Select a lamp-post, tree, or other object along
 the curb, and when still some distance from it, disengage the clutch
 and apply the brake gently and get the car under control so that you
 can, if you wish, stop ten feet before the object is reached. Then,
 releasing the brake pressure slightly, allow the car to drift to the
 object, stopping with the rear door directly opposite the object and
 the car close enough to the curb to allow passengers to alight on the
 sidewalk. Shift gears to neutral, apply emergency brake, and allow
 clutch to engage. Be careful that the tires do not scrape along the
 curb as this is very damaging. The brake should be applied so that the
 car is not brought up with a jerk. This can be accomplished easily
 with a little practice, as can also starting of the car. Remember that
 you are driving for the comfort of the passengers, and they can feel
 the jerks and jar much more than you.

 =To Reverse the Car=—Bring it to a standstill first, then with the
 clutch released place the gear lever in the reverse notch. Allow the
 clutch to engage gently with the left hand only on the steering wheel,
 look backward and gauge the direction by the rear end of the car. Do
 not attempt to steer by watching the front wheels; always look to the
 rear when going backward, to make sure the way is clear.

 =Turning in Narrow Streets=—With the car moving slowly, first look
 back to see that there is no other vehicle coming and then turn the
 wheels sharply to the left as far as possible. When within five feet
 more or less, depending upon the speed of the car, of the left-hand
 curb, release the clutch and apply the brake gently, at the same time
 turning the steering wheel quickly to the right. Stop turning the
 wheel when the car is brought to a standstill. With the clutch still
 released and the brake on, shift to the reverse gear. Then release
 the brake; accelerate slightly, let the clutch in carefully, and
 when the car starts to move continue turning the wheel to the right
 or clockwise. This will point the car in the opposite direction.
 When going backward look toward the back of the car and also up and
 down the street to see that no other vehicle is approaching. After
 the car has traveled back a sufficient distance, release the clutch,
 take foot off of accelerator pedal and apply brake, at the same time
 turning steering wheel to the left until the car stops. Then with the
 clutch still released and the brake still on, shift from reverse gear
 to first speed gear. Take right foot from brake pedal and accelerate
 slightly, allowing clutch to engage gradually, and as soon as the car
 starts to move, continue turning steering wheel to the left until the
 car goes straight ahead. Do not turn the steering wheel while the car
 is standing. Start to turn when the car begins to move. Do not allow
 tires to strike curb.

 =Turning Corners=—Before turning a corner hold out the hand so that
 any driver behind you may see it, and also look back to make sure
 that he does see it. If another vehicle is close behind you or if
 there is one in front coming toward you, slow up your car and wait
 until it has passed before turning. When turning a corner to the right
 keep as close to the curb as possible so that the car will be on the
 right-hand side when you get into the side street. When turning to the
 left go past the center of the street into which you are traveling and
 then turn sharply, so that you will be on the right-hand side of the
 road. Do not cut close to the left curb. Always go around a corner at
 a low enough speed to make the use of the second speed gear necessary,
 and reduce speed so that the gear shifting must be done before
 starting to turn, not after, as this gives better control of the car.
 Turning corners at a high rate of speed puts a great strain on the
 tires and causes them to wear excessively. It is also uncomfortable
 for the passengers. Use both hands on the steering wheel, and if the
 car is found to be going too fast check it by releasing the clutch and
 applying the brake slightly. Do not shift gears before slowing the
 car. The idea is to slow the car sufficiently to make shifting to a
 lower gear necessary.

 =Climbing Hills=—When approaching a hill accelerate and advance the
 spark, as speeding up the motor makes it more powerful and adding
 momentum to the car will often carry it over hills that would need an
 intermediate speed gear if an attempt is made to climb them slowly.
 As the hill is reached, open the throttle fully. If the engine begins
 to feel the grade and labors or knocks, retard the spark until the
 knocking or laboring ceases. If the hill is a very steep one, as
 soon as the engine begins to lose speed, release the clutch, remove
 pressure from accelerator and, without applying the brake, shift to
 a lower speed gear. Let clutch in quickly and at the same time open
 accelerator wide. It will then probably be found that the spark can
 be advanced without causing the engine to knock. On some hills it
 may be found necessary to shift to the first speed gear, but this
 should not be done unless the engine will not pull the car on a
 higher gear. When gears are shifted on a hill the change must be made
 quickly and the clutch let in immediately, as slow work will allow
 the car to lose momentum, and then when the clutch is engaged the
 engine will stall. If the engine stalls, put on the emergency brake
 and put gear lever in neutral notch. It will be well to place a stone
 or block back of the rear wheels before cranking the motor as the
 vibration of the engine may jar the emergency lever loose. In starting
 again, release the clutch, put lever in first speed gear, accelerate
 strongly, release the emergency brake and at the same time let the
 clutch engage. This must be done quickly, otherwise the car will start
 to back down the hill. With some cars it may be found easier when
 starting from a standstill on a steep hill, to apply the foot brake,
 release the emergency brake, engage the clutch while the foot brake is
 released gradually, at the same time feeding gas to the engine with
 the hand throttle. Do not attempt to climb steep hills until you have
 thoroughly mastered shifting gears on the level.

 =Descending Hills=—When descending slight grades throw off the
 ignition switch and leave the gear lever in high speed with the clutch
 engaged. This will cause the engine to act as a slight brake and if
 necessary the running brake may be operated in connection with it.
 There is no harm in applying the brake under these conditions with the
 clutch engaged, because switching off the ignition causes the engine
 to stop giving power. When a very steep grade is encountered, before
 attempting to descend it, stop the car and shift to second or first
 speed gear. The lower the gear used the greater will be the braking
 power, and when first speed is used it is almost impossible for the
 car to get beyond control. The ignition may be switched off or on as
 the occasion requires. Switching it off gives greater braking power.
 The clutch must be left engaged, and the brakes may be used to help.
 It is well to use first one brake and then the other in descending
 long grades, as too long an application of one will cause it to heat
 and burn the friction material. Do not wait until you are half way
 down the hill before finding out that it is too steep for the brakes
 to hold the car. Make up your mind before starting to descend and
 shift to first gear if necessary. Do not allow the brakes to get in
 such condition that they will not hold to the best of their ability.
 Never descend the hill at a high rate of speed no matter how safe it
 looks. Brakes do not hold as well when the car is going fast as they
 do when it is moving slowly, nor will they stop a car as quickly going
 down a grade as they will going up.

 =Driving in Congested Streets=—Procure a copy of the rules of the
 road of the city in which you are driving and obey them. Keep to the
 right-hand curb unless it is lined with standing vehicles, in which
 case keep close to them. In overtaking another vehicle, pass it on its
 left. In passing a vehicle coming in the opposite direction go to the
 right of it. When stopping, the wheels must be within six inches of
 the curb. Before stopping, hold your hand out at the side of the car
 to warn the man who may be behind you. Do not at any time slow down
 or stop without holding out your hand and looking back to make sure
 that it is seen. Pedestrians have the right of way at crossings, but
 you may warn them of your approach by blowing the horn. However, do
 not make a nuisance of yourself by using it more than necessary. When
 traveling in a side street, upon coming to a main thoroughfare slow
 up so that you can stop quickly, as vehicles on these streets have
 the right of way. When on a main thoroughfare it is not necessary
 to slow up at every cross street. Watch the traffic policeman, and
 when one holds up his hand, stop; first holding out your hand to
 warn anyone behind you. Remain standing until the policeman motions
 you to proceed. In some places the policemen use whistles instead of
 motions, and the signals used by them should be learned. Whenever it
 is necessary to reduce the speed of the car considerably, release the
 clutch and apply the brake. When the car is going slow enough, shift
 to a lower speed gear to prevent stalling the motor when the clutch
 is let in. When it is found necessary to keep behind a slow moving
 vehicle, shift to a speed so low that it will not be necessary to slip
 the clutch. If it is desirable to go slower than first speed gear,
 however, the clutch may be slipped by keeping a slight pressure on
 that clutch pedal. A great variation in speed may be obtained when in
 any gear by the proper manipulation of the spark and throttle levers.

 Do not attempt to keep pace with other vehicles until you are an
 experienced driver. When in close quarters, perform every operation
 slowly as a move made slowly but surely will probably take less
 time than a move made incorrectly. There is no occasion for getting
 excited, as it is safe to assume that every other vehicle is under
 perfect control. _Learn to shift gears without looking at the lever,
 because you will need your eyes to watch the road._ Sit straight in
 the seat: do not get hunched over the steering wheel as this indicates
 a novice. Always drive into the garage on the first speed gear.

 =Washing the Car=—The car should be washed immediately upon coming
 into the garage, before the mud has had time to dry. Do not scour
 off the mud as this scratches the varnish. Use the hose with a slow
 stream until the mud is well loosened, and then finish by soaking (not
 rubbing) off with a sponge well wet with water. Where a hose is not
 procurable the mud may be loosened with a wet sponge and then washed
 off entirely by throwing pails of water on it. Be careful that water
 does not go through the radiator or any other opening and get on the
 engine, as this is likely to short circuit the magneto or spark plugs
 and prevent the motor from running. If there is grease on the car,
 soap must be used to remove it. Castile soap is the best for this
 purpose. However, do not apply the soap itself to the car, but make
 suds in lukewarm water. After all mud and grease has been removed,
 wipe dry with a chamois skin. Wash and dry the body before the running
 gear, and be careful that no grease is collected on chamois from wheel
 bearings and steering-arm joints.

 =Cautions=—Don’t twist the steering wheel when the car is standing.
 Corners should be turned at slow speed to save wear on tires. The
 brakes should not be applied with too much force except in an
 emergency, as it is hard on tires and the machine in general. Don’t
 let the motor labor or knock when ascending hills. When going down
 long hills use one set of brakes and then the other. Shift to first
 speed gear before descending steep hills. Change from first speed to
 reverse and from reverse to first only when the car is standing. Be
 very careful of skidding on wet pavements. Put non-skid chains on for
 wet or icy roads. Always start and stop the car without a jerk. This
 constitutes good driving. Don’t forget to see that the license pad is
 attached before leaving the garage. Inspect oil, gasoline, and water
 tanks before making a trip and see that the necessary tools and extra
 tires are in the car. Don’t let the car stand with the motor stopped
 in the winter time, unless the radiator is filled with anti-freezing
 solution. Look the car over thoroughly after each run.

 The records of the examinations held at the school show that there
 are a few points of driving which a large majority of the students do
 not entirely master. This is not due to lack of instruction in the
 subjects, but is rather the result of poor memory or insufficient
 practice. Failure to perform these operations perfectly does not
 necessarily mean that the student is not a safe driver, but it does
 show that he needs more practice before being rated as an expert.
 If you want to be a little better than the average driver, keep in
 mind the following points, go back and read them over again in this
 booklet, think about them when driving the car and try your best to
 master them.

 When about to turn a corner, or turn in a street, or in fact whenever
 swerving from a straight line, look back to see if it is safe to make
 the turn, and hold out your hand to signal what you intend to do.

 Make sure that the spark is retarded, the gear lever is in neutral,
 switch on, and other levers in their proper positions before cranking
 the engine.

 When the car has been slowed down to a very low speed for any reason,
 shift to a lower gear; don’t try to pick up speed on high gear.
 Don’t shift to a lower gear until the car speed has been reduced
 sufficiently.

 In New York City, traffic traveling north and south has the right of
 way, therefore when crossing an avenue go slowly and make sure you
 will not cut off vehicles on the avenue.

 When starting the car, allow the clutch pedal to come back until the
 clutch begins to engage, then keep enough pressure on the pedal to
 allow it to become fully engaged very gradually. Letting the clutch
 engage all at once makes the car jump or the engine stall, and
 observers smile knowingly. In this connection you should listen to the
 engine and operate the clutch and accelerator so that the engine is
 not raced or stalled.




CHAPTER XXVI

WHERE EXTRA CAUTION IS NECESSARY


It would seem unnecessary to give caution to the motorist where there
is an element of safety involved; it ought to be understood that
everyone entrusted with the wheel of a motor car would be interested in
his personal safety and in the safety of those in his keeping, and that
he would take all ordinary and even extraordinary precautions to keep
skin unscratched and bones unbroken and existence preserved. But it is
a fact that for a large proportion of motorists there is no such word
as “Danger,” and no such word as “Care.” Why is it?

For some reason there is abroad the spirit of “take a chance,” and
it has entirely superseded the cautious foresight which was once the
American nature. Perhaps it is the changed conditions of our land which
is responsible for this. In pioneer days caution was necessary, for one
did not know behind what tree or rock lurked death in the form of a
savage, and there were wild animals to avoid in the forests, and even
along traveled highways; so that to look ahead, to watch for signs of
danger, and to approach points of peril with every sense alert, was
second nature.

Boys who were brought up to tramp the woods or prairies were alert
also, because of hiding snakes and prowling wolves, and because of the
need for keeping track of distances and locations to prevent being
lost. We are only a generation or two from these things even at the
crowded centers of population; but the last two generations which have
grown up in the city, and millions who have come from other lands in
the same period have not this inbred caution. Men who are in peril
daily from one cause and another incident to city life, and “nothing
happens,” cannot be expected to get excited about possibilities, which
in time become so familiar as to breed contempt.

The man who is in constant fear lest something fall from a tall
building upon him, or there be an explosion from beneath, or a crash of
trolley, subway, or elevated cars, with a generous complement of fire
and flood and gale added, would go crazed if he thought much on these
things. Therefore it is hard to get him to think of “safety first.” It
is rather “I should worry,” and it actually prolongs life, so long as
it is applied to familiar things—it keeps nerve systems from breaking.

This is why it is so hard to get the city driver accustomed to caution
in places of real peril. One of the worst of these is driving over
railway tracks. Out on the Huckleberry division, where there is but one
train a day each way if luck favors the intending passengers, there is
not so much danger; but in the vicinity of all the large cities where
suburban trains run often and through trains are numerous, it behooves
the autoist to acquire speedily a belief in signs. The usual sign at a
railroad crossing is a post with two arms in the form of an X to warn
highway travelers. It matters not that there is a flagman or gates, a
due sense of caution is necessary for the driver of an auto.

The railway near the writer’s old home had signs reading: “Stop, Look,
Listen”; and this should be the slogan of the driver nearing a railway
crossing today. In spite of the ringing of engine bells and blowing of
locomotive whistles and of other precautions of the railway company, it
is incumbent upon the motorist to be careful, to know that there is no
train approaching. An automobile may be stopped within a few feet and
the train sometimes takes a quarter of a mile for a stop; therefore
the motorist should not trust to the stopping of the locomotive, for by
that time it might be everlastingly too late. Better stop the auto at
every crossing if the noise of the motor prevents hearing whistle or
bell signals from the train.

But there is a worse dereliction than failing to make sure that a train
is not at hand, and that is the devil-may-care spirit which prompts
driver to spurt up the engine and dash for the crossing to get over
ahead of the train that is in plain sight. There are few persons who
can estimate the speed of a railway train with any degree of accuracy,
even the railway employes having to check the time between known points
to estimate the speed, unless there is a speedometer. The autoist,
looking at a coming train, sees it at an angle which prevents his
comparing it with fixed objects and cannot tell if it is running ten or
sixty miles an hour as a rule.

It does not do any good to talk about rights and failure to hear a
warning after the final ceremonies are over and the cemetery has
another monument, and the writer would much prefer to be a live snail
than a dead hare, and would agree to make his destination first, as
well. Neither will it do to talk about the fool-killer and his good
work; sometimes others than the foolish driver are imperiled and
suffer. There is only one way to regard it and that is to resolve to
observe the ordinary rules of caution and to make sure that one is not
trying to occupy the same space as a railway train at the same time.
The train has might, if not right, you know.

Equally important are the crossings of trolley lines, in these days of
high-speed trains and cars, and quite as many accidents occur at street
intersections where two main lines of travel cross, even though there
be no trolley lines. It takes so little effort and so little loss of
time to slow down until one can see the way clear, when there is no
traffic man at the crossing.

But if one needs be careful of his own hide, it is quite as important
that he be careful of the other fellow’s anatomy. It is easy to say of
the pedestrian, or the man in another vehicle, let him keep out of the
way, or keep to his own side of the road; well, if he don’t, you can
keep out of his way and you will be a great deal happier at the end
of your trip than if you disregard him and there is an accident. One
hardly likes to contemplate even an unavoidable injury to another.

It must be remembered, also, that the pedestrian has rights upon the
highway greater than the auto driver. It is popular to talk about the
“jay-hawker” and to assume that the man on foot has few rights in the
road, whereas he has the first right, according to the United States
Supreme Court, and no amount of traffic rules and ordinances and laws
can affect his right. Without respect to the wisdom of his doing it,
the man afoot has the right to travel in the middle of the road if he
cares to, and it is the duty of the driver to keep out of his way.
Remembrance of this may save the driver damages in large amount, for
the courts will assess the careless driver, or the careful driver for
that matter, if the pedestrian is hurt and asks damages.




CHAPTER XXVII

AN AUTO FURNACE FOR WINTER


Have you a little hot air furnace on your car? You need one on frosty
mornings unless you want the engine to act as though it had an acute
attack of bronchitis for half or three-quarters of an hour. Maybe
you’ll also need to get out the teakettle and some more extras to get
started in proper shape. A lot of men borrow their wives’ dishrags also
to help start the cars. Great help, too.

There is not a bit of foolishness about this as the man who has a car
will appreciate, if he has tried to start it with the temperature
down at the freezing point and a wind blowing that would carry off
the engine heat so fast the metal would remain cold. Probably most
other folks have noticed that a lot of cars sputter and cough and spit
and pop as though all kinds of trouble were going on inside, and the
experienced ear can detect many a six-cylinder hitting only on two of
the cylinders, while many a flivver is chug-chugging away like one
of the old one-lungers of ancient auto days. Not only is this at the
start, but for blocks and even miles.

Now to a novice, the new owner, the first inclination would be to cuss
the manufacturer and the engine. It isn’t the fault of the engine at
all; it is because “the gasoline doesn’t gas.” However there is a
solution of the problem, at least enough of a remedy to make life a
little happier for the owner.

This condition of gas was absent for several years. In the early days
of automobile construction, before the manufacturers were able to
devise a carburetor for vaporizing gasoline under all conditions, we
had this same trouble as soon as the weather turned cold. Persistent
experiments produced a carburetor which overcame the trouble. Then
almost as soon as a carburetor was developed which would vaporize
the gasoline under adverse conditions, somehow the volatility of the
gasoline was found to have decreased.

You will remember the contest between armor plate and big guns—as soon
as an impenetrable armor plate was invented, some genius would go ahead
and find a powder or gun which would shatter the impenetrable plate.
Then the armor factory would try to find something to outwit the gun
maker. That is the way with carburetor and gasoline. It is time for the
carburetor maker to devise a scheme to volatilize the heavy gasoline
now supplied under all conditions—particularly in cold weather. There
are signs that he is matching up to the emergency.

It is true that the gasoline now sold has a greater heat-producing
quality, if only we can get it properly mixed and volatilized. It may
be that the gasoline producers, by putting heavier gasoline on the
market, have been of a real service to auto men, once we have learned
to utilize it economically and efficiently. They may have had in mind
the higher power, but they have given us a gas which is very hard to
vaporize on a frosty morning. Sometime soon, probably the carburetor
man will catch up and give us a vaporizer which will handle it. Until
they do, we will have to look for means of overcoming the difficulties
now experienced, and it is largely a question of warming up the air.

In changing gasoline from liquid to vapor, considerable heat must
be supplied. When the atmospheric temperature is too low, there is
not sufficient heat in it to vaporize the gasoline sprayed into the
carburetor. When the engine is warm, the process of vaporization
goes on from the needle valve to the moment of ignition, but if the
engine is cold, the process is retarded more or less, and under some
conditions it is possible for thoroughly vaporized gasoline to be
again condensed. The man who does not understand is inclined to say
uncomplimentary things about the engine and talk about “fireproof
gasoline.” The only trouble is that the temperature is so low that we
must heat the air before we send it into the carburetor. Practically
all the carburetor manufacturers put out a “stove” to heat the air
supply, which is attached around the exhaust pipe, so that the hot air
surrounding the pipe is conveyed to the carburetor, which warms the
air entering the intake, thus supplying the heat necessary to effect
vaporization. This “stove” or gas warmer, the chauffeurs are beginning
to call a “hot-air furnace.”

The process of vaporization absorbs a large amount of heat. To raise
the temperature of the liquid one degree takes a certain amount of
heat. The amount required per degree remains the same until the point
of vaporization is reached, when two hundred times that amount of heat
is required to effect vaporization. The “hot-air furnace” supplies the
extra amount of heat.

A great many carburetors have the mixing chamber water-jacketed and
the water from the cooling system is circulated through it, supplying
some heat in that way. Sometimes that in itself is sufficient, but at
present it seems advisable to use both. Neither one of these is in
operation when the engine is started; the “hot-air furnace” depends
upon the exhaust pipe being heated, and the water-jacket upon the
engine itself being heated long enough to warm up the circulating
water. So that it becomes necessary to find some means to supply heat
until these warm up.

When the car is started in a warm garage the gasoline will vaporize
properly and the engine will run in good shape, but as soon as the car
goes out into the cold air it will cool the engine so that some of
the gasoline will be condensed. Therefore we close the radiator cover
partly or wholly until the engine is thoroughly warmed. If the car is
started in a cold garage, the teakettle and dishrag method must be
resorted to. Wrap the cloth around the carburetor so that it does not
cover the air intake, and pour the boiling water on the rag, taking
care that none gets in the air intake. The hot water will heat the
carburetor and intake pipe and raise the temperature of the mixture so
that the engine will run. In some cases it may be necessary even to
drain out the cooling system and fill it with hot water, so that the
combustion chamber becomes heated up.

As the weather becomes colder it will be found necessary, no doubt,
to close up the radiator more and more in order to keep the engine at
the required temperature. High engine temperature, up to the point
where the water in the cooling system begins to boil, is desirable from
the standpoint of efficiency, and if no trouble is experienced with
irregular running, the hotter the engine is, the larger amount of power
is developed.

One manufacturer has incorporated in the radiator a shutter-like
device, by means of which the amount of air admitted may be regulated
from the driver’s seat. Doubtless others will follow, or find an
equally good substitute.

Radiator covers to fit almost any car now made may be procured at
trifling expense; one may simply put a piece of cardboard over it.
Being out without a cover recently when the engine did not work right,
the author stopped when he came to a newsboy and bought a paper and
tied it over the radiator, getting home all right with this substitute.

One man complained that his car would start out well and run all right
as long as he was going away from home, but as soon as he turned
homeward it would begin to act up. He wanted to know if the car had the
wanderlust. Inquiry developed the fact that the trips he spoke of on
the going trip were with the wind and returning against it. The added
force of the wind over the engine cooled the engine too much, and he
was advised to cover the radiator under such circumstances. He reported
no trouble after trying it.

Of course, sometimes, the skipping can be overcome by enriching the
mixture by the dash control, but with the present heavy gasoline the
enriched mixture does not seem to do much good and is simply adding to
the supply of gasoline which already is refusing to vaporize. Therefore
it seems to be the stove and the dishrag for the cold engine.




CHAPTER XXVIII

THE COOLING SYSTEM IN WINTER


While there are many sections of the country where it is necessary
to put the car away for that portion of the year when the ground is
covered with snow and ice, and for that reason many cars are put in
storage, yet there are sections where this is not necessary. And
likewise, in the Northern cities, where the snow is cleared from the
streets after every storm, the improvement in carburetors and the
adoption of heating devices have made it possible to keep the car in
commission where formerly it was thought impossible.

There are two things necessary if the car is to be operated in winter,
the first of which is some anti-freezing solution for the cooling
system; the second is a device for warming the mixture before admission
to the cylinders.

Many things have been tried for making the cooling system freeze-proof.
The most common are salt, glycerin, and alcohol. Any one of these
in the proper proportion will insure against freezing. They are not
equally desirable, however. Salt has a tendency to set up electrolitic
action where iron and brass parts are combined in the cooling system,
but four pounds of salt to the gallon will give a solution which will
not freeze until seventeen degrees below zero, Fahrenheit, is reached.
Glycerin will keep the water from freezing, but it is expensive and
if rubber hose is used to connect radiator and the cylinder pipes,
glycerin will cause it to decompose rapidly.

Denatured alcohol probably is the best to use, mixed with water in
proportion as the cold to be expected may demand. Twenty per cent. of
alcohol will give protection to five degrees above zero; thirty per
cent. to nine degrees below zero, and thirty-five per cent. to sixteen
degrees below. The owner must not make the error of using a mixture
which will protect him only for the average low temperature of his
locality. For thirty years the average minimum for the vicinity of New
York City was twelve degrees above zero. The man who thought he was
playing safe with a twenty-per-cent. solution would have ruined his
engine on one of the days while this material was being prepared, for
the temperature went to twenty below in the suburbs and to seventeen
below in the city. Unless the owner had foresight enough to drain out
the cooling solution there would have been burst radiator and pipes,
and perhaps a cracked cylinder, or at least the water-jacket, to be
replaced. Even a thirty-five per cent. solution would not have saved
the damage.

Probably a combination of alcohol and glycerin will suit the particular
owner a little better than alcohol alone, since there is less
evaporation, and a single dose of glycerin will last the entire season,
only alcohol and water needing to be added to replace that boiled away
or evaporated. Half alcohol and half glycerin is the proper proportion
to be added to the water. It has one advantage, that it freezes quite
a bit lower than the alcohol alone. While there are many kinds of
solutions sold which are “guaranteed,” the owner can make his own at
less expense, even considering prices of alcohol and glycerin. The same
treatment must be given to an acetylene gas producer, since the water
will freeze in that and burst the tank.

Another thing which must be taken into account in winter is the warming
of the mixture for starting so that it does not condense the moment it
strikes the cold cylinder walls. Modern cars are provided with means
for accomplishing this when the engine has started, but the hot-water
jacket and hot-air furnace depend upon a warmed-up engine for their
availability, and for starting other means must be devised. It may
often be wise to drain off the anti-freeze solution from the cooling
system and substitute hot water until the engine is well warmed up,
then replacing the anti-freeze mixture. There also are various devices
for heating the carburetor and intake manifold while the engine is
warming up. There is an electric heater, where one has current in the
garage and other ways of accomplishing the same thing. If no better
means is at hand a hot-water bottle about half full, so that it can be
wrapped about the manifold, may do it all right; or a cloth wrapped
about the manifold and carburetor without covering the air intake, and
a kettle of hot water, may do it satisfactorily. These methods are
considered more at length in the preceding chapter.

It will doubtless be found necessary to prime the engine in starting in
cold weather, and it is wise to carry a squirt can for this purpose,
though a piece of waste saturated from the carburetor drip cock and
squeezed over the priming cup will do the trick. If there are no
priming cups it means taking out the spark plugs.

For running at low temperatures it will be found desirable, if indeed
not necessary, to keep the anti-freeze solution from cooling too
rapidly and thus retarding combustion in the cylinders. Most engines
run better in the winter when the fan is disconnected by removing the
belt. When it becomes very cold, however, other means must be provided
in the way of radiator covers. These may be procured at any supply
house, fitted to any car. They are in various forms, usually with a
curtain which may be lifted for moderate temperatures and closed when
extremes are reached. Anything which will cover the air spaces of the
radiator may be used in an emergency, if one is caught by a sudden drop
in the temperature. A blanket, a bag, even a newspaper or wrapping
paper tied on will work properly until better provision can be made.

Care of the lubrication system is needed also in cold weather, since
oil does not flow the same when cold as when warm. Most manufacturers
give a schedule of oils for different seasons and this should be
followed explicitly for best results. The owner should make sure that
the oil is feeding through the system. If there is a dash sight feed
it should be watched, for while oil does not freeze, it does get very
viscid and, like molasses, flows stiff at low temperatures. However,
winter lubrication has been studied by engineers for a quarter of a
century and oils which are suited to all climes and all extremes are
no novelty. The manufacturer is the best judge of the oil which will
work most satisfactorily in the machine he turns out; besides, general
advice could not be given which would apply to all cars. As a rule the
man who sells oil should not be taken as an adviser in lubrication. In
case of doubt go to the service station, if within reach, for advice.

This does not mean that an owner should not substitute a different
brand of oil when he cannot get the one the manufacturer specifies; but
he should get a corresponding quality and then watch results closely
until a supply of the right kind is available. Experience and study
will be a sufficient guide for the careful owner.




CHAPTER XXIX

OVERHEATING THE ENGINE IN SUMMER


The automobile engine will heat up too quickly in hot weather, just as
an individual will. No, we did not say overeat; though if you let the
engine gorge itself too long on motor fodder, it will help to overheat
as well as overeat. There are a variety of reasons for the overheating,
which it is well for the novice to understand.

Those who have found it necessary during the winter to cover the
radiator and take off the fan belt and do other things to keep the
engine hot enough to run smoothly and with the proper vaporization and
firing, may find in summer that they are having as much or more trouble
in keeping the engine cool enough to run properly.

Generally speaking, the nearer to the boiling point we can run the
engine without actually having the water boil and steam away, the more
efficient it will be. Some engines, in fact, develop much less than the
maximum horse-power because they are too well cooled, and yet we hear
a great many complaints about the water boiling in the radiator and the
engine overheating.

This would not occur if everything were working as the designer
intended it should. During cold weather the man who drives with a
retarded spark uses up more gasoline than necessary, but he is not
bothered with overheating. When the mercury goes up he finds that his
engine overheats and gives him trouble. He has not changed his manner
of driving, and cannot understand why there should be trouble.

Driving the engine at high speed with the spark retarded is one
very good way of overheating the engine. As a matter of fact, the
battery ignition systems which are now coming more into use require
considerable manipulation of the spark-control lever, and the tendency
is, because the engine knocks at low speed, to leave the lever partly
retarded, instead of advancing it, when a higher speed is reached.

With the magneto, it is the general practice to advance the lever to
three-fourths or seven-eighths of the full range right after the engine
is started and leave it there for practically all work, except very
high speeds. This may be done largely with such a system, because the
nature of the spark given by the magneto changes somewhat with the
speed of the engine, and the equivalent of an automatic advance and
retard of the spark occurs with the variation of speed of the motor.
With the battery system, however, there is very little change in the
nature of the spark effected by the engine speed.

A frequent cause of chronic overheating may be traced to sediment in
the radiator which cuts off free radiation of the heat. This usually
may be removed by the use of a saturated solution of washing soda and
water. With the advent of summer each year it would be well to fill
the cooling system with a solution of this sort and run the engine
for several hours and then drain it off and refill the system with
clean water. If in the system used a pump is employed, one should
disconnect the upper hose from the radiator and run the engine to pump
the solution out of the system. At the same time water from a hose or
other source should be fed into the top of the radiator as fast as it
is pumped out, and thus flush the entire system, before connecting up
the hose again.

Where the thermo-syphon system is used, which does not employ a pump,
this, of course, cannot be done, but one should remove both upper and
lower hose connections after running the engine with the solution and
wash it out with fresh water as well as possible. A hose inserted in
the upper connection probably would force all the solution out with any
collection of sediment, and the same process with the radiator ought to
clean it out.

Fan belts are more likely to get out of order in hot weather than in
cold weather; perhaps this is because the engine throws oil or grease
more readily when it is warm. Belts should have grease enough to keep
them soft and pliable, of course, but too much causes slipping. They
should be wiped free of all oil occasionally. There is always a belt
adjustment and this should be tightened so that there is sufficient
tension to drive the fan at all engine speeds.

Some engines have the spokes of the fly-wheel shaped to form a fan,
and where this is the case the oil pan and hood should be kept tight
so that air will be drawn through the radiator rather than through
other openings. If the radiator is not kept free from oil the outside
passages will very quickly collect dust, which will prevent a free flow
of air and cut off radiating surface, which also occurs when the front
of the radiator is smeared too thickly with paint.

Pumps do wear out, but this is one of the last places to look for
trouble. The action of the pump may be determined usually by removing
the radiator filler cap when the engine is running and noting whether
the water is circulating, but if a baffle plate is placed in the filler
opening, it cannot be seen, and a test may be made in the same manner
in which the cleaning solution is washed out, namely, by removing the
top hose from the radiator and running the engine, while supplying
water through the filler opening.

With the thermo-syphon system there is very little pressure generated
and a slight obstruction will stop the flow of water. Therefore it
is more necessary to keep the system free from sediment and to see
that the gaskets at the joints are made with circular openings of the
right sizes so as not to obstruct the flow of water. Likewise water
must be kept above the top hose of the radiator in order to have any
circulation in this type of cooling system.

Another cause of overheating, which it has been found very difficult to
locate, comes from carelessness in stretching the hose over the pipe.
In doing this sometimes the inner lining of the hose is loosened and
folds back, covering the opening of the pipe, so that water does not
flow freely. It looks all right from the outside, but an examination
of the inside will show that it is almost entirely clogged at the end.
Also, the lining of the hose will often loosen up and pieces will
lodge where they cut off the circulation.

Keep the engine free from carbon and keep the valve push rods adjusted
close, have the mixture as lean as possible and be sure the exhaust
from the muffler is free. Taking care of these things and seeing that
the other things mentioned are all right, will prevent most of the
overheating which troubles the novice, if, indeed, not all of it.

They are things which should not be trusted entirely to chauffeur
or garage man, but the owner should learn how to take care of them
himself; then if he wants to hire it done he will know if it is being
done according to his orders and will recognize the symptoms when
anything goes wrong. It may take a little time and get one’s hands
somewhat soiled, but it pays in the long run, not alone in the saving
of labor but in the absence of annoyance when out on a trip. It is far
from pleasant to have to stop along a hot roadside to make repairs
which should have been done in the garage, with probable delay and
consequent upsetting of the schedule. Therefore, it behooves the owner
to look after these things before starting out and to learn his car so
well that he will anticipate troubles and by removing causes save time
and money.




CHAPTER XXX

SOME OTHER HOT-WEATHER TIPS


There are a number of other points which should be borne in mind by
auto owners with the coming of hot weather, if the most efficient
service is to be had from the car.

One of the Y. M. C. A. secretaries excitedly called the school to ask
why a seemingly good tire should blow out after a short run. A few
minutes later another secretary put the same inquiry with variations.
That is, he had a tire which was rather old, but it had been inflated
for two weeks and had been running every day since inflation, when it
tested eighty pounds’ pressure. It had blown out.

The first secretary had been invited by a friend to take a ride. He
had watched the tires inflated and all other bits of preparedness and
saw that nothing was overlooked, and settled down for a fine ride. The
blow-out came about five miles away.

The trouble with both was that they had not taken into account the fact
that summer was at hand. Experienced drivers know that in hot weather,
whether it is according to rules or not, it is better not to keep the
tire pressure so high as during the cold months, even though it means
more wear on the tires.

Considerable heat is generated by rolling a tire over the ground. This
heat expands the air in the tire and increases the pressure. In the
winter this heat is absorbed to a large extent by the cold atmosphere
and the cold and wet pavements, and therefore the pressure does not
vary so much. In the summer the roads are very hot, the air temperature
is high, and the heat generated by friction is not carried off to any
appreciable extent.

On a recent summer trip the writer noticed that the car was riding
harder than usual and a test of the pressure on the tires developed the
fact that it was above normal. To find out just what the difference in
pressure would be, the pressure for each tire was taken before leaving
the garage next morning. After rolling about forty miles at an average
speed of thirty miles an hour, the pressure was again tested. It had
increased about twelve pounds on each tire.

Several tire manufacturers insist that owners shall not carry less
pressure on tires in hot weather, saying that the increased pressure
due to heat is not sufficient to materially affect their make. This
probably is true for new tires, or for about two-thirds of their
guaranteed life, but if the tire has been weakened, through having been
run under-inflated, or from fabric deterioration through cuts in the
tread, there is danger from the increase in pressure due to heat.

_More tires are damaged by under-inflation than by over-inflation_,
because the former breaks down the side walls through running flat,
in practically every case, while the over-inflation causes a blow-out
only when the tire is weak at some point. It would be good practice,
however, on hot summer days, to leave the garage with the tire pressure
about ten pounds less than that specified by the manufacturer as being
correct for his make. Any driver ought to test out his tires after
running at a good clip on a hot day and find out just what they do. A
little persistence would enable him to understand how much his tires
heat up and he could regulate the pressure accordingly.

Manufacturers of high-pressure tires resent the above advice and
declare that it is wrong. The succeeding chapter tells of definite
tests made and the owner can draw his own inferences and decide for
himself whether he wants _high_ tire mileage, or comfort with _pretty
good_ tire mileage.

There are some other hot-weather points which it might be well to keep
in mind if one would get the best results from the car. One of these is
the care of the carburetor. It will be found usually that not quite so
much gasoline is required as in cold weather, and therefore the dash
adjustment may be carried a little nearer the lean, or air, side. This
not only saves gasoline, but increases the power of the motor, for a
too heavy mixture makes it run logy.

It will be found also that in most cases the hot-air stove of the
carburetor may be dispensed with or adjusted. Usually provision is
made on the hot-air stoves for allowing some cold air to enter, or to
take cold air entirely. Where the carburetor is water-jacketed, there
usually is a valve that may be closed to prevent the flow of hot water.
Experiment will determine whether it is advisable to cut out the heat
entirely on the individual carburetor, since all are not benefited by
the change.

The water in the storage battery will evaporate more quickly in
hot weather and where it has been necessary to replenish it once
in two weeks in the winter, it will need to be done every week in
hot weather. This is not entirely due to evaporation from heat but
is accounted for in part by the fact that the engine starts easier
and therefore less current is used for starting; also there is more
daylight and the lamps are used less. Therefore the battery is more
often in a fully charged condition, and in this condition the charging
current causes more gas than when the battery is lower. This is due to
the chemical action which decomposes the water, the hydrogen and oxygen
gases passing off through the vent holes; the water escapes from this
cause as gas and not as vapor, as it does when there is evaporation.

In hot weather city streets are generally sprinkled regularly and the
country roads are oiled some time during the season. The novice going
behind a street sprinkler, or reaching an oiled stretch of road, should
exercise particular care to prevent skidding, as he would be unlikely
to realize the danger unless he has experienced it once. This is
explained fully in the part of this book devoted to skidding.

Hot weather softens grease, so that trouble may be experienced through
grease or oil seeping out of transmission or differential cases, or
from the grease cups. Many manufacturers recommend a heavier grease
for summer than for winter to give the greatest efficiency. This
softening of the grease is likely to make a little ring of grease
around each cup, which will collect dust and give the car an unkempt
appearance, besides there is the possibility of some of the dust
working into the bearing. Grease cups must be kept turned down so that
the dust is forced out, and then it should be carefully wiped off.

Every bearing needs additional care to keep dust out and lubricant in,
but every moment spent in this way pays dividends in expense saved
and comfort and freedom from annoyance on the road, so that the owner
will do well to take note that hot weather calls for added care and
precautions.




CHAPTER XXXI

HOT-WEATHER TIRE EXPANSION


There is considerable question whether the pressure on tires should
be decreased during the hot summer days. Tire manufacturers claim,
as a rule, that tires heat more on low pressure than when run at the
full pressure given by them. They claim that even a slight decrease to
offset any increase from heating, because of warmer temperature of the
air, friction, and the hot pavements, will injure the tires. On the
other hand, drivers of long experience insist that the car should be
started out with the tires softer than in cold weather. Still others
insist that the tire pressure demanded by the manufacturer makes the
tire too hard for comfort and that when the pressure is increased by
heat it makes the tire as hard as one of solid rubber. There is some
truth on both sides.

There has been considerable criticism of the conclusions drawn from the
writer’s experience with tires while on a summer tour, related in the
previous chapter. He stated that there was a twelve-pound increase in
a forty-mile run. This was disputed. Tests prove that he was right and
that in city driving tires ordinarily heat up even when the conditions
are not extreme.

To determine what effect the hot weather has on tires in the city, the
author drove a 3200-pound Model L Locomobile, equipped all around with
34 × 4-1/2 inch tires, through the park and on Riverside Drive for
fifteen miles at ordinary city-traffic speed, which always is under
twenty miles an hour. The thermometer registered 86 degrees and the
day was partly overcast, so that the full effect of the sun on the
pavements was not obtained. The tires were inflated to full 90 pounds,
which is the pressure recommended by many manufacturers.

At the end of the run, one tire registered 101 pounds, two were 100
pounds, and one was 99 pounds. The conditions were not excessive in any
way and the weather was not abnormal, the road was smooth except for
very short stretches, the speed was low, and the tires were of ample
size for the weight of car and load.

After the test run, a gauge was made to test the flattening effect on
the tire from a lowered pressure. With the car loaded it was necessary
to decrease the pressure in the tire to 65 pounds to have 1/16 inch
bulge of the side of the tire. At 70 pounds pressure there was no
flattening perceptible by the use of the gauge.

It is certain that more tires are damaged by under-inflation than by
over-inflation, also that perfect new tires will stand more than 20
pounds over-inflation without damage to them. But it is reasonable to
believe that, if a tire has become weakened from any cause, it will
blow out quicker under increased pressure. It is also a fact that a
tire inflated to the pressure recommended by many manufacturers has
very little resiliency, and the riding qualities of the car are very
greatly impaired, and when the pressure rises slightly higher the tire
loses its chief function, that of absorbing the small road shocks.
Anyone who has had the experience of riding on hard tires knows the
discomfort of it; one might about as well ride on solid tires.

But all this comes back to the question: What is under-inflation? A
tire with ten pounds less pressure than recommended probably will heat
more than when carrying a full pressure; but it will very quickly come
up to the required pressure when the car is run.

As the pressure recommended by many manufacturers is the extreme so
far as comfort in riding is concerned, the car owner must take his
choice between comfort and tire mileage, assuming that a slightly less
pressure does decrease the life of the tire. Presumably the average
owner would rather have comfortable riding, even at the expense of tire
mileage, and we are not prepared to admit that decreased mileage would
be an inevitable result with ten pounds less pressure. Beyond question
the average man would not use a substitute for gasoline which gave him
all sorts of discomfort because it did not run the engine smoothly,
even if it gave a slightly greater mileage to the gallon.

One manufacturer of fabric tires recommends 56 pounds pressure for
a 4-inch tire and guarantees 5000 miles, and makes the claim that
this pressure makes riding much more comfortable. Another well-known
manufacturer advises inflating the tire only to the point where there
is no bulge or flattening, and another type of pneumatic tire has
become very popular because it requires still less pressure and makes
riding that much more pleasurable.

Where tires are hard and roads are rough, the machine jumps around so
that it is more likely to jump off the road, therefore there is an
element of safety as well as comfort involved.

For all around comfort, though possibly with lessened tire mileage,
the conclusion is reached that a ten-pound decrease in pressure in
hot summer weather is desirable. The tire cannot be damaged much,
because after a very few minutes on really hot pavements the pressure
will equal that recommended by the most exacting manufacturer and any
overheating due to this cause would be a matter of very short duration.

As was said in the previous chapter, the wise owner will test out his
car and tires and find out just the proper amount of decrease the
tires will stand. He will then have to decide whether he wants the
highest amount of tire mileage or the highest amount of comfort and act
accordingly.

It is beside the argument, but a matter of fact, that a certain tire
salesman, a fellow who is quite insistent upon a certain pressure being
maintained, makes it his invariable practice to deflate his tires ten
pounds in hot weather; he wants tire mileage, too.

All of which goes to show that some people do not always practice what
they preach, or take the medicine they give to others.




CHAPTER XXXII

GUARDING AGAINST FIRE


The education of automobile owners and chauffeurs is decreasing the
number of cars which go up in smoke, but there still are cases enough
to require a word of warning as to causes and prevention. Automobile
fires sometimes come from causes not ordinarily considered under the
control of the driver. However, a little extra caution in a few matters
will render the motorist practically free from danger.

Of course, the principal cause of automobile fires is from back-firing.
Without going into all the causes of back-firing, the chief one is too
lean a mixture fed to the cylinders. This will almost invariably cause
back-fire in starting. Really, the chief trouble comes in starting when
the engine is cold, and naturally this is most frequent in the winter.
When there is a back-fire a sheet of flame comes from the air intake of
the carburetor; if there is anything inflammable in that vicinity, it
is quite likely to take fire.

Gasoline vaporizes so rapidly that if there is gasoline in the drip pan
there is almost sure to be a sufficient mixture around the carburetor
to make trouble. As a matter of fact, the drip pan under the carburetor
should be so arranged as to allow any gasoline to be drained off before
it has had time to vaporize. Indeed, there ought not to be very much
gasoline in the drip pan at any time. If it comes from a leak in the
supply pipe or the connection to the carburetor, the leak should be
repaired. If it comes from an overflow of the carburetor due to poor
seating of the float valve, that should be taken apart and cleaned
so that the float valve will seat properly. These two things are
practically the only occasion for gasoline in the drip pan.

Another cause of fire may be in running for some time at extreme
speed. This usually will cause the exhaust pipe to become very hot,
sometimes to glow. The exhaust pipe in some cases is placed close to
the woodwork of the car, which may be set on fire. Particularly is this
true if the woodwork has an accumulation of grease and oil, and here
is where caution will have a beneficial effect. The owner who keeps
the woodwork free from oil and grease—cleans it off regularly and
thoroughly—minimizes the danger at this point.

The pipe also heats up when the engine is run with a greatly retarded
spark. Sometimes the pipe gets red-hot and it is an easy matter to
ignite the woodwork. Here again oil or grease would increase the
danger. The economical operator will not allow grease and oil to be
wasted in this way, aside from the fact that grease, oil, and gasoline
in drip pan or carburetor form a menace hard to overestimate.

Fires have been started occasionally by opening the muffler “cut-out”
in starting up. This is particularly dangerous when the car is in a
garage, where usually there are grease and gasoline spilled around on
the floor, giving off fumes and creating a danger zone. Occasionally
when the car is standing in the garage the supply line will drip a
little. It may be all right when the gasoline is flowing into the
carburetor regularly, but when it stands, a tiny drip will make a
considerable mixture under the car. A leak, so small as to be unnoticed
ordinarily, when continued over night will cause enough mixture to be
dangerous. If, to aid the engine, the operator opens up the “cut-out,”
there are quite likely to be some sparks flying out. Sparks and gas
mixture are a very perilous combination and there is pretty sure to be
a blazing car in a moment.

Sometimes in filling the gasoline tank it overflows and drips down.
Perhaps the driver, delayed by taking on gasoline, is in a hurry, so he
opens the “cut-out” and finds that making haste is often dangerous.

Another cause of fires comes from short-circuiting of the ignition
or lighting systems when a storage battery is used. Occasionally a
short-circuit will heat one of the wires red-hot and burn off the
insulation. Then, if there be an accumulation of grease, oil, or
gasoline, there will be trouble.

To obviate vibration, some chauffeurs pack around the battery with used
waste, which is more or less greasy. It is possible for a tool to drop
down on the battery and give off a spark, or, under vibration, a series
of sparks, sufficient to set fire to the waste. It is on record, in one
of the old-style cars, that a cushion spring wore through and dropped
down on the battery, making a spark every time the spring touched the
terminals, and eventually setting fire to the car. The remedy for all
these instances is very obvious.

Another cause of fire, which has been written about a great deal,
is static electricity, which is generated when gasoline is filtered
through chamois under certain conditions. Very many funnels have
a chamois strainer. Gasoline poured upon chamois creates static
electricity. It is all right if the funnel touches the gas tank, but
if it does not, a static spark is very likely to cross the gap and set
fire to the volatilizing gasoline. The remedy, of course, is either not
to use chamois or to see that there is a perfect connection between the
funnel and the tank.

Since one of the chief troubles is the back-firing when the car is
started, it would be well for the owner, when starting the car in
cold weather, to enrich the mixture slightly; this will prevent the
back-firing, and when the engine is well started the mixture may be
adjusted to the proper proportion. Most cars now have a means of
enriching the mixture on the dash.

It ought not to be necessary to suggest the wisdom of carrying along
one of the approved fire extinguishers, but it is a fact that very many
owners “take a chance.” The insurance companies make a reduction in the
premium when a fire extinguisher is carried, which is a pretty good
indication that they consider it a valuable accessory on the car. Some
companies insist that one be carried.

Inasmuch as fires may occur even with the most careful operator, from
causes beyond his control, such as the accidental short-circuit, or
the carelessness of others, it may be out of place to suggest that the
owner of a valuable car, or one who really cares, insure his car. Rates
are fairly reasonable, and if insurance ever is good it surely ought to
be in the case of an automobile, where several thousands of dollars are
often centered in a very small compass.




CHAPTER XXXIII

DON’T RUN AWAY FROM A FIRE


Whatever may be the cause of a fire in your automobile, do not run away
from it. Stay and fight the fire. Often the utmost haste is needed in
getting out of the car when a fire starts, but on the way out grab the
fire extinguisher and turn to use it. Do not be afraid that there will
be an explosion and run. There will be none, and if you work fast you
may save serious damage to the car. Keep your head and fight.

The presumption is that you will have a good extinguisher on the car.
Two would be better and more in keeping with a high-priced car, both
placed where they can be gotten at instantly, for gasoline fires spread
mighty fast. The causes of fires have been pretty well discussed in
the preceding chapter, and the fact that care will prevent all but a
negligible percentage of fires. Back-fire, for instance, may be made
harmless by placing over the air intake a screen of wire gauze, such
as is used in a miner’s safety lamp. To prevent shutting off some
of the air and deranging the carburetor, the screen should be much
larger than the opening of the intake. It can be made in bulb shape and
clamped, soldered, or wired in position, and it ought not to require
more than average gumption to fit such a device on any carburetor. Make
sure it is safety gauze.

There are several forms of gaskets advertised for this purpose, but
all so far noticed were to go between the carburetor and intake and
are too likely to cause condensation of the gasoline to be recommended
for use. Particularly in cold weather would there be a likelihood of
condensation of vaporized or partly vaporized gasoline. But with the
wire-gauze screen above described the sting of back-fire will be gone,
as no blaze could pass through it and so reach the gasoline fumes which
might be in the drip pan.

One cause of fire not often mentioned because of its rarity, would be
from sparks from the magneto or generator brushes, or from the breaker
points which might be hot enough to ignite gasoline fumes and therefore
are to be guarded against.

Since gasoline fumes are heavier than air usually the magneto and
generator are set high enough to be above the danger point; and where
the magneto is between the cylinders on the V-shaped installation,
there would be no danger. On marine engines, however, high installation
is being featured lately to offset this very danger.

If, after all precautions are taken, you are visited by fire, stay to
fight it. Get only far enough away to escape being burned, and then
fight and fight hard. Work the fire extinguisher for all it is worth,
for in less time than it takes to read this page the fate of your car
will have been decided.

Get out of your head, first of all, the idea that there is to be an
explosion. It doesn’t happen. The first puff from the burning gasoline
is the nearest thing to an explosion you will see. After this first
puff, it is fire, not explosion, you need fear and fight. Tanks will
not explode unless empty of gasoline, or nearly so, and filled with
gasoline fumes—that is, vapor and air mixed. Water is little good in
fighting an automobile fire where gasoline and oil are burning.

There are several things, however, which will quench the flames, and
which should be at hand. If you could get sand and salt in sufficient
quantity on the flames it would be effectual, but of course one
could hardly carry a sufficient quantity along. There are also tube
extinguishers filled with a dry compound, which under favorable
circumstances will do the trick. But the trouble is to get the compound
at the seat of the fire, and to throw it violently upon the flame is
impossible.

There is one thing, however, which will actually put out a gasoline
fire, and it is such a safeguard that no owner can afford to be
without it. That is the carbon tetra-chloride compound, which is the
basis of all liquid extinguishers on the market. This, discharged
close to the seat of the flames, forms a dense smoke-like gas which
has no oxygen to feed the fire, which therefore goes out for lack of
fuel. There are many good extinguishers on the market which use the
carbon tetra-chloride mixture with other ingredients to keep it from
corroding the pump, or to add some other quality to the compound.
These extinguishers cost more than the dry compound tubes, but the
man who can afford to own a car can afford to have the necessary
appliances for its protection. One may never have occasion to use the
fire extinguishers, but it is nice to know that they are ready if the
emergency does come, for there isn’t always a fire department handy,
and if there is, generally the firemen arrive after the car is doomed.




CHAPTER XXXIV

DEATH IN THE GASOLINE


Most persons understand the danger of getting gasoline and fire in
close proximity, but there is another peril in gasoline which is not so
well comprehended—indeed has only come to the attention of scientists
in recent months. It is death, called petromortis, or gasoline death,
which lurks in the fumes of the burned gases from the exhaust pipe.

That which comes from the exhaust is no longer inflammable. It has
served its purpose in the combustion chamber by burning with rapid
expansion, furnishing power. It has undergone chemical changes, has
been split up, the hydro-carbon uniting for the most part with the
oxygen of the air in the mixture and forming carbon monoxide and carbon
dioxide. The latter is carbonic acid gas, in which no living thing can
live. The carbon monoxide is no less deadly, and besides there is the
nitrogen from the air, which will suffocate as well, unless it mingles
with the air freely.

These three gases exuding from the exhaust pipe into a confined space,
such as a small garage, would quickly vitiate the atmosphere to a point
where, close to the floor, asphyxiation would result, and sooner or
later would fill the garage up to the point of the air intake. Then,
as oxygen-filled air could not enter the intake to form mixture, the
engine would slow down and stop.

There is little danger, since the deadly gases are heavier than air,
when one is working about the garage in a standing posture, where the
breathing apparatus would be above the strata of gases and taking in
the normal air. But where one is working at the tires, or any part of
the car below the level of the gases, or under the car, he might be
overcome and die of suffocation in a few minutes.

It was not until such accidents really had occurred that the attention
of the public was directed to this danger. Just recently a notable
case of death from gasoline fumes was that of a popular actor. He was
working in his garage, and because of the cold had the doors tightly
closed. Getting under the car to adjust and oil the mechanism while the
engine was running to warm it up, he was overcome by the gases which
could not escape from the garage, and died before being discovered.

The chemical composition of the exhaust gases, according to an expert,
is as follows:

                   PER CENT.
  Carbonic acid gas   8.70
  Oxygen              2.75
  Carbon monoxide      .30
  Hydrocarbons        6.55
  Nitrogen           81.70
                    ------
                    100.00

There is much disagreement as to the quantity of carbon monoxide
necessary to be fatal. A well-known automobile trade journal recently
said that 25 per cent. would produce death in half an hour and 15
per cent. would produce a violent headache in several hours. Other
authorities claim that as little as .5 per cent. would be fatal. It
is more probable that the large amount of suffocating gases, nitrogen
and carbonic acid gas, produces unconsciousness, and then the carbon
monoxide, attacking the blood particles, affects them so that they are
unable to take in oxygen; hence death is certain.

There are several ways in which the danger may be obviated. The first
and most natural one is to open the garage doors when the engine is
being run, or have an opening on the level with the floor through which
the heavy fumes may escape—roll out of the garage.

Another way is to provide a pipe, with flexible hose to attach it to
the exhaust pipe and leading to the outer air, so that the exhaust
would virtually be out-of-doors. This would not be expensive nor
difficult for any ingenious man to arrange. The pipe should be larger
than the exhaust nozzle and flexible metal hose of convenient length
should be attached by the use of a reducer, the other end to be forced
over the end of the exhaust, to which a short length of pipe might be
added if necessary. Three or four inches would be long enough for the
hose to attach easily. If necessary a clamp with wing nut on the bolt
could be used to hold it in place.

Gasoline fumes which are not burned also have a peculiar effect when
one inhales them profusely. Years ago when on a visit to Oil City,
Pa., the writer was invited to inspect the old Imperial Refinery, one
of the plants which helped found the Rockefeller millions. One phase
of refining kerosene is to wash out the volatile elements which make
it dangerous. This is done in an agitator, where streams of water
literally wash the kerosene, keeping it eddying and boiling as though
a fire were under it. The top is open and around it runs a gallery from
which the process is watched. It was a favorite trick of the employes
to conduct a stranger to this gallery and steer him to the lee side
where he gets the full effect of the fumes which pass off. Most men
not used to it began to feel light-headed in a few minutes and to act
as though they had been imbibing strong waters. It is an exact simile
of the alcoholic condition, though without the after effects the next
day. To a limited degree one may acquire the same effects from gasoline
in the garage if there are large open gasoline receptacles to send off
fumes sufficient to affect one. Of course, if there were enough to do
this, a spark from any source would start a fire.




CHAPTER XXXV

SHIFTING GEARS ON HILLS


One of the most humiliating experiences which can come to an owner is
to have to ask his guests, even if it be only friend wife, to get out
and walk when a long and steep hill is partly ascended. While there
are conditions of engine which would make hill climbing hard, if not
impossible, they are due to neglect or poor adjustment, so that the
engine has not power enough to negotiate stiff grades. The owner who
keeps the motor in proper condition, in practically any make of car on
the market today, should have no trouble in making the worst hills. Yet
how often we find cars stalled on mountain roads and even on steep city
streets, and see owner and guests walking or pushing the car.

Recently the writer, going from Greenwood Lake to Tuxedo, in Orange
County, New York, in a well-known make of touring car, passed six
cars of different kinds stalled at the very start of the climb over
Sterling Mountain. The first one met was a Ford. Now there is no reason
whatever for stalling a car of this make on any hill. It is a matter of
comment that the Ford—much despised by the owner of the big car—will
take hills that some multi-cylindered and high-powered cars make much
fuss over, and do it handily. The trouble was that the driver started
at high speed and then did not know how to shift the gears properly and
the car stalled.

When we reached it the Ford was stalled across the roadway and we had
to stop until the driver started the engine and backed the car to one
side. Not being familiar with the hill-climbing abilities of the car in
which he was seated, the writer inquired of our driver if it were not
better to walk awhile.

“No one will ever walk while I am driving,” was the reply, “unless
something breaks. I do not go out riding to walk; besides the car will
carry us all right.”

And it did. Although we had stopped at the very foot of a steep grade
fifty feet long, the car on low gear took it without a stutter, and
then coming to a lesser grade, a shift was made to second gear. We did
not use first speed more than once or twice, and then only to keep from
stalling on the grade when it was necessary to slow down in passing
other cars at narrow points in the road. Occasionally high speed was
possible for short stretches. When well over the top of the mountain we
stopped to let the engine cool off for probably ten minutes and then
coasted nearly all the way down the mountain side.

There was no need of any of the cars stalling on this grade, though it
is long and has many very steep places; there was no sign that any of
the cars was deficient in power. The deficiency was in knowledge on the
part of the drivers.

Where the driver understands gear shifting well enough to do it on
a grade, the proper way to approach a hill is on high, with the
accelerator opened enough, and spark advanced, to speed up the car.
Then when the car begins to lose speed and before it has slowed down
too much, the shift should be made to second-speed gear, which should
carry the car up any ordinary hill. If an extra steep gradient be
encountered, first speed may be necessary for that stretch.

It is well just as the foot of a hill is reached to open the throttle
wide. If the engine begins to knock or otherwise labor, retard the
spark enough to overcome this. In the chapter on “Driving the Car,”
detailed instructions for the operation of the gears in hill climbing
and descending are given. Study these rules closely and try out your
car on short grades before attempting long and steep hills. Make sure
that you know how to operate the levers for gear shifting and then take
things easy. Do not be in a hurry. Haste makes waste.

While many high-powered cars, and sometimes those of less pretentious
build, will take almost any hill on high gear, it is not always policy
to do this. Some modern motors are designed with a view to make the
climbing of hills easy, but even so, the climb made on second-speed
gear will take but a trifle longer and the car will not be submitted
to the tremendous strain of operation on high speed. It is all very
well to boast that one’s car will “take the worst hill on high,” but
a better boast would be that the car has stood up for two or three
years longer than ordinary, and care in the operation will produce that
result.

The driver whose engine is not in the best of condition and which is
not delivering its full power, and especially if he is not fully versed
in shifting the gears, would better not try to take a hill of any
length or of any considerable grade on high. Indeed it is wise to shift
into second gear before starting up the grade, for nothing is more
unpleasant than stalling the engine half way up. And he ought not to
despise low speed if necessary to negotiate the hill without straining
the engine unduly. Motoring is not just piling up mileage records or
speeding across the country as though the devil were at one’s heels.
There are a few things more desirable than miles per hour, even though
the American “Get There” spirit be abroad. Generally speaking there is
a direct relation between cost per mile and miles per hour, and while
some owners may be able to afford twenty cents and upwards per mile,
the average owner does not care to indulge regularly in such a cost
figure.

When it comes to descending steep hills, the cost does not figure so
much as safety. How often one sees cars tearing down a hill with the
engine running, gear in high speed, and devil-may-care at the wheel.
If the drivers realized the slight things upon which their fate hangs
at such a time there would be more care. Ninety per cent. of all the
accidents to automobiles are the result of sheer carelessness of the
drivers; nine per cent. are from the carelessness of some other driver;
only about one per cent. can be set down to breaks of parts, blow-outs,
or other things not to be prevented by ordinary precautions.

On a slight and straight hill it is all right to go down on high
speed, simply shutting off the ignition so that the engine will act as
a brake, the foot brake being used if necessary; but on a steep hill it
is far wiser to shift into second-speed or even first-speed gear before
attempting to descend. The engine will exert a powerful braking force
in low-speed gear. Besides, the running and emergency brakes are to be
used alternately, so that on a long hill the brake linings will not
be burned up. Of course the clutch must be left engaged to secure the
braking effect of the engine.

It is a mighty bad thing to start down a hill in high gear and then,
half way down, find that brakes will not hold, or that something has
gone wrong suddenly. Long and steep hills rarely are wide or smooth;
there are ditches and humps and rocks, sometimes, and narrow places
where there is scarce room for two cars to pass, and less than perfect
control of the car is perilous. “Better be safe than sorry” is a homely
old saw, but it is pertinent.

Another thing is that the hill speedster is one of the greatest menaces
to other drivers so far found. If one cares not for his own car or
neck, at least he should have a care for the others on the hill; and
whether it is on the ascent or descent the speedster endangers every
one else going in either direction at the same time, except perhaps
the fellow who is following him at a safe pace. It is no comfort to
know that the mortality is highest among the speed fiends of motordom;
occasionally they raise the mortality figure of the drivers who
practice safety first.




CHAPTER XXXVI

KEEPING THE CAR SLEEK


Of course, if one does not care for appearances, and has no pride
in the bright and shiny varnish of the body and in the absence of
rustiness of the top, and thinks because the engine is under the hood
no one will see that it has been neglected, this section will not
particularly interest the reader. But, on the other hand, if these
things count, and the owner understands that true economy consists in
keeping not only the running parts in condition, but everything else at
the top notch of perfection, then he will heed the advice herein.

Just because it does not show to the passer-by, many think that the
appearance of the engine does not count; that it is not essential that
it be kept free of oil, grease, dust, and corrosion of iron and brass.
Get this idea out of the head instanter. It is false and has much to do
with breakdown and wear-out of the motor. The cleaner it is kept the
longer will it run satisfactorily, both as to troubles and to length
of life. One may well err on the side of cleanliness rather than be
somewhat slovenly. The motor ought to be cleaned off on the outside
after any lengthy trip, or after any run when roads are dusty, or oily,
or sandy.

One may be as particular as possible, yet there will be some oil or
grease on the motor exterior. Probably that which lodges upon the
cylinders will, if there is much hill climbing to heat the motor
unduly, make itself visible and smellable—visible in a thin streak of
smoke coming from the hood, and smellable to the point of offensiveness
when that streak of smoke strikes the olfactory nerves. But in most
instances it will remain upon the engine, gradually becoming a gum from
the drying up of the substance and the accretion of dust from the road.
The longer it remains the harder it is to remove it; hence when the
work is done in the garage every time the car comes in, it will take
but a few minutes and slight labor; while if allowed to accumulate, it
may mean hours’ work to get rid of the hard deposit.

Sufficient instruction has been given as to the care of the working
parts of the motor, so that only the exterior need be considered at
this time. Begin at the top. First of all see that the wire terminals
at the spark plugs are free from corrosion and grease. They should
be dry and clean if they are to transmit the current to the plugs.
Usually the wires are carried in a tube to protect them from heat and
grease, but not always. In any event, trace along the wires to see that
oil or grease is not present upon them. Either will rot the rubber
insulation and cause a leak which will affect the ignition. Examine all
the terminals under the hood for the same purpose, and every once in a
while disconnect the wires one by one and scrape the terminals bright,
also the contact point where terminal is fastened. Replace the wires
one by one as you clean them so they will not become disarranged. See
also that there is no oil, grease, or dirt on the spark plugs, for it
might form a sufficient path for current to practically short-circuit
the plug.

Wipe off the top of the cylinders and blow out accumulations of dust
from any recesses where it has collected. If there is thickened or
gummy oil upon the metal, which will not wipe off readily, saturate the
waste or cloth in gasoline at the carburetor drip cock, and it will
loosen up quickly. Gasoline is more convenient, but kerosene will do
the work better, leaving a surface less likely to rust. In the same
way clean the exterior of all the parts of the motor and everything
attached to it. Where the brass shows corrosion, use a cleaning
compound to remove it. Brass may be kept from corroding in wet weather
by coating it with whiting. Several good compounds also are sold for
this purpose. Bright iron parts may be kept from rusting by wiping
them with a rag dampened with a thin oil, which should be wiped off
regularly, and there never should be enough to show.

The fan, fan belt, pulleys, gear casings, and other parts at the front
end collect much dust and should be kept clean. The air holes through
the radiator, also, must be kept free of dust, oil, and asphalt from
oiled roads. In fact every part under the hood needs frequent cleaning.

There are some parts of the chassis and undergear which will not be
readily reached by the hose and water when cleaning the body; therefore
they should first be rubbed off and cleaned of dirt, grease, and
accumulations of asphalt from oiled roads, or mud. Do this while the
space under the car is dry, and if it is done regularly it will not
be difficult to keep this part of the car in order. The parts of the
various rods and rocker shafts, and particularly near the bearings,
should be kept clean.

If one will make a “creeper” from which to work when getting under
the car, it will remove most of the objections which drivers have to
“getting under.” Take a board of twelve inches wide and five feet
long and mount casters which move freely under it. At one end place
an inclined head or shoulder rest a foot long and with four or five
inches’ rise. Then cover the upper side with carpet, padded to make it
comfortable. Lying down upon this, one may move about under the car
in ease and get at all the mechanism readily. It is not only good for
cleaning time, but when inspecting or oiling, or tightening up the
bolts and nuts and bearings which may be reached only from beneath the
car. It also keeps one off a wet floor or ground.

Next take a hose, if one be available, and play it freely all over
the body and running gear, fenders, mud guards, wheels, with care, of
course, that the upholstery be not sprinkled too much. Do a thorough
job with the hose but do not use a powerful stream upon the highly
polished surfaces. It will not only take off dust but loosen up mud,
and the force of the spray will take off fresh accumulations of asphalt
from mud guards and chassis. Then with the hose playing ahead, use a
soft sponge to go over all the parts to remove any remaining dirt
and rinse down with water alone. Next, with cloth and chamois dry the
woodwork and other painted surfaces until they shine.

Where mud and asphalt are dried and refractory, other means must be
taken to remove them before rinsing and drying. Mud may be softened by
holding a saturated sponge over it for a few moments. If the mud be
mixed with oil or grease so that water does not soften it, kerosene
will, and it does not take much of it. Kerosene also will soften the
asphalt which clings to the car. Grease and oil also yield to kerosene,
which should be wiped off and the painted parts polished with a
cloth dampened with linseed oil. Naturally this should be wiped off
completely so that it would not become a dust catcher.

Do not use soap on the highly polished surfaces of the body. Most
soaps have free alkali—lye—in their composition, and while this makes
them cut dirt and grease fast, it injures the varnished surface, in
a short time wearing off the gloss. Washing is the better done when
the hose only is used. In the country, where a hose is not available,
the washing will be slower, since the water in a pail must be renewed
frequently and the sponge rinsed practically every stroke to rid it of
grit. Where it is possible to run a line from tank to the garage, or,
if there is no tank, from an elevated barrel, which can be filled with
a force pump, it should be done.

There are various preparations sold for renewing the surface of auto
bodies after it begins to dull. Good gloss should last a year with
care, especially if it be wiped over occasionally with a soft cloth
dampened with a mixture of linseed oil and a little high-grade carriage
varnish—a half pint to the gallon of oil. As there is a wide variation
in both ingredients, if the mixture seems sticky when rubbed between
the fingers or when applied to the car surface, add considerably more
oil, as it is not intended as a new covering for the paint, but to
freshen up the varnish.

Mohair tops need to be dusted with a moist sponge, using also soapsuds
if spotted with oil or grease. Leather and its imitations may be kept
in good condition if oiled occasionally or treated with one of the good
preparations sold. The top should be dried before folding down. After
driving through a shower let the top stay up until sun and wind have
dried it thoroughly. Care in folding will lengthen the life of the top.
Freedom from cracks and creases will mean a dry top, to insure which is
worth any amount of trouble.

Keeping the car covered when in the garage pays, for dust will blow in
and settle over all parts. The upholstery also may be protected by slip
covers, which should be kept on during dusty trips, and be washed when
dirty. Leather cushions should be freshened the same as the top.

The man who has cared for a fine carriage will know what to do with
similar parts of the automobile; others should learn how to care for
them, and understand that varnished and polished surfaces will become
dulled if the car is stored in a stable, or adjacent to stable or
barnyard. If a barn is converted into a garage, it should be thoroughly
renovated and fitted with a cement floor sloping to the center, with
a drain leading outside, so that the car may be washed there and the
water run off through the drain.

In fact the owner of a car may find something to do all the time for
convenience and comfort. If he arranges things conveniently he will not
only save time but will be able to do better work, and will have the
satisfaction of knowing that he is keeping down expense and getting the
most out of his machine for the expenditure.




CHAPTER XXXVII

SOME THINGS A TOURIST SHOULD KNOW


These are the days of the tour and to thousands more each year it means
a trip by automobile to lake or mountain, or the more pretentious visit
to the old home, or to some new, and to the tourist, undiscovered,
country. The tourist who goes by auto fully prepared for the
emergencies which may arise, unhampered by railway schedule, and who
will take time to enjoy himself, will get untold pleasure out of the
trip.

The speedster knows nothing of the pleasure of touring, and the fellow
who is always worrying lest he shall not make Squedunk Corners in time
to eat and get to Possum Crossing for the night will be watching the
road map and the clock on the dash so closely that the beauties nature
has lavishly scattered about will be lost upon him, and his memory
of the trip will be a procession of eating and sleeping houses, with
trouble between them all.

The man who is starting out for the tour with a new car, which has
been tried out enough to be sure that it is in condition, need only
know that he has with him the things most likely to be needed for an
emergency, but if the car has been in service for several months or
more, he ought to give it a “once over” at least before starting.

One of the things to attend to is refilling the gear cases. Both the
transmission and differential cases should be drained of all oil and
washed out carefully with kerosene. At the same time the gears should
be examined closely to see if they are in good shape. One may find one
or two teeth chipped, though not broken enough to make the condition
known by sound. It probably was too hard originally and the break is
not the fault of the driver, but it should be replaced, for it is
likely to give trouble at any time. When cleaned, the cases should be
refilled with the proper amount of new lubricant, but not too much,
because then it will work out and scatter over the car and probably get
on the brake drums and make them slip.

The crank case of the engine should be drained and cleaned out with
kerosene and fresh oil be put in. If the oiling system is working
properly, it is best to let it alone and see that it is kept filled
with the proper quality of lubricant while on the road. Of course the
grease cups should be filled and all points which are lubricated by
oil from a squirt can should be taken care of. The wheel bearings all
should be examined to determine their condition and to see that they
are properly lubricated. If very dirty they should be cleaned and fresh
grease be applied.

It is well to carry an extra gallon of engine oil in the car, also a
small can of grease. Garages are plenty, but sometimes an accident
occurs which causes a loss of the main supply of oil and makes it
impossible to drive even a mile without an extra supply. Likewise if
the gasoline tank is not provided with an emergency tank or chamber, an
extra gallon of gasoline should be carried. Convenient emergency tanks
for this purpose may be purchased at any accessory store.

Both sets of brakes should be carefully examined to see that the lining
is not worn too thin and that the different pins and clevises of the
brake linkage are not worn so as to be weak and likely to give away in
touring under extraordinary pressure. Often in touring one comes upon
unexpected grades, some of them miles long, and the tourist should be
prepared for prolonged and extraordinary service.

[Illustration: BRAKE LEVERS AND LINKAGE, SHOWING EQUALIZING ROD AND
SPRINGS]

Where prolonged service is required it should be possible to use the
two sets of brakes alternately. In this connection it is well to keep
in mind that on long grades considerable braking may be done by cutting
off the ignition and allowing the car to turn the engine over in high
or intermediate gear. Keeping the car down to a rather low speed in
this manner will also be found to save burning up the brake linings.

It is of the utmost necessity to keep the brake drums free from oil.
When the car is driven out into the country the crown of the road tilts
the car over, so that if there is too much oil in the differential case
it will work through the axle housing to the brake drum on the right
side. Of course this is taken care of largely as previously advised, by
winding felt around the axle, or by not having too much lubricant in
the differential, although enough is very necessary.

If the engine shows any tendency to knock on the hill it would be well
to have the carbon removed before starting. It is very disagreeable
to have to take a hill on second speed that could be taken on high if
the throttle could be kept open without causing knocking. Trips may be
practically spoiled by the fact that the engine is full of carbon and
does not have sufficient power to negotiate the hills.

Of course the car should be gone over systematically to see that all
nuts are tight and properly supplied with cotter pins or lock washers.
All parts should be scrutinized carefully to see that there are no
cracked or badly worn parts likely to give out under the severe strain
of touring.

The compression of the engine should be tested and if found weak in
any cylinder the valves should be ground in. Spark plugs should be
made perfectly clean, magneto interrupter points cleaned and adjusted
to gauge and high-tension distributor cleaned out, and the battery
should be tested to make sure it is in normal condition. If almost
discharged, a charge should be given it from some external source. The
commutators of the generator and starting motor should be examined and
if badly scored they will need to be trued up. If the storage battery
is depended upon entirely for ignition, a set of dry cells should be
carried so that in case of entire failure of the storage battery,
ignition and lights may be had for a short time, even though the engine
has to be cranked by hand.

Some annoyance may be saved by examining the springs to see if there
is a cracked leaf to be replaced. Spring repair attachments are sold,
but it depends upon the ingenuity of the individual whether repairs of
this sort can be made upon the road.

In addition to tools and the other things previously recommended to be
carried, the tourist should take at least one set of electric bulbs for
the car. Spark plugs may be cleaned with very little trouble, but it is
handier to carry two or three extra ones for quick exchange, cleaning
the ones removed at the end of the day, or at the noon stop. One or two
extra tires carried inflated and on the rims are usual, and it is wise
to have two or three extra inner tubes. If one does have tire trouble
it seems to come in bunches and it is just as well to be prepared for
the worst. The tourist who is traveling very far from garages should
carry also patches and cement.

Of course each car will carry a real fire extinguisher and a tow rope.
If you do not need to be towed out of a mud hole yourself someone else
will. Be prepared. Most drivers like to have along a spool of annealed
wire, a pair of side-cutting pliers, and a roll of tire tape. It is
really wonderful what an ingenious man can do with these things. The
tools to be carried should be sufficient to do ordinary road repairs
and the outfit suggested in a previous chapter is recommended.

As previously stated, it is not the man who rushes around and plans
maximum distances for each day’s run who gets the most out of the tour;
he makes work out of pleasure keeping up with a schedule. It is better
to allow more time for the runs, and then if one gets ahead of schedule
to lay off a half day and see the sights and keep the car in condition.




CHAPTER XXXVIII

LITTLE KNOCKS ARE HARDLY BOOSTS


One of the worst things with which the autoist has to contend
mechanically is the accumulation of carbon in the cylinders, clogging
the piston rings, filling and short-circuiting the spark plugs and
causing a knock which is not only annoying, but productive of trouble
sooner or later. There are various reasons for the accumulation of
carbon, such as poor gas, defective ignition, insufficient pressure,
but few have assigned as a cause of carbon trouble and knocking a too
high cylinder compression.

Too high compression occasions much of the knock ordinarily
assigned to other causes. Engines are designed with a certain size
combustion chamber, and with a chamber of that size to get a certain
compression in pounds per square inch. The nearer we get to the point
of pre-ignition without actually reaching pre-ignition, the more
efficiently will the engine operate. Pre-ignition, of course, would
make a knock.

A good many manufacturers make the compression figure just as high as
they dare, with the result that, when the carbon forms, the size of
the combustion chamber is reduced and the pressure is raised to such a
degree that it will cause pre-ignition and its resultant knock. When a
manufacturer tells the buyer that his engine is proof against carbon
and the knocking occasioned thereby, he probably is trying to offset
more serious “knocks” the car is receiving from disgruntled users.

This is an instance which illustrates the point:

A friend of mine has a four-cylinder engine in one of the later models
of a well-known car of high speed and power. On several occasions we
have been driving in and near the city and, after about 125 miles, we
seemed always to have trouble with knocking in climbing hills. On one
trip my friend had the carbon burned out carefully before starting.
About the time we reached the end of the trip the engine began to knock
on the hills from the collection of carbon. On our return he had the
carbon burned out again and the knock ceased.

I advised him to raise the cylinders one-fourth of an inch by a fiber
gasket under each cylinder casting, thus increasing the size of the
combustion chamber and naturally lessening the compression. He also had
to adjust the water connection and raise the valve push rods, and a few
things of that sort. He ran the car upwards of 2000 miles after that
before it began to show any signs of knocking under severe conditions,
indicating that the cylinders needed to have the carbon removed.

Where the knock is caused in this way by a slight compression increase,
it indicates that the manufacturer has put the pressure as high as
the engine will stand, and the only way to cure it is by raising the
cylinders or lowering the pistons. The gasket is the simpler method.

This trouble was very obvious in one model of car used for road
instruction at the Automobile School. No amount of ordinary adjustment
and cleaning out of the carbon would keep the car from knocking after
very short service. It was taken to the service station several times
and returned with the remark that it would “be all right now.” It was
not all right. Finally the request was made to let the car remain
at the station several days and the experts would see what could be
done. When it was returned the trouble was cured. But when the expert
was asked what had been done he replied: “Nothing much.” He admitted
cleaning out the carbon and adjusting the carburetor. But a still hunt
was made for the corrective cause and it was discovered that fiber
gaskets had been put under the cylinders. They were camouflaged with
enamel to conceal their presence, their existence was denied, and they
were like the man without a country, “unhonored and unsung,” but they
did the trick, and until the car was retired because of old age and
decrepitude the gaskets stood between the engine and the knock. Perhaps
if that agent picks up this volume one day he will be surprised to find
that his subterfuge was discovered. It may have been his little secret.

The owner who learns this remedy for knocking due to carbon and high
compression will be saved a lot of worry and be enabled to cure the
engine’s ills, or have it done at the shop. But take it from the writer
that carbon accumulation will cause any of the high compression engines
to knock, and the only way to cure it is to lessen the compression or
continually clean out carbon. Also the only simple way to lower the
compression is to raise the cylinder with a fiber gasket.




CHAPTER XXXIX

SOME OTHER CAUSES OF KNOCKING


The motorist must not imagine that all knocks come from too great
compression, however, for there are “fifty-seven other varieties” of
knock to be taken into consideration. He must not take it for granted
that the cylinders are filling up with carbon if the engine starts
knocking while out on the road, nor is it a foregone conclusion that
the main bearings are loose.

The knock may be from a totally different source. In fact there are so
many different kinds of knocks that even an expert cannot always tell
just where one comes from without totally dis-assembling the engine.
Even then it sometimes puzzles him a lot by its elusiveness.

Most engines have a knock of some sort which annoys the driver, which
might vary from a barely perceptible click to a blow that may be heard
by persons standing on the sidewalk. A great many of the knocks do not
do any harm; that is, they are not causing any damage to the engine
parts; but there are some knocks which require immediate attention to
prevent the demolition of the engine or seriously damaging it. Some of
these are loose connecting-rod bearing; cylinder loose on its base;
lack of lubrication and consequent overheating; and a broken revolving
or reciprocating member, which might tear things up if allowed to run.
The spark advanced too far puts an excessive strain on the crank shaft,
and a short circuit in the ignition does the same.

On the other hand there is no immediate danger if there is a piston
slap, though pretty noisy; nor is there when the oil pump gives a thump
or loud click at the valve seating. But on general principles when
there is a knock its cause should be ascertained at once and expert
advice be obtained as to whether it is dangerous. If so, it must be
fixed before running further. If it is only a minor knock the repair
can be left to a more convenient time.

So many of the knocks are only a matter of annoyance; that is, they do
no more harm than to cause the driver unnecessary nerve jars and to
spoil the pleasure of riding. But he will bother the various garage men
and everybody else he can get to listen and then will not accept the
assurance that the knock is not doing the car any harm.

As a matter of fact there are knocks peculiar to certain makes of
engines that the manufacturers have not seen fit to eliminate because
they are not harmful. Among these is the so-called “gas knock.” Now the
writers do not know what a “gas knock” is, and doubt if anybody else
does. But it is a common term for the kind of a knock which cannot be
located anywhere and it is laid to some action of the gas.

Sometimes the knocks are hard to locate. One of the school cars needed
a new cam-shaft gear to replace a worn one which produced a knock. It
was put on, but when the engine was started it was found that there was
a worse knock than before. It took a long time to find that it was the
new gear. It fitted very tight on the shaft and had to be forced on.
Without being noticeable the forcing had cracked the hub, the crack
extending through the rim, so that two of the teeth were out of true
and had spread enough to pound when that portion of the gear came into
mesh.

Another knock difficult to locate is caused by sticking exhaust valves.
One of the valve stems has been oiled, say, and this has been allowed
to burn to a nice sticky paste. Now, when the push rod opens the valve
and starts down the valve does not follow closely. The spring brings it
down, of course, but more slowly than it should, because of the sticky
stem, and when the stem and push rod meet there is a thump.

It is ordinarily said that a lean mixture or an over advanced spark
will cause knocking. As a matter of fact they do not do anything of
the kind; but it is true that these things bring to our notice other
faults, such as a worn piston or cylinder wall and consequent side
slap, or they magnify some other worn part so that it becomes audible.
As a matter of fact it is possible to advance the spark so far that it
will try to reverse the engine and not have a particle of knock. And
it is possible to have a mixture so lean that it will hardly run the
engine yet have no knock; but if there is something else wrong it will
bring that out.

Some of the causes of knocking discovered at the school have been
collated and are given for the instruction of the novice:


_Mechanical Looseness, Due to Improper Adjustment, or Wear:_

  Loose connecting-rod bearing, crank-pin end.
  Crank-pin bearing out of round.
  Main bearings of crank shaft loose.
  Bearings too tight.
  Wrist pin loose in piston.
  Wrist pin loose in upper end of connecting rod.
  Wrist pin not in line with crank shaft, causing side slap.
  Piston ring loose in slot or broken.
  Cam follower guide won.
  Cam loose on shaft.
  Worn cams (Flat spot).
  Fly-wheel loose on crank shaft (old models with keyed-on wheel).
  Fly-wheel out of balance.
  Worn or broken timing-gear teeth.
  Cylinder loose at its base.
  Timing gears loose on shaft.
  Engine loose from frame.
  Piston too small for cylinder, causing side slap.
  Poor push-rod adjustment—gap too great.
  Exhaust or inlet valve sticking in guide.
  Spark plug touching valve.
  Magneto coupling loose.
  Fan-belt coupling striking pulley.
  Fan blades striking something.
  Worn cylinder, causing side slap.
  Bent crank shaft.


_Faulty Ignition:_

  Spark advanced too far.
  Spark too late, causing overheating.
  Short circuits in ignition system causing irregular spark.
  Spark-plug points constructed wrong, causing them to overheat.
  Spark plug in poor position.
  Wrong timing of ignition system; too early, too late, or wrong order.
  Dirty distributor, misdirecting the current.


_Faulty Carburetion:_

  Pre-ignition, due to excessive carbon deposits.
  Rich mixture, causing overheating.
  Lean mixture, in conjunction with worn parts.


_Faulty Lubrication:_

  Lack of oil.
  Lubricants of poor quality.
  Excess of oil causing carbon deposit.


_Overheating of Engine:_

  Fan not working.
  Pump parts not revolving.
  Radiator clogged.
  Pipe lines clogged.
  Rubber hose defective inside, blocking flow of water.
  Ignition timed too late.


_Faulty Compression:_

 Engine designed with too high compression, causing pre-ignition when
 throttle is wide open.

       *       *       *       *       *

There are, of course, many other causes which contribute to the little
noises which accompany the car along the road, but the novice will
find here the most common ones, and by a process of elimination may
arrive at his particular bane; to find it naturally suggests the cure.
Therefore, stop that knocking.




CHAPTER XL

CHASSIS KNOCKS


Does your car chatter? Does it talk to you and protest against running
over holes and bumps in the road? If it does, it is a sign to which you
should pay attention, a hint that you should do away with the knocks
and clicks and chattering which annoy you and everybody else within
hearing as you run along. That is, if you can find them, for there are
some noises so obscure as to defy detection even by the expert.

Such was the car which developed a sharp click whenever it was started
forward or backward. It ran quite a long time before it was possible
to discover just what and where it was. It was somewhere in the back,
but so hidden as to defy detection. The rear axle was of the floating
type, the construction in which the driving shaft is connected to the
hub of the wheel by a number of flutings on the shaft, into which
corresponding projections of the flange fitted. These had become worn
and allowed sufficient play to cause a noise.

By walking alongside of the rear wheel while the car was being started
and stopped, it was decided that the sound came from the hub of the
wheel. The hub cap was removed and by placing the finger on the hub
flange and end of shaft at the same time the play was detected by the
sense of feeling, though it was hardly visible to the eye. The trouble
was overcome by having the shaft welded to the flange.

A few days later the owner happened to be at the agency and told what
he had found.

“So glad you came,” was the response, “for we have been looking for
the same kind of a click a long time ourselves and the service-station
mechanics have not been able to locate it. They thought it was in the
brake, but upon examination could see no reason for a click.”

There have been cases where the wheel was keyed on, and where the keys
had acquired sufficient play to cause a continuous knocking, especially
when the machine was being driven at low speed. This sort of knocking
is more likely to occur with the four-cylinder, slow-speed engine than
with the high-speed, many-cylindered type.

A mysterious knock may sometimes be traced to the torque rod, when it
becomes loose at the forward end, or to worn torque-tube bearings, and
in some cases the bolts fastening the torque rods to the rear axle
become loosened, or worn, causing a knock, especially when going over
bumps or dropping into holes.

The brake rods become worn and set up a continuous clattering on rough
roads and this noise is accentuated if the tires are kept inflated at
too high a pressure. As a matter of fact the car owner has the choice
between the greatest life for his tires and accompanying rattles and
discomforts, and riding at a sufficiently low pressure to subdue these
noises and make life in a car worth living; of course there will be an
attendant higher wear of tires. Where the wear cannot be taken up by
adjustments or using new bolts or pins, often the rattle may be ended
by wiring a spiral spring to the frame and rattling part. This keeps it
taut.

Worn spring-shackle bolts will not ordinarily cause knocking or
rattling, but when going over bumps or holes the rebound of the body is
sufficient to make the looseness audible. It can be overcome by having
a new bolt put in, and prevented by keeping the bolts well lubricated.

Worn steering-knuckle pins and tie-rod bolts will sometimes be found
responsible for knocks and rattles in the front end of the car. The
remedy is obvious and the location of the noise is not so hard to find.

In addition to these we have rattles due to tools being thrown loosely
into the tool box, and sometimes from the body bolts having become
loosened. The lamps occasionally jolt loose and the license-plate
bracket is sometimes so loose that it is audible as well as visible.

There are other knocks due to broken gear teeth and other broken parts,
and sometimes these broken teeth, loose nuts, bolts, or pins in gear
or differential case become wedged between the gear teeth and cause a
knocking that is not hard to locate, albeit rather expensive to repair.

And then there are the knocks and rattles from the hundred or more
accessories which are attached to the chassis of many cars and which
sooner or later develop defects and noise.

The up-to-date, well-designed car in perfect shape is practically
noiseless, and if a knock or rattle develops it indicates that
something is worn or out of adjustment, and needs attention. The owner
who takes care to have all parts properly lubricated and kept tight
need fear none of these annoyances, and proper attention means lack
of annoyance when out touring, while slovenly habits will advertise
themselves to everyone along the road.




CHAPTER XLI

KEEPING DOWN THE AUTO UPKEEP


If the general run of auto owners and chauffeurs do not mend their ways
city streets will be paved with a mixture of asphalt and auto parts
and country roads will be lucrative fields for the junkman. Anyone who
doubts this need but inspect the pavement at busy corners and see what
a collection of junk is strewn along, particularly at the places where
many cars make sudden stops.

To illustrate: The other day a car stopped and the driver pondered what
was the matter that the engine had no power. Failing to get a solution,
as he was near a garage, he called for a mechanic to look it over.

“A few minutes ago,” he said, “the engine had so much power I couldn’t
stop it when I wanted to; now I can’t make it pull at all.”

“Open your throttle,” the mechanic said.

“The throttle is open,” was the response.

“Oh, I see,” said the workman, and he disappeared into the garage. In
a few minutes he reappeared with a small bolt and proceeded to connect
the throttle linkage so that the lever and accelerator pedal would open
the throttle when moved.

What had happened was that through neglect the bolt had worked loose
and dropped out so that the lever did not move the throttle arm, and
advancing the lever had no effect.

This bolt probably is one of those to be found imbedded in the pavement
somewhere about the city. An examination of the pavement of any of
the automobile thoroughfares will reveal nearly all the fifty-seven
varieties of auto accessory parts in the asphalt. A great many of the
bits of metal found there will be broken skid-chain links, but the
writer counted twenty-six different species of other lost parts in
crossing Fifty-seventh Street at Eighth Avenue, New York City.

While counting them a driver came along and was unable to stop his car
properly—the brake did not work and he had to use the emergency brake
after nearly running over a pedestrian. He got out and found that a
pin was gone in the brake linkage. A spring cotter had worked out or
sheared off and the pin had rattled loose and dropped out.

Many of the stray parts are of a similar nature; nuts, bolts, washers,
screws, cotter pins and the like which have worked loose because of
neglect. Their absence will doubtless account for a good many of the
rattles and squeaks which their former owner is now complaining of, and
to replace which he will pay the garage man several times their value.

The average instruction book given with a car will advise the owner to
go over the car every so often and tighten up the bolts and nuts as a
precautionary measure, but usually no attention is paid to this until
the car stops or develops some unusual sound. Then a mechanic is called
in and it takes him a couple of hours to find the cause of the trouble,
while the owner stands around cursing the maker of the car.

Probably a good many of these parts along the road are due to careless
mechanics who drop small parts in the dust pan and will not take the
trouble to fish them out, or leave them on the running board and after
a time they jar off to the roadway; but it shows there is a lot of
carelessness among drivers when they even lose number plates and hub
caps.

A pair of brass hub caps picked up along the road and which have been
turned into ash trays are among the writer’s trophies.

The loss of the hub caps allows grit to get into the bearings and to
prevent this as far as possible by making the driver take care of them,
the prices of extra caps have been made entirely out of proportion to
their real value by some manufacturers.

Some of the lost parts are of such shape that they would very readily
puncture a tire, so that they are not only a loss to the owner of the
car from which they dropped, but to the fellow who follows and picks
them up for a punctured tire.

The writer has seen the pin holding in place the tie rod, which keeps
the wheels in alignment, drop out, and in another case, hunting a
knock, found the cylinder loose on the base because the nuts had been
without lock washers, or cotter pins, and had worked loose. They might
in time have worked off entirely and there would have been a “cylinder
missing.” He has also seen the entire engine loose on the frame so that
it was doing a fox trot while running.

Drivers should keep watch of the non-skid chains, for they wear and
drop cross links often. The driver who wishes to avoid personal
annoyance and annoyance to everybody else within hearing distance, will
take pains to see that the cross links are never so loose that they hit
the mud guards, nor have broken ends which hit. A spool of wire will
enable one to fasten broken or loose cross links to the side chains and
repair links can be put in when the garage is reached.

The owner should become well acquainted with his car, so that he knows
where the different bolts and nuts are. Many will tighten up all they
know about, but do not bend their backs to get underneath where they
can see the dust-pan bolts and brake-linkage bolts. If the owner knows
where these parts are he should make it his business to see that every
bolt and pin is locked with a lock washer or cotter pin. Then he should
go over them at least once a month and tighten them up. He may be sure
he will pay several times their value and a mechanic’s time if they
are lost, so that economy is involved as well as the inconvenience of
having the car stopped on the road.




CHAPTER XLII

HUNTING TROUBLE


Ordinarily the fellow who starts to hunt trouble finds it quicker
than he expected, but not so with the automobilist; when he starts to
hunt trouble—in the car—it seems to be a very demon for eluding the
searcher. Trouble will hide in a tiny piece of carbon lodged under a
valve or between spark-plug points, in a wire that has jarred loose, in
an interrupter point, a piston ring, a gas pipe—oh, in the most secret
and insignificant place—in size—and just defy one to ferret out the
demon. One learns that the insignificant things are really the most
important at times.

Yet most troubles incident to the operation of a motor car may be
located very quickly if one will but go after them in a systematic way,
and not wander aimlessly about the engine and other parts. The hardest
thing a driver has to do when the engine stops or acts up is to divest
himself of the idea that he knows just what the trouble is. He is sure
he can fix it in a minute and he putters around a long time before he
makes up his mind that it is something else and it takes a lot of time
to prove that to some persons.

The best way to go about it is to start without preconceived ideas as
to what the trouble may be, and follow a system, which is really a
process of elimination. Remember that to start a gasoline engine three
things are necessary—gasoline, compression, and a spark at the right
time, and that to keep it running it is necessary to have water for
cooling, unless it be an air-cooled engine, and oil for lubrication.

If the engine stops on the road and pressing the starter pedal fails to
start it, or if one or two cylinders miss fire, the first thing to do
is to get the crank out of the tool kit and crank over the engine. If,
with the gears in neutral, the engine cranks over hard, it indicates
a lack of lubricating oil, or a lack of water, which has allowed the
engine to reach a temperature where the lubricant fails to perform its
work. If the engine turns over fairly easy, it is not necessary to look
for oil or water trouble.

The next test is for compression. If the driver is not experienced
and is unable to tell simply by the resistance to the starting crank
whether each cylinder has compression, he should open all petcocks
except on one cylinder and turn the crank two revolutions, noting
if there is a resistance for one-quarter of a revolution in the two
complete turns. Compression occurs only on one stroke of the piston
in the four-stroke cycle. Each cylinder should be tested in a similar
manner, opening all petcocks except on the cylinder being tested; see
if the compression is practically equal in all cylinders.

If one cylinder has very weak or no compression, the trouble will be
found usually in the exhaust valve. First examine the push rod to
see if there is clearance between it and the valve when the valve is
supposed to be closed; if there is, the valve must be lifted out and
the valve and seat inspected for carbon. Sometimes a piece of carbon
will lodge on the valve seat and, due to the hammering of the valve,
will become fastened to valve or seat. For temporary repair generally
it can be scraped off with a knife, and the valve be ground in upon
reaching the garage.

If the trouble is not in the exhaust valve, it might be in the inlet
valve. In some types of engines the valve head may break off and
get into the cylinder and when the piston comes up punch a hole in
the piston head. A petcock may be loose so that it will jar open
sufficiently to affect the compression and so cause the cylinder to
miss fire. These troubles usually are confined to one cylinder and not
to the whole engine.

The gasoline is the next to be inspected. Is there any gasoline in the
bowl of the carburetor? This may be determined by inspection, opening
the drain cock, or “tickling”—flooding. If not, examine the gasoline
tank and see if there is a supply; then see if the shut-off valve in
the line leading to the carburetor is open; if so, drain the bowl of
the carburetor to get rid of water or possible dirt. To check the
possible clogging of the gasoline pipe, or carburetor screen, notice if
the bowl fills up again in a reasonable time.

Do not adjust the carburetor. If the engine has been running, it
is practically certain that the carburetor has not gotten out of
adjustment. Inspect the intake pipe, or manifold, to see if it has been
loosened by vibration. If the engine still refuses to run, put about a
tablespoonful of gasoline in each cylinder and crank over the engine.
If this runs the engine for a few revolutions, it indicates that the
trouble is in the gasoline system and leaves but the spray nozzle,
which may have dirt lodged in it, or the auxiliary air valve stuck, as
the remaining causes of trouble. Sometimes turning the needle valve
a full turn and then turning it back exactly where it was will remove
an obstruction at that point. Care should be taken in this to get the
needle valve set as it originally was.

Next inspect the ignition system. The first thing to do is to loosen
one of the wires from a spark plug and lay it so the bare end will be
1/8 inch from the base of the plug, and have someone crank the engine
by hand or with the starter. If a spark does not occur, go first to
the interrupter points and short circuit the fixed point with a screw
driver or other metal tool and see if there is a spark when the engine
is cranked. Examine the points for dirt and see if they come together
and open properly. Then examine the condition of the battery, testing
it. Examine the connectors on the battery, which sometimes jar loose;
examine the wires leading to the interrupter and switch; see if they
are loose or broken or short-circuited. This need not be done if a
spark shows at the interrupter.

Examine the distributor for moisture or dirt and see if the wires
have become loose. If a magneto only is used, it is a simple matter
to see if the interrupter points are making and breaking properly and
if the distributor is clean and dry. If these appear to be all right
the trouble doubtless is in the armature winding or the condenser and
cannot be repaired upon the road.

The wires to the plugs may be burned or short-circuited. If, with
an apparently good spark, you have compression and there is mixture
passing into the cylinders, the trouble may be in the spark plug. To
test a spark plug it is necessary to remove it. Widen the gap to 1/8
inch and lay the plug with wire attached upon the cylinder; crank the
engine and see if a spark jumps the gap. Widening the gap is necessary
because the spark will not jump so far under compression as in the
open air. If it does not jump, the plug may have a broken insulator
porcelain or need cleaning. If uncertain about the condition of the
plug, exchange it with one in another cylinder which is working
properly. An extra set of plugs should be carried to replace those
which become dirty; cleaning should be done in the garage.

This covers most of the usual troubles experienced on the road. There
are, of course, a great many other possibilities, but if these tests,
carefully made, do not disclose the cause of the trouble, the novice
had better send for a garage man. If one or two cylinders miss fire,
the trouble is most likely to be caused through lack of compression or
a short-circuited spark plug. If the engine refuses to run, the trouble
is most likely to be due to lack of gasoline, or failure of battery or
magneto.

The general rule given herewith should be copied and pasted under the
hood, or carried in an envelope in the tool box for ready reference.
It may save much time and trouble when far from a garage. Carefully
followed, it should locate almost any trouble likely to be experienced,
and it is the locating, not the fixing, which takes time.

The chart on the next page was evolved out of the experience of years
at the school and elsewhere. It will be found a guide in hunting
trouble:

  +---------------------------------------------------------------+
  |          THE Y. M. C. A. GENERAL TROUBLE CHART                |
  |                                                               |
  | Above all _remove nothing from the engine_ except as directed |
  |   to test rules.                                              |
  +========+=========+============================================+
  |        |1.       |   Is tank full? ARE PIPES CLEAN?           |
  | Needed | GASOLINE| Is Carburetor clean? If Carburetor         |
  |        |         | needs adjusting, do it, otherwise LEAVE    |
  |   to   |         | IT ALONE. Does Manifold leak?              |
  |        +---------+--------------------------------------------+
  |  Make  |2.       |   To test--Open all petcocks except        |
  |        | COMPRES-| the one on cylinder to be tested;          |
  |   an   |   SION  | crank engine, noticing how strong          |
  |        |         | the compression is in each cylinder,       |
  | Engine |         | in turn.                                   |
  |        +---------+--------------------------------------------+
  |   Run  |3.       |   A. Test for a spark by taking the        |
  |        | IGNITION| wire off any plug; hold wire about 1/8″    |
  |        |         | from plug; crank engine with switch        |
  |        |   at    | on. Spark should jump to plug.             |
  |        |         +--------------------------------------------+
  |        |   the   |   B. _Are the Batteries run down?_         |
  |        |         | Does the vibrator (if any) buzz? Is        |
  |        |  right  | timer clean? Does timer rotor make         |
  |        |         | _good_ contact?                            |
  |        |   time  +--------------------------------------------+
  |        |         |   C. Are any WIRES loose, burnt, wet,      |
  |        |         | broken, or short-circuited? Are spark      |
  |        |         | plugs clean and are points 1/50″ apart?    |
  |        |         +--------------------------------------------+
  |        |         |   D. Does MAGNETO armature revolve?        |
  |        |         | Is safety spark gap clean.                 |
  |        |         | Are Interrupter points clean and adjusted  |
  |        |         | good contact? Is Distributor clean?        |
  |        |         | Is Distributor Rotor loose, broken, or     |
  |        |         | making poor contact?                       |
  |        |         +--------------------------------------------+
  |        |         |   E. Check Magneto wires as per “C.”       |
  +========+=========+============================================+
  | NOTE—Loose wires and terminals, neglected batteries, and      |
  |    dirty gasoline cause much trouble.                         |
  +---------------------------------------------------------------+
  | TO KEEP A GAS ENGINE RUNNING, cooling and lubrication and     |
  |     a free exhaust are necessary.                             |
  +---------------------------------------------------------------+




CHAPTER XLIII

MORE TROUBLE


“You may have your self-starting 6-, 8-, or 12-cylinder cars if you
want them, but give me a four-cylinder motor with a crank on the front
end for mine. I’ll get there ahead of you nine times out of ten.”

This was the boast of a chauffeur of a big car, who called at the
school to inquire about some action of the motor which he did not
understand. His self-starter would not start. A few simple tests
narrowed the trouble to the self-starter control, and it was found in
the switch, which had become dirty. From repeated arcing the spring
had become heated and lost its temper and finally no contact was made,
or so little that it would not supply current to start the starter.
Which shows that it is a good thing to keep the temper, even in a
self-starter switch spring.

This is only one instance where added conveniences have brought new
troubles to the motorist. The self-starter has made it possible for
many, notably women, to drive cars, who before could not because
they were not able to crank the engine. Adding cylinders has made
smoother riding cars, which drive easier as well. The greater number of
cylinders permits of a much quicker getaway in traffic. It allows the
motor to be run at a much lower speed without shifting the gears. The
motor has more power and the cars are better hill climbers; there is a
better distribution of the same amount of power.

But this has made more work and worry for the chauffeur and mechanic,
in that, instead of having eight valves to grind in, he may have as
many as twenty-four, and if the double-valve idea is carried far enough
he might have as many as forty-eight. In arranging the cylinders
to procure a more even torque, in some instances it has been found
necessary to locate the valves in positions where they are not readily
accessible. In some types it is necessary almost to dismantle the
engine, and in others the valves may be reached to remove them only by
removing the mudguard.

The self-starter, while undoubtedly a great convenience, has made
it necessary to take care of the battery regularly, and to keep
the generator and motor commutators in condition; has multiplied
the wiring—has added hundreds of wires to the car—and its numerous
regulators and other instruments are bound to need adjusting
occasionally. The extra care and the unusual troubles give the
chauffeur a lot more to worry about.

The electric lights are undoubtedly brighter and better than kerosene
or acetylene installation, but they will give trouble occasionally and
the average man understands more about filling a lamp with oil than
he does about locating troubles in electric circuits. Then there are
electric warmers, electric heaters for passenger and driver, electric
cigar lighter, limousine lights, and electric horns, which make
additional wires until the traditional Philadelphia lawyer would be
totally inadequate to unravel the tangle.

Suppose the ignition goes wrong and the battery seems to be all right
and no cause of trouble can be found in the magneto and its wires, and
the chauffeur is in a pickle. Along comes Mr. Man-Who-Knows and finds
that the trouble is a short circuit in a lighting installation which
impaired the ignition so that the cylinders would not fire, or fired
irregularly.

The old cars did not have generators and motors; but the driver now
must know how to sandpaper commutators and undercut the insulation
of commutators, which is an electrical engineer’s job; and he must
be wise enough to know that these things are necessary because there
is sparking at the commutator, and the generator is not charging the
battery as it should, and the motor is not starting the engine as it
ought. This, of course, is because the brushes are overriding the
commutators when the insulation is not undercut, and the contact period
is shortened, and perhaps some of the contacts are skipped altogether
because the high speed carries the brushes over without touching the
commutator.

Then, he must know, for instance, that when the lights dim while the
engine is going at low speed, it is because the reverse current cut-out
is out of adjustment and it requires a considerable discharge from the
battery into the generator in order to make the cut-out operate, when
the lights will become bright again.

Also, he must know, when the volt or ammeter needle becomes erratic,
sometimes showing a big charge or a little charge or no charge at
all and then comes to normal again, that he has a loose connection
somewhere or the voltage regulator is not working properly.

When he presses the button of the electric horn and it does not sound,
but does work right after he has kicked or pounded it, he ought to know
why his rage started it working. It was simply that the brush stuck
upon a dead contact point of the commutator, due to a dead armature
coil, and when he jammed the horn it moved the commutator until a live
contact point was against the brush and the motor started to work.

There was a time when the manufacturer pointed with pride to the fact
that there were no complications on his car. There was nothing on the
dash but the ignition switch, with one wire leading to the magneto.
This followed a period when the dash had been filled up gradually with
all sorts of devices. Ways were found to do away with them.

Now there are hundreds of wires and pipes tacked on to the dash, and
the other side of the dash fronting the driver is filled with dials and
gauges and switches almost without number. These all add to the comfort
of the motorist, but in the same proportion they add to the worries of
the driver. He pays the price of the comforts in added worries. Owners
also find that these added conveniences have given demand for added
technical knowledge.




CHAPTER XLIV

DON’T TAKE THINGS FOR GRANTED


Don’t take anything for granted with your car. Don’t expect that there
is water, or gasoline, or oil, or current in the battery, unless
you have first inspected to find out. Inspect, don’t expect. There
are many bad habits in car practice, and one of them is the evil of
absent-mindedness in locating troubles in your car.

The man who spent half an hour looking for his glasses, and then
discovered they were on his nose, should not be laughed at by anyone
who runs a motor car. It is only natural that this man should take it
for granted they were not on his nose, yet taking things for granted,
writes Harold F. Blanchard, in _Motor Life_, is the greatest difficulty
that the man who has to locate trouble has to face, whether he is an
amateur or an expert. A number of cases are cited to prove the point.

Everyone knows better than to crank the engine with the switch off, yet
recently we saw an average motorist waste twenty minutes this way. The
ignition switch was set in the center of the lighting switch handle.
Therefore the absolute position of the ignition switch key varied
according to what lights were on—hence the error; yet this motorist
looked all over his engine before he discovered his trouble. Probably
being absent-minded had something to do with it; he had just left his
office for the day and was on his way home, which demonstrates that the
thoughtless or preoccupied man is much more likely to make unrightful
assumptions than the alert man.

Recently an old automobile mechanic was riding on an interurban car
when the latter was held up by a motor car stalled across the tracks.
There was a big crowd around the machine trying frantically to push it
out of the way. For some reason the rear wheels were locked. No amount
of effort would budge the car and it was too large to lift and carry.

The mechanic got off and watched the proceedings. He found that the
gear lever was stuck in low gear, and inquiry as to whether the
trouble was due to jammed gears or some other serious defect could not
be answered by the owner or any of his helpers. He began to wonder
where the trouble was while the others struggled, but being old in
the game, the thought flashed across his mind: “Take nothing for
granted.” Therefore the first question to determine was whether the
whole difficulty might not be solved by pushing out the clutch. This
seemed too easy—too good to be true. He hesitated to suggest it, but
the more he thought about it the more he became convinced, and finally
he mustered up enough courage to slip behind the wheel and command
the resting crowd to push. The car glided off, to the astonishment of
everyone. It developed that the owner of the car had become excited
when he stalled the engine on the crossing with the lever stuck in low.
In his feverish haste he tried to push the car off instead of shoving
out his clutch and starting the motor, and as the crowd collected they
accepted the locked condition of the rear wheels as something which
could not be remedied.

A motorist of ten years’ experience bought a used car. He took delivery
of it late one rainy afternoon. The former owner told him the car was
complete, the only thing missing being the key to the tool box, which
he promised to mail him early the next day. The motorist got a couple
of friends and started for a ride. Finally they stopped for dinner.
When they came out the owner put his foot on the starter pedal,
but it stuck. He pulled up the floor boards but could not reach the
mechanism. The only way was to crawl under the car and this was out of
the question because of the mud. They looked for the crank under the
rear-seat cushion and under the front-seat cushion, but could not find
it. Quite naturally they concluded it must be in the locked tool box
or else the former owner had neglected to include this very important
item. They tried to locate a car of the same make in some neighboring
garages without success. They jacked the car up and tried to crank it
by turning a rear wheel, but the compression was too great, so they
tossed the jack into the tonneau and started in search of someone who
would tow the car to start it. Eventually they got the engine going.
When they reached the garage the owner slipped his hand into the
tonneau and he pulled out—not the jack—but the crank!

The worst is to come. The next morning a mechanic who had been in
the business long enough to know better than to make unwarranted
assumptions was called in. He pressed down the pedal without success,
then for no logical reason but simply because automobiles were second
nature to him he pulled up and the pedal came. Then he pushed and the
starter worked. The owner was nonplussed. Later he admitted that he had
thought of pulling up on the pedal but _assumed_ it would do no good.

A few years ago, when expanding clutches were more popular, a motorist
found one day that his clutch was slipping. He had a vague idea that
there must be some means for adjusting the clutch to cure this trouble,
but he looked in vain for a nut or a screw or a bolt which might do
the trick. True, there was a small screw in the fly-wheel rim, set
almost flush with the edge of the rim and locked by a tiny spring
wire which rested in the milled slot in the screw. But he limped to a
garage on low gear and held consultation with the entire force. They
examined the car carefully and decided there was no way to adjust the
clutch. They suggested a new lining or strips of metal under the old
lining to swell it out so that it would grip. The former was out of the
question because of the time it would take, so the latter was tried.
The makeshift worked all right for a few miles, and then the clutch
slipped more than ever. In desperation he called the agent up on the
long distance, and was informed that his troubles would be over if he
would give that innocent-looking screw a couple of turns. It sounded
like black magic, but he went back and tried it, and his troubles ended.

An owner who was very particular about having his car in the best of
condition found that the compression in the first cylinder was weak
although the valves had just been ground. He removed the exhaust valve
and found it in perfect condition. Then he took out the intake valve,
although he felt foolish while doing it. It was in excellent shape but,
just to be on the safe side and because he did not know what else to
do, he ground it anyhow. The trouble was no better. Neither did the
difficulty seem to be due to too small a clearance between valve stems
and push rods, because the clearance was the prescribed amount on both
intake and exhaust valves. He concluded that it must be the rings.
Either they were gummed or broken. Flooding the cylinder with kerosene
did not improve the condition, so a pint of very heavy oil was put
in with the idea that this would temporarily stop any leaks between
cylinder and piston, but the compression was no better. Several times
during the hunt he was tempted to increase the clearance between valve
stems and push rods, not for any sensible reason, because the clearance
was correct, but simply in desperation. It seemed about the only thing
left to do—it was the only thing he had not tried. But his “common
sense” said no, so he took his car to the service station. The first
thing they did was to increase the clearance on the intake valve, and
the trouble was cured. The reason for doing this was that there was a
high spot on the back of the intake cam which would open the valve a
slight amount on the compression stroke. The clearance was increased to
a point where the high spot had no effect.

One day a motorist had serious magneto trouble. The engine missed and
finally stopped. It was necessary to take the magneto to an expert to
have it repaired. The very day the magneto was replaced the car started
missing again and it looked as if the work had not been properly done.
Finally the engine refused to go further. A passing farm wagon was
hailed and the car brought home—seven miles. The magneto was returned
to the shop, but nothing wrong was found. Yet when it was replaced the
car still refused to run. A telephone talk with the nearest agent,
forty miles away, showed that the trouble might be in the carburetor
and a search showed that it was—the low speed jet was clogged. To prove
the truth of this suspicion the engine was primed and ran perfectly
except at low speed. When the car first stalled, it occurred to
the owner that it might be a good idea to prime the engine, but he
dismissed the thought because he was so certain the trouble was in the
magneto, and without a better reason than it was too much work to prime
the engine because there were no priming cups.

A similar trouble in that it was of a dual nature was experienced with
a car which had just had the valves ground and the carbon removed.
After the work was done the engine could not be started. Investigation
showed there was no spark. No short-circuits could be found in the
wiring. The breaker points were examined and after filing and adjusting
them the engine started on the first turn. Fortunately the man who did
this job knew how to proceed—he made no guesses or assumptions. In this
he was different from the owner whose experience was related elsewhere.

The last two instances show something it is very important for everyone
to realize, although this is a diversion, namely, that repair men are
often blamed for tampering with cars without cause. The preceding
incident was pure coincidence. The breaker points gave out entirely
when the engine was shut off prior to grinding the valves.

The various incidents which have been related prove that it is not
wise to take anything for granted. It seems like a simple rule, but
only those who have tried to follow it will find out how hard it is.
It is also important to bear in mind that it is not wise to use too
much logic in hunting trouble, for the solution is often far from
logical. It is well to reason as carefully as possible, but if the
solution is still to be found it often happens that it is obtained by
some illogical act. Follow the general-trouble rule in an orderly way,
therefore, and do not take anything for granted.




CHAPTER XLV

BLOWING YOUR OWN HORN


Of course it is your horn and you have a right to do anything you want
to do with it—except make a nuisance of yourself to others—and you can
toot it to your heart’s content when off in some wilderness; but if you
desire to live in peace and harmony with your neighbors and with your
fellow travelers in this vale of tears, you will have a care when and
where you toot your toots.

In olden days it was compulsory to have bells on the horse when drawing
a sleigh, which was supposed to be noiseless. The bells were to give
warning of the sleigh’s approach around a curve or over the hill. This
was the only vehicle to have a warning tone, except the fishman or the
junk cart, and their noise was inviting—ostensibly—rather than warning,
though often it ought to have been the latter.

Soon after the coming of the bicycle it became apparent that some means
of signalling its approach must be had. Now singularly enough in
the light of present-day understanding, the bicycle bell or horn was
not to warn people to get out of the way. It was to warn folks that
you were looking out for them and that, unless they stepped suddenly
in your path, they might feel assured that you would not run into
them. Everybody understood that the pedestrian had first right to the
road. Bicycle riders practiced strenuously the ways to avoid the man
afoot—most of them.

With the coming of the automobile the use of horns was continued, early
electrics and some others using a bell. They were the continuance of
the bicycle warning, and when the automobile was popularizing itself it
was understood that the bell or horn was merely to prevent others from
walking into danger. The autoist saw to it, so far as he could, that
the man, woman, or child went safe.

Came another generation and the universal use of the automobile for
pleasure, business, and transportation uses, and all of a sudden people
began to talk about the rights of the autoist, and the horn began to
peremptorily order folks to get out of the way or get run over. There
is not the slightest doubt in the mind of the writer that the present
attitude of autoists in general is due to the mistaken notion that
they have rights in the roadway part of the street and the pedestrian’s
rights are confined to the sidewalks and crossing walks; nor that this
notion was bred by the police regulations of traffic which sought to
protect the pedestrian by herding him off the road to the side walks
and permitting him at intervals to cross the road. It is noticeable,
however, that not one arrest for refusing to keep off the roadway has
ever been made—or at least sustained by court. The policeman may frown
at the man who tries to go contrary to the traffic rule, but that is
all.

Out of this misunderstanding there has come such a constant use of
horns as to make it a continual nuisance on thickly traveled streets
and even on much traveled highways in the country. And the nuisance is
not from the necessary signaling to other cars or vehicles, but the
unnecessary tooting the driver does because he wants everybody to know
that he is coming and to understand that they must get out of the way
for him.

Now a certain amount of signaling is needed in driving, but it is
possible to drive through the thick traffic of New York City from the
Battery to Harlem without tooting the horn half a dozen times—that is
if one is a careful and well-instructed driver.

Watch other drivers and pedestrians and do not blow the horn after they
have seen you, or if their direction and speed of travel is such that
they will be out of your way before you get to them. If not seen, sound
the horn once and be ready to stop. As a matter of fact the foot should
instinctively go to the brake pedal each time the hand goes to the
horn. But if you are seen by the other person why blow the horn at all?

If one is driving along a country road and desires to pass another car
going in the same direction, it is customary to sound the horn once
that the driver ahead may not turn his car in front of you, and so
that, if needed, he may turn to the right to let you pass on the left.
He is the judge as to when and where he will turn, since he can see
ahead better and knows what obstructions are to be avoided. With few
exceptions he will, when signaled, immediately give way; if he does
not, and it is fair to presume that he heard the signal, it is polite
to wait a moment before again signaling your desire.

One also should signal just before reaching the top of a hill,
particularly if the road be a narrow one, that anyone coming up on
the other side may know of your presence and be guided accordingly;
likewise the signal should be given before coming to a cross-roads,
unless there is a plain view of both roads for a sufficient distance to
make sure that a collision is not likely.

Occasionally one will catch up to a farmer’s load of hay, and the
signal will not be heard, and it becomes necessary to toot a number of
times, but this is rare. In meeting a wagon or another auto it is not
necessary to sound the horn unless it is apparent that the other driver
does not see you, or is keeping to the crown of the road, expecting you
to do all the turning out. Well, even then, sometimes, it is better to
do it, at that.

As a rule, it is easier on one’s temperament, and safer in the long
run, to let the fellow who wants all the road have it; therefore when
you hear a speed fiend coming, his presence announced by vociferous
tooting of the horn and perhaps punctuated by shouting, or oaths, draw
to one side and slow up. It costs little either in time or effort, and
if it happens to be a load of drunken, irresponsible loafers you will
be safe. At the same time, if you have influence with the police and
other officials, call their attention to persons who thus disregard
others and see that they are fined and their licenses taken. For the
meekness advised, in letting them have their own way, is but that you
may survive to do a piece of good work for the country at large by
bringing before the law those who violate all principles of courtesy
and rules of the road.

Blow your own horn, if you want to, but blow it discreetly; let others
blow, too, and heed the warning, lest you come to grief with them.

CHAPTER XLVI

WOMEN AS DRIVERS


The 5.19 had stopped at Lonesomehurst, and the grating sound of the
Klaxon had caused more than one commuter to wish there were a law
against harsh noises. To Cholly Subbubs, however, it had a welcome
tone, and he grabbed for his bundles and umbrella, saying while he
dashed to the door and swung off the train as it pulled out:

“Sorry, boys; finish the game tomorrow. Wife’s here with the car for
me.”

His partners at whist saw him step into a smart car driven by Mrs.
Subbubs, who turned it about and took the road parallel with the track
and for several miles gave race to the train, while sundry passengers
uttered wise sayings as to the folly of a woman trying to run an auto.

 A woman can run a car as well as a man [one of the commuters finally
 averred, as an answer to the criticism of the wiseacres]. I expect my
 wife will be at the next station and we will have a twenty-five-mile
 spin before dinner. It will blow off all the grouch, and blow out of
 my lungs all the bad air I have had to breathe today, and give me an
 appetite that would do credit to a man who has been toting bricks up a
 ladder rather than selling bonds.

He had told the story of the new era of automobiling which has come to
the metropolis. Wife, the chauffeur! Now what is happening about New
York City is an old story in some parts of the country, but the latest
wrinkle in suburban travel about these parts is for friend wife to meet
the train two or three stations up the line and take tired hubby for
a ride on the way home. Having learned to run the car, she had been
taking him to the station and meeting him at night. One night he was
startled to hear her familiar signal on the horn—he knows his master’s
voice—some distance from the home station, looked out of the window and
just had time to swing off on the station platform. Now he is keen for
that sound. Probably every commuter train which leaves the city each
evening in pleasant weather has several such scenes.

It is not a fad, either, but the solution of the fresh-air problem for
pent-up business men; the relaxation from the daily cares and just
the most delightful visit with each other that devoted ones can have.
In the summer evenings there is time for a long ride before dining; in
the cooler evenings of fall and winter, when dark comes before hubby
is due, good roads still are inviting and the crisp air rejuvenates
one and creates an appetite which is alarming, the high cost of living
considered.

Women in the East began to take an interest in running an automobile
about the time the self-starter was put on the market, three or four
years ago. Cranking is not a feminine job and old models of cars bore
no semblance in convenience and ease of handling to those now on the
market; they are more reliable and dependable than the ancient makes.

Then, too, women in New York are used to being waited upon. They are
not of the aggressive type, and do not care for man’s work; while
in the West they are more self-reliant. That is only natural, since
the western women have been thrown more upon their own resources;
having helped the men subdue prairie and forest and desert, the
younger generation has not departed from their footsteps. There are
self-reliant women in New York, of course, but of a different type,
and one would hardly expect them to want to own or operate a car
themselves; but they are beginning to, by the thousands.

Another reason for the slowness of women to take up auto driving is
that New York City is not a place for pleasure driving; but in the
suburbs they are taking it up rapidly, as the increasing daytime
honk-honk indicates. In the city it is unnecessary, for there is every
convenience for shopping or calling at beck and call—taxis, buses, and
rent cars. These things are not to be had so largely in the suburbs,
and when hubby is at business and the chauffeur is at his grandmother’s
funeral, or has too heavy a load of “Oh, be joyful,” for safety or
pleasure, it is a case of stay at home, or learn to run the thing
for herself. She learns, and then does not have to worry about the
chauffeur going around the corner for a highball while she is calling.

So far as mastering the mechanical and technical details of a car,
women seem to be just as apt as most men, if they take it seriously
enough. The fact that mechanical talent is not limited to the male sex
is indicated by the numerous automobile developments which are the
product of the feminine brain.

The Y. M. C. A. Automobile School has been taking women pupils for
three years and among the four hundred graduates have been every type,
from the society debutante to the mature matron, chorus girl, actress,
and a few who desired to become professional chauffeurs—“Jit Chicks”
they call them in Philadelphia—with a lot of applications from school
teachers. It does not appear why so many of that class have taken the
course, but one of the instructors says that most of them are learning
so that at vacation time they can take their car instead of the ocean
steamer or railroad train and spend two months “seeing America.” One
of them, however, declares that she intends to become a professional
chauffeur during vacation, so that she can make money while enjoying a
full relaxation from her ordinary labor. She teaches at an exclusive
club-colony center and will run her car there.

When the first woman applicant came, it caused some of the instructors
to gasp:

“Why, a woman cannot understand an engine.”

“Only because they never have tried,” was the response. “Give me a
chance—I’ll show you.”

“But you would get all dirty. The men have to crawl under the cars and
get covered with grease and grime,” was objected.

“If they get any dirtier than I did this morning when I had to clean
out the kitchen stovepipe,” was the comeback, “then I’ll give up;
grease has no fearsomeness for a housewife.”

[Illustration: SHE IS ACCUMULATING KNOWLEDGE OF AN INTRICATE
MACHINE—AND SHE IS FASCINATED]

Of course the director gave in, as man ever has yielded to woman, and
today the women’s department of the school is a fixture, for woman has
demonstrated that she can understand machinery and wires and things and
learn how to pilot a car and do all sorts of other stunts with it.

It is no child’s play to which the woman student is ushered when
beginning the course. She goes right at a machine and first of all has
to learn what the array of bolts and valves and belts and wires is for.
The women put on big aprons—or overalls—and gloves, and with sleeves
rolled up start to dissect one of the cars as a doctor does a cadaver.
From starting crank to differential and from spark plug to oil sump it
all has to come down, and, worse yet, has to be put together again. The
dainty young thing in dimity—under the jumper—gets her arms greasy and
a splotch on her nose, but she doesn’t care a bit, for it all washes
off and she knows that back of the nose she is accumulating something
that won’t wash off—a knowledge of an intricate machine—and she is
fascinated.

She has to learn about tires, too; how to take them off and repair and
replace them. It is just a bit odd to see a woman patching an inner
tube as handily and as daintily as though she were embroidering a bit
of Christmas frumpery; but really she handles the shears to cut the
patch a lot more readily than most men, and she puts the patch in place
as carefully as though she were mending the seat of her young hopeful’s
rompers.

When the student has mastered the mechanical part and has overcome
all the “queering” the instructor can devise, she is taken out for
road experience. When she has the car ready, supplied with gasoline,
lubricating oil, water for the radiator, and all the other things which
make for safety and successful operation, and has cranked the engine,
unless there is a self-starter, then, with hands and feet engaging the
steering wheel, levers, and pedals, the momentous hour has come when
the machine is to be under her control. The instructor is provided
with a duplicate set of levers for an emergency. Lessons begin in the
quiet streets, gradually emerging into those busier, until at last
Fifth Avenue and Forty-second Street, the busiest intersection in the
metropolis, is reached.

The women always enjoy that. Never one but shows she is having the time
of her life at that corner. They are expected to lose their heads and
“go up in the air,” but they do not. They are not so reckless as men,
are quicker to grasp a situation, and do not “take a chance” as men
do. Alertness is an attribute of most women, also intuition, and these
are qualities needed by an auto driver.

The era of low-priced cars undoubtedly has had something to do with
the influx of women into auto driving. Thousands to whom a high-priced
car with liveried chauffeur must ever be a dream, are able to have a
moderate or low-priced car for the whole family. Mother will not let
her sons and daughters distance her in anything, so she learns too.

Whatever may be the cause, it is a fact that the women of the country
are taking up the auto seriously. There already are too many in the
city streets to excite even casual notice, but in the suburbs, where
there is an almost total absence of men during the daytime, every car
you meet has a woman at the wheel. There is no indication, however,
that man has been relegated to the care of the nursery. He still is too
valuable as a producer for that—producer of gasoline and tires and what
not. But the chauffeur who drives for a living must take account of the
woman at the wheel, for it means lessened opportunity; still, the use
of trucks is increasing, and woman is not likely to be a competitor
there—not yet.




CHAPTER XLVII

MISCELLANEOUS RULES


Below are given a number of rules for doing things about an automobile,
which may help the novice remember the instructions heretofore given
by the agent from whom he bought the car, or obtained at the service
station, in the manufacturer’s book of instructions, or elsewhere.


FOUR THINGS TO DO BEFORE LEAVING THE GARAGE

 Be sure there is plenty of water.

 Be sure there is plenty of gasoline.

 Be sure there is plenty of oil.

 Be sure there is plenty of air in the tires.


FIVE THINGS TO DO BEFORE CRANKING THE ENGINE

 Be sure the emergency brake is set.

 Be sure the gear-shift lever is in neutral position.

 Retard the spark fully.

 Open the gas hand throttle about one-third.

 Throw switch to battery position.


 THREE THINGS TO DO AFTER CRANKING

 Close the throttle until the engine idles.

 Advance the spark about two-thirds.

 Switch from battery to magneto.


TO ADJUST A CARBURETOR

 Adjust the needle valve at low speed—engine idling.

 For high speeds adjust the auxiliary air valve.

 (Owners should learn the make-up of their carburetor before attempting
 to adjust it, and should first watch someone who knows how to do it.)


TO ADJUST CAM SHAFTS WHICH TIME VALVE OPENING AND CLOSING

 Make sure that push-rod adjustment is right—that a thin card will pass
 between push rod and valve stem when valve is closed.

 Determine direction of rotation of cam shafts.

 Set fly wheel so that the mark 1 T. C. (top center) registers with
 pointer.

 Turn fly wheel until mark 10° P. T. C. (past top center) registers
 with pointer.

 Rotate exhaust cam shaft in proper direction until the exhaust valve
 of No. 1 cylinder has just closed.

 Rotate inlet cam shaft until inlet valve of No. 1 cylinder is just
 about to open.

 Mesh the gears and lock them in place.

 If No. 1 cylinder is right the others must be.


 RULE FOR TIMING THE MAGNETO

 Find the firing order of the engine.

 Turn crank shaft of engine and note directions in which armature and
 distributor of magneto should revolve.

 Set No. 1 cylinder on beginning of power stroke by watching exhaust
 valve just close and then turning crank one complete revolution.

 Set fly wheel so that mark No. 1. T. C. registers with pointer.

 Retard spark fully—by moving breaker box in same direction as arrow
 points or armature rotates, as far as it will go.

 Rotate armature in proper direction until interrupter points are just
 about to open.

 In this position mesh gears and lock magneto to base.

 At this point prove your work by advancing spark. If points are right
 they will open.

 Notice what point in distributor the rotor is touching. This goes to
 No. 1 cylinder.

 Wire distributor in firing order of the engine.

 (The distributor always rotates in opposite direction to the armature.)


RULES FOR CARE OF CLUTCH

 To remedy a harsh gripping leather-faced cone clutch, apply neatsfoot
 oil or castor oil to leather face.

 To remedy a slipping leather-faced cone clutch, apply fuller’s earth
 or French talc to leather facing. In rare cases a little gasoline may
 be used.

 To remedy a harsh gripping multiple disc clutch that runs in oil, add
 engine oil to the mixture.

 To remedy a slipping multiple disk clutch running in oil, add kerosene
 to the mixture.

 Too little spring tension will cause slipping.

 Once every 100 miles turn down all grease cups on the clutch.

 Once every 500 miles apply neatsfoot oil to a leather-faced clutch.

 Once every 1000 miles drain a multiple disc clutch and clean
 thoroughly with kerosene and renew the oil.


RULES FOR CARE OF TRANSMISSION AND DIFFERENTIAL

 It must be kept half filled with very heavy oil. (Consult
 manufacturer’s instructions.)

 Once every 500 miles inspect and replenish lubricant if need be.

 Once every 5000 miles drain case, clean thoroughly with kerosene, and
 renew lubricant.


RULES FOR CARE OF OTHER PARTS

 Once every 1000 miles pack universal joint with very heavy grease.

 Once every 250 miles use oil can freely and turn down all grease cups
 on torsion and radius rods.

 Pack the wheel hubs with grease every 1000 miles.

 Pack the steering worm housing with medium grease every 500 miles.

 Oil the steering mechanism every 100 miles and turn down all grease
 cups.


 LUBRICATION TIME-TABLE

 Lubricate as often as is necessary. The safest rule always is to
 follow the manufacturer’s instructions.

 Every 100 miles: Use oil can freely; turn all grease cups down two or
 three turns.

 Be sure that these parts are well lubricated: Steering apparatus,
 clutch, spring-shackle bolts, crank handle, fan, valve-rocker arms,
 wheel hubs.

 Every 250 miles: Give same care to braking apparatus, emergency brake,
 and gear-shift levers, and rocker shafts, water pump, torsion and
 radius rods. Clean force-feed oil system.

 Every 500 miles: Inspect transmission and differential cases and
 refill if necessary; pack steering worm housing; apply neatsfoot oil
 to cone clutch facing; clean gravity and circulating splash systems.

 Every 1000 miles: Pack universal joints, ball and socket boots, hub
 caps; oil magneto, electric motor, electric generator; clean disc
 clutch; clean splash system; lubricate spring leaves by jacking up
 frame of car, spreading leaves apart, and putting graphite mixed with
 gasoline between leaves.

 Every 5000 miles: Drain transmission and differential cases and clean
 with kerosene and renew lubricant; clean wheel bearings and repack
 hubs with grease.

 Give all bearings a careful inspection and take up all play.


CARE OF STORAGE BATTERY

 Keep electrolite over top of plates by adding distilled water.

 Keep top of battery clean and metal parts covered with vaseline to
 prevent corrosion.

 Keep holes in vent plugs open.

 Never leave battery standing in a discharged condition.

 Make sure it is tightly fastened on car.

 Examine battery once a week in summer; every two weeks in winter.

 Take hydrometer readings at these times; never take hydrometer reading
 immediately after adding water; wait fifteen minutes for water to mix
 with electrolite.

 If one cell always needs water examine for leaky container.


INDICATIONS OF A DISCHARGED BATTERY

 Starting motor cranks engine slowly or not at all.

 Lamps burn dimly or not at all.

 Lamps burn brightly when first turned on but soon dim.

 Electric horn weak.

 Low specific gravity of electrolite.


CAUSES OF DISCHARGED BATTERY

 Generator not charging battery.

 Generator belt slipping.

 Wires short-circuited or grounded.

 Plates not covered with electrolite.

 Defective or leaky cell.

 Excessive lamp load.

 Excessive use of lamps when engine is stopped.

 Car not being run fast enough to charge at sufficient rate.

 Using starter too much.

 Cut-out not working properly.

 Broken or loose connection between generator and battery.

 (Storage battery efficiency in winter is half that of summer.)


LOCATING TROUBLES IN LIGHTING AND IGNITION SYSTEM

 If no charge shows on dash meter when engine is running at speed equal
 to 15 m. p. h., connect good ammeter in series with dash meter; if
 this meter shows proper charging rate, trouble is with dash meter; if
 it also shows no charge, connect voltmeter with generator terminals.
 If it indicates a very high voltage, generator is O. K. and trouble is
 between generator and battery.

 Test cut-out and examine all connections and wires.

 If lights light when engine is stopped, trouble is between generator
 and ammeter. If lights do not light, trouble is between ammeter and
 battery.

 If no, or low, voltage is indicated, trouble is with the generator,
 regulator, or wire between generator and regulator.

 If starting motor will not crank engine, make sure battery is O.
 K., connections bright and clean, commutator and brushes in good
 condition, and that starting switch makes good contact. Crank engine
 by hand to make sure some mechanical defect is not preventing engine
 from turning.


 If starting motor spins but does not crank engine, pinion or drive
 gear may be loose, chain broken, or overrunning clutch slipping. If a
 Bendix drive, pinion may stick in worm due to dirt in threads.

 If none of the bulbs light, examine connection at battery, ammeter,
 lighting switch, and wires between those units for breaks; also all
 the bulbs may be burned out.

 If a grounded system, examine ground connection at frame.

 If only one bulb fails to light, trouble must be in its own circuit.
 Take trouble lamp or voltmeter and test at contacts of connector
 at lamp. If you get current at this point, trouble is with bulb or
 contact pins sticking, or not long enough. If you do not get current
 at this point, examine fuses, connections at lighting switch and
 connectors; also wire for breaks.

 As a short circuit on the car generally shows its presence by its
 effect on battery, preventing it from holding a charge, if meter shows
 discharge all the time, remove wire from meter or battery. If needle
 remains on discharge, needle is stuck; if it drops to zero, there is a
 short circuit or cut-out does not open.

 A short circuit beyond the lighting switch will not show on the meter
 until switch is turned to circuit in which short circuit is located.
 This will cause lights to dim and show a heavy discharge on meter.

 As there are other circuits whose current does not pass through meter,
 a short circuit in them would not be indicated on meter, but would be
 indicated by running down of battery. To locate, remove all bulbs,
 also all wires from one of the battery terminals. Connect one side of
 the trouble lamp to battery terminal and the other side of lamp to
 wires removed. Any current leaving the battery must now pass through
 the trouble lamp causing it to light.

 1—If trouble lamp lights when lighting switch is turned off, short
 circuit is either in starting motor-circuit, generator circuit (or
 cut-out does not open), horn circuit, or in wires between lighting
 switch and battery, or in ignition circuit. Eliminate one circuit
 after another until trouble lamp goes out. Then examine circuit on
 which it goes out for short.

 2—If trouble lamp lights only when lighting switch is on, short
 circuit is in circuit beyond lighting switch. Examine circuit
 indicated on face of switch when in position that trouble lamp lights,
 as switch can be divided into sections. Eliminate one section after
 another until trouble lamp goes out; then examine this circuit for
 short.




CHAPTER XLVIII

THE GOLDEN RULE OF MOTORING


This volume does not pretend to set a standard of manners for owners of
automobiles, nor does it profess to be a first-aid course in courtesy,
much less suggest lessons in gentlemanliness, which might as well be
called gentleness at once; yet there is sad need of instruction in all
these things, if one may judge by the experiences of the road and of
the inn and garage stops along the way.

Now the writer believes that the American citizen is a gentleman to
the manor born, of natural right and disposition, and that he does not
leave his manners at home, as he is supposed to leave his religion at
the church door. A gentleman in the drawing-room will be a gentleman on
the highway. He will not be a boor because the man he happens to meet
is one, not even if the majority are.

Why is it, then, that there is an utter absence of courtesy, or
if there be an occasional display of good nature it but emphasizes
the lack of it in general? Undoubtedly this is a fair statement of
conditions in and about the metropolis. It is not true to anywhere
near the same extent in the Western country, and “Western” ought to be
understood in this connection as anything west of the Alleghany range.

The writer has been astounded on several occasions in Denver and other
Western cities at the really human spirit of the drivers. They actually
stopped of their own accord to let the writer, a pedestrian at the
time, cross the street, and did it in so gracious a way as to make it
seem a real pleasure. Picture that on Fifth Avenue, New York City, or
upon any of the highways out of the metropolis on a Sunday or holiday
in warm weather.

But it is not alone in the attitude of the driver toward the pedestrian
that there is remissness, but in the behavior toward other drivers that
there is need for improvement. What is easier than to cheerfully make
way for the man who wishes to pass by, or to turn aside as much as may
be necessary for the other car we meet; to slow up at the intersection,
instead of spurting to get ahead of the other fellow, and making him
jam on the brakes to avoid a collision? Why is it necessary to try to
get the best of the other fellow, as though driving were a contest of
wits and that skill on the road consisted in “beating the other fellow
to it?”

Perhaps the answer to all this criticism is that in and about New York,
where there is a dense population, there are thousands of drivers who
are not from the ranks of the well-bred, by which is not meant the
wealthy. The low price of cars and the thousands of used cars on the
market has put them at the disposal of the butcher boy and the hod
carrier and bell hop, and they seem to have the idea that the driver
of a car possesses superior rights over others and must assert it. Out
in the land where folks have a chance to open their lungs and breathe,
a broader view of life is held. It is a fact, however, that the
well-to-do families of the East are more and more requiring of their
drivers that they follow the golden rule and not the Eben Holden brand.
You remember Eben’s version: “Do unto others what they are trying to do
unto you, and do it fust.”

Secretary of State Francis M. Hugo, of New York, recently delivered
an address to a group of students in which he said a number of
pertinent things concerning the operation of cars, based upon his own
experiences. It is so good that it is reprinted here:

 It is not too much to say that the future of motoring largely depends
 upon the behavior of motorists and their drivers toward the public.
 As fewer owners of large touring machines drive their own cars
 nowadays in proportion to the number driven than used to be the case,
 it is, therefore, mainly the behavior of their drivers on the road
 that is important. The subject of the training of the motor man is
 consequently worth much attention, and that the automobile community
 as a whole realizes this is evident not only by the establishment
 of various schools, where the mechanical side of the profession is
 taught to the future driver, but by the efforts of various clubs and
 associations, notably of the Y. M. C. A., who have started schools all
 over the country to help in this training.

 For the past few years, those who drive motor cars for wages have been
 called “chauffeurs,” a word against which a protest should always be
 made on the double ground of etymology and nationality. To begin with,
 the word in reality means “stoker.” On the foot plate of a French
 locomotive the driver is called “mechanicien,” while the fireman is
 designated as the “chauffeur.” In the case of motor cars propelled by
 steam, the word “chauffeur” may thus be held to be remotely correct,
 but on the ordinary car propelled by the internal combustion engine or
 by electric power, there is no sense in the term. In the best French
 circles also, the word “mechanicien” is always used to designate the
 driver of a car and the word “chauffeur” even in France is said to be
 becoming obsolete.

 The motorman, as he will, therefore, be called, is very often the
 subject of much discussion and sometimes of irrational abuse. Of
 course, there are black sheep in this profession, as in every other,
 but one is glad to place on record that black sheep were far more
 numerous five years ago than they are now. No one who observes without
 prejudice the behavior of motor-car drivers in New York City and
 elsewhere can help being struck with the careful way in which private
 motor cars are now driven, the neatness and cleanliness of the men
 themselves, and the vast improvement which has taken place in their
 general manners. Formerly, it was thought to be the highest mark of
 the profession that a motorman should be dirty in every respect, and
 a greasy cap, black hands and face, oily clothes and, as a rule, a
 half-smoked dirty cigarette in the side of his mouth, combined with a
 contemptuous scowl at every passer-by, was not an uncommon sight.

 This state of things, however, has changed for the better.
 Occasionally a specimen of the primeval driver is met with, and
 even now the habit of cigarette smoking when in charge of a car is
 supposed, by the younger and less intelligent men of the profession,
 to confer an air of knowledge coupled with disdain. In course of time
 this form of swagger will die out also. The manners, moreover, of many
 motormen to their employers and to their fellow servants have not in
 the past been all that could be desired, but as stated before, their
 general behavior is markedly improving, and it must be remembered
 that, motormen are greatly superior in intelligence to most of their
 predecessors.

 It need hardly be noted here that much depends upon the way the
 motorman has been trained. When automobiling was just beginning the
 only person available who even half knew the somewhat complicated
 machine of the early days was the mechanic trained for a few months
 in the shop where the car had been manufactured. He was master of the
 situation because he alone had working knowledge of its parts. No one
 in those days thought for one moment of a motorman from the viewpoint
 of good driving. The owner of the car, above all, desired to possess
 a good mechanic, for breakdowns were numerous and varied and half of
 the expenses of motoring were necessitated by renewals of parts or
 adjustments due to ordinary wear and tear. Nowadays serious or even
 insignificant breakdowns are rare, and there is hardly a first-class
 make of car in the market which will not run many thousands of
 miles without anything being necessary in the way of repairs and
 adjustments. Those which are necessary are, moreover, of the simplest
 kind. There is no longer, therefore, the same necessity for the
 motorman to be what is called a really good mechanic, so long as he
 understands the general principle on which the engine works and the
 arrangement of the gears.

 The majority of motor-car owners have, therefore, changed in their
 requirements. They do not want a man who is primarily a skilled
 mechanic, but they do ask for a skillful driver, and on this wise
 alternative in the chief qualifications demanded lies a good deal of
 the reason for the great change which has taken place in the behavior
 of the motorman in the city and out of it. It may be remarked that an
 excellent mechanic is not necessarily a good driver, though he may
 be so in certain cases. What is required in the driver besides the
 general knowledge of the machinery is a knowledge of the customs and
 courtesies of the road and the habits of traffic, the possession of
 the qualities of alertness, foresight, and consideration for others.
 Above all, he should have a temperate frame of mind, an abstinence not
 only from drunkenness, but drinking in any but a most moderate sense.
 The driver of an ordinary wagon is conspicuous by his ignorance of the
 way to drive and his want of consideration of other traffic. He is the
 most persistent moving obstruction which exists. The motor-car driver,
 on the other hand, has to be the best driver on the highway if he is
 to drive without offense to the public and danger to them and himself,
 for he has to conduct a vehicle which is more valuable than any other
 and far and away more speedy though more handy, and, therefore, whose
 meeting with and overtaking of other vehicles is many times more
 rapid. In addition to these, he has to consider other dangers of the
 road to which other vehicles are not so liable and which come from the
 construction of its surface.

 The complete motorman should have a working knowledge of the different
 materials of which roads are made, of their comparative tendency to
 cause skidding, and of the perils which arise from excessive and
 badly laid street-car tracks. He must know and continually practice
 the courtesies of the road and learn its manners and customs. He
 must be observant and realize that children hanging on the rear of
 wagons are liable to drop off suddenly and run across his path. He
 must be on the look-out for pedestrians, stupid, drunk, or deaf, for
 wagons on the wrong side of dangerous corners, and to be prepared
 to find vehicles in charge of sleepy drivers who will often do the
 wrong act on awakening. It will, therefore, be seen that the motorman
 to be really good has to be the best driver on the road and that
 the standard demanded must necessarily be high. He must possess
 exceptional qualities as compared with the horse driver. The question
 is, therefore, all important—What are the best methods of training
 such a man?

 There is no doubt that many of the schools which are teaching
 elementary mechanics to the would-be motorman are excellent in their
 way. But there are many which are nothing but frauds. Reports have
 frequently been made to the State where a man has complained bitterly
 of having put down $25 or $50 in return for which nothing but most
 elementary instruction has been given and this often in the worst
 possible way. There has been no teaching in traffic rules or on the
 road, or, if given, so little as to be of no use. But at other places
 pains are taken, and, by diagrams in the class-room and practical
 teaching on the road much has been taught. There are also nowadays
 hand-books galore which teach the construction, repair, the common
 faults and likely failings of the gasoline engine from A to Z. The
 mechanical side may, therefore, be said to have been amply provided
 for.

 But this is only the less important, though necessary, part of the
 training of the modern motorman. What is really needed is that some
 school should teach manners on the road and the habits of traffic,—in
 short, train its men for the road. There should also be problems
 of difficult but ordinary situations in traffic set in a written
 examination, the correct solution of which should be obligatory before
 the motorman could be said to be property trained. It is not, perhaps,
 easy to see at first how this sort of instruction can be given on the
 present scale of fees, but the schools in the future, which devote a
 large part of their attention to teaching the rules of the road and
 its customs and courtesies will assuredly turn out the best class of
 drivers, who will be in the greatest demand.

 To begin with, the habits of horse-drawn vehicles should be studied.
 It is a liberal education to take a journey, for instance, on the
 top of a Fifth Avenue motor bus and watch the way in which the
 driver drives his unwieldly vehicle through the streets of New York.
 Other bus drivers also are rapidly becoming his equal, and let it be
 acknowledged that nothing but the hard school of practical, every-day
 experience in New York City streets, assisted by police supervision
 and the fear of dismissal for carelessness or accident, could produce
 such able drivers.

 Again, the expert taxicab driver might be taken as an example of a
 faster class of motor traffic. The would-be first-class motorman
 when being trained would thus have the experience of horse vehicles
 and pedestrians, and have noted carefully what usually happens and
 have tried to understand their point of view. This is one of the
 first steps which should be taken in training the driver of the swift
 mechanical vehicle. Then example might be given of the proper way to
 drive cars around corners, both right-handed and left-handed, and
 the best manner of the ascending and surmounting steep gradients or
 negotiating high bridges. Driving at night should also be practiced,
 and prospective drivers should learn to distinguish the faint glow on
 the road ahead which designates the presence of a motorcycle and other
 signs denoting persons or vehicles. Map reading should also be a part
 of his instruction.

 And there is yet one other thing which the motor-driving school should
 inculcate, though it could not technically teach the motorman—that
 is, good manners to his employer and his employer’s friends. To be
 rough and rude is a disgrace to any class, and it is the mark of a man
 who is either not certain of himself or is afflicted with an innate
 bad temper. It is not, and never can be, a sign of superiority. A
 respectful and civil attitude not only makes the path of life easier,
 but is in itself a strong recommendation. Little things which do not
 at first seem to matter, and are merely more in the nature of courtesy
 than servile attentions, should be observed. A civil salute when the
 owner first addresses the motorman, the readiness to help in any
 little matter, such as carrying a bag to the station, or the thought
 of a rug to cover the lap, and similar little courtesies, are the
 sign of the man who, if considerate in these little matters, is likely
 to be considerate in others more important. It also establishes him
 firmly in the estimation of his employer.

 To sum up, the perfect motorman, though he should possess as
 much knowledge of mechanics as possible, should, above all, be a
 considerate driver, well versed in the manners and courtesies of
 the road and the habits of traffic. And in addition, he should try
 to be well mannered, as more and more motor-car owners are becoming
 convinced that, besides knowledge, “Manners maketh the Motorman.”




INDEX


  A

  Accelerate while clutch is being engaged, 168

  Accelerator, lubrication of, 41

  Accelerator pedal, 20;
    what it does, where placed, 160

  Accessories, electric, cause trouble, 282

  Air in tires, plenty of, before leaving garage, 308

  Alcohol, in freeze-proof solution, how much to use, 192

  Alignment, why wheels are not set in perfect, 101, 102, 103

  Ammeter, 20, 109;
    needle erratic, cause of, 283

  Anti-freezing solution, 164, 165;
    necessary in winter, 191;
    best to use, 193;
    home-made, cheapest and just as efficient, 193;
    composition of, depends on temperature, 193;
    sometimes wise to replace with hot water to start engine, 194

  Armature, increasing speed of, 117

  Armature winding, trouble in, 277

  Asphalt, dried, how to remove from car, 241

  Asphyxiation from gasoline fumes, 225;
   how to avoid, 226

  Automobile, value of, what it depends on, 4;
    schools, 7;
    half knowledge of, an obstacle, 8;
    description and essentials of, 12;
    how to pull out when stuck, 86;
    steering compared with steering of boats of different types, 102;
    setting of wheels compared with bicycle, 105;
    will steer with broken tie rod, 106;
    how to start with engine running, 166;
    how to stop, 168;
    how to reverse, 169;
    cleaning of, 175, 236;
    may be kept in commission in many cold places the year round, 191;
    any modern make, if kept in good condition will climb worst hill,
      229;
    to prepare for a tour, 244;
    trouble hunting must be systematic, 272;
    trouble, best way to find, 273;
    not a fad, 301

  Automobile body, how to care for gloss of, 242

  Automobile fires, causes of, 214

  Auxiliary air valve, adjust for high speeds, 309

  Axle, rear, description, 13;
    forward, description and location, 14

  Axle shaft, rear, wind felt around, to keep oil away from brake
    lining, 96


  B

  Back-firing, cause of fires, 214;
    how to prevent, 220

  Bands, brake, how arranged, 97

  Batteries, two should be carried, 157

  Battery, 15;
    source of current, 10;
    necessity of first testing, 109, 114;
    ignition, 120;
    be sure it is sufficiently charged before leaving garage, 157;
    must be filled oftener in hot weather, 206;
    packed around with waste, sometimes causes fire, 217;
    test before touring, 248;
    inspect, in case of trouble, 276;
    rules for care of, 312;
    indications and causes of a discharged, 313

  Battery and coil ignition system, 15

  Battery to magneto, switch from, 309

  Battery trouble, 123;
    more difficult to keep charged in winter, 123;
    instance of starving battery, 124, 125;
    must not be overcharged, 125;
    less efficiency in cold weather, 126;
    now furnishes all current used, 126;
    sediment in, 126;
    can be charged overnight, 127;
    former battery “don’ts,” 127;
    average life of battery, 128

  Bearings, crank, 17;
    lubrication of wheel, 43;
    definition, different types, 149;
    of engine, form and construction, how oiled, 150;
    of ignition system, form and lubrication, 152;
    carburetor and throttle, 152, 153;
    spark-control, starter, 153;
    steering-gear, transmission propeller shaft, 154;
    other, 155;
    need additional care in summer, 208;
    loose, cause knocking, 258;
    tight, cause knocking, 259;
    grit in, due to loss of hub cap, 270

  Belts fan, troubles, how to care for, 200

  Bicycle, setting of wheel compared with automobile, 105

  Boats of different types, steering of, compared with steering of
    automobile, 102

  Bolts, dropped from cars, 268;
    absence of, cause squeaks, 269;
    examination of, 269;
    brake-linkage, 271;
    dust-pan, 271;
    must know location of, 271;
    tighten, once a month, 271

  Bottle, rubber hot-water, for heating carburetor, 194

  Brake, use of engine as a, 95, 234, 247;
    running, when needed, how operated, 158;
    emergency, its use, how operated, 159, 308

  Brake bands, how arranged, 97

  Brake drums, description and location, 14, 15;
    how injured, 98;
    keep free from oil, 247

  Brake-lever, emergency, 20, 159;
    lubrication of, 41

  Brake lining, can be ruined, 95;
    oil on, its cause, the results, how to prevent, 96;
    wears thin, 98;
    when necessary to replace, 98;
    rivets of, 98;
    how to save, 247

  Brake linkage, 15, 97;
    bolts, 271

  Brake mechanism, oiling of, important, 97

  Brake pedal, 20

  Brake rods, worn, cause clattering, 264

  Brakes, affect tires, 72;
    badly or unevenly adjusted, cause skidding, 80, 88;
    more important than the engine, manufacturers constantly
     improving, 93;
    must be continually watched, 94;
    other means of braking, 95;
    use of, on hills, 95, 172, 173;
    oil in lining, what causes it, how to prevent it, 96, 97;
    lubrication necessary, 97;
    failure of lining, 98;
    hand and foot, 98, 99;
    adjustment of both, for best effect, 99;
    inspect both sets before touring, 246;
    use two sets alternately, 247

  Brass, remove corrosion from, with cleaning compound, 239;
    how to keep from corrosion, 239

  Breaker points cause trouble, 292

  Bulbs, electric light, extra set, 31

  Bursting of radiator, pipes, and water-jacket prevented by proper
    freeze-proof solution, 193


  C

  Cam, loose, causes knocking, 259;
    follower guide causes knocking, 259;
    shafts to adjust, 309

  Cams, worm, cause knocking, 259

  Carbon, on valves, 67;
    secondary current absorbed by, 119;
    acts as a condenser, 119;
    short circuits spark plug, 120;
    in engine causes over-heating, 202;
    remove, before touring, 247;
    causes knocking, 251;
    reduces size of combustion chamber, 252;
    bits of, in unusual places, cause trouble, 272;
    on valve seats, 274

  Carbon dioxide, in gasoline fumes, 224;
    monoxide, in gasoline fumes, 224

  Carbonic acid gas, in gasoline fumes, 224

  Carburetor, location, 15;
    what it does, 23;
    float, 23;
    adjustment to limit gasoline supply, 47;
    affected by weather, 53;
    varieties of, 55;
    test for, 56;
    adjustment of, 56, 57;
    poor adjustment of, 68;
    bearings, 152;
    priming, 166;
    works worst in cold weather, 185;
    manufacturers constantly improving efficiency of, 185, 186;
    desired which will vaporize heavy gasoline in cold weather, 186;
    stove and water-jacket both needed for cold weather, 186;
    will work better if hot air is first introduced, 187;
    “stove” put out by many manufacturers, 187;
    with water-jacketed mixing chamber, 187;
    devices for heating, 194;
    hot weather treatment, 206;
    inspect in case of trouble, 275;
    how to adjust a, 309;
    learn construction before attempting to adjust, 309

  Caster effect of inclined knuckle pins, 105

  Castor oil for harsh-gripping clutch, 310

  Cautions, miscellaneous important, 176

  Chains, cross, 82;
    non-skid, how to adjust, 81, 82;
    often drop links, 270

  Chain tool, convenience of, 29

  Chamber, combustion, 17

  Chamois skin, 52, 241

  Charge, of gasoline and air, 17;
    in combustion chamber, how fired and when, 22

  Chart, Y. M. C. A., general trouble, 279

  Chassis, construction of, 13;
    position of, 13;
    how to clean, 239

  “Chauffeur,” real meaning “stoker,” 320

  Chauffeurs, faults of, 6;
    must now have technical electrical knowledge, 282, 283, 284;
    show generally an increase
  in neatness and cleanliness and improvement in manners, 321

  Choke, or priming device, 162

  Circuit, breaker, 16;
    complete necessary, 108;
    secondary, gap in, 112;
    secondary, heavy insulation absorbs current, 119

  Clattering caused by worn brake rods, 264

  Cleaning car, 175, 236;
    cleaner it is kept, longer it will run satisfactorily, 236;
    oil and grease should be removed from outside of engine, 237, 238;
    from wire terminals and spark plugs, 238;
    from cylinders, remove corrosion from brass, 239;
    keep iron parts from rusting, 239;
    fan, fan belt, pulleys, and casings, 239;
    chassis and parts under car, 239;
    how to make a “creeper” to lie on while working under car, 240;
    cleaning the body with hose and water, 240;
    drying with chamois and cloth, 241;
    how to remove dried mud and asphalt, 241;
    do not use soap, 241;
    use running water if possible, 242;
    preparations for renewing varnished surface, 242;
    cleaning and treatment of the top, 242;
    keep car covered in garage, 242;
    slip covers, 243;
    fumes from stable or barnyard will dull varnish, 243;
    barn used for garage should be renovated, 243

  Clearance between valve stems, and push rods causes trouble, 290

  Click caused by rear driving shaft, instance of, 262

  Climbing hills, 171

  Clogging of muffler, 145, 146

  Cloth, use of, in cleaning car, 241

  Clutch, cone, 18;
    multiple disc, 18;
    location of, 18;
    pedal, 20;
    lever lubrication of, 41;
    affects tires, 71;
    where placed, its purpose, how it works, 158;
    how to use with accelerator pedal, 168;
    use in hill-climbing, 172;
    engage gradually, 177;
    expanding, instance connected with, 289;
    rules for care of, 310

  Clutch pedal, where placed, 158

  Cold weather, starting, in, 184

  Combustion, 67

  Combustion chamber, 17;
    charge in, how fired and when, 22;
    oil in, 48, 49;
    reduced in size by carbon, 252

  Commutators, driver must know how to sandpaper, 282;
    and to undercut the insulation of, 283;
    sparking at the, 283

  Complications on car, increase comfort, but add to worries, 284

  Compression, how maintained, 24;
    absence of, 53;
    test before touring, 248;
    too high, causes knocking, 251, 260;
    necessary to start engine, 273;
    tests in case of trouble, 273;
    when it occurs, 274

  Compression chamber, instance of stopping knocking by increasing
    size, 252

  Compression stroke, 17

  Condenser, may need examination, 121

  Cone clutch, 18

  Congested streets, driving in, 173

  Connecting rod, 17, 68;
    bearing, causes knock, 256, 258

  Connection, loose, results of, 283

  Connector, battery, 276

  Conveniences, added, have made more trouble, 280, 281

  Cooling, principle of, 15;
    different system, 15

  Corners, how to turn, 170

  Cotter pins, supply to all nuts before touring, 248;
    lost in street, 268;
    absence of, causes squeaks, 269

  Courtesy in motoring, 317;
    more noticeable in the West than in the East, 318;
    absence of, in ill-bred drivers, 319;
    speech by Hon. Francis M. Hugo, general requirements and
      desirable qualities of men who are trusted to run automobiles
      on the public roads, 319

  Covers for radiator, 195

  Crank, 17;
    where placed and carried, 157;
    missing, instance of, 287

  Crank bearings, 17

  Crank case, 16;
    water in, 68;
    to be drained, cleaned, and refilled before touring, 245

  Crank-pin bearings cause knocking, 258

  Crank shaft, revolutions in complete cycle, 17;
    bearing causes knocking, 258;
    bent, causes knocking, 259

  Crank the engine, how to, 166

  Cranking engine, no use when switch is off, 285;
    five things to do before, 308;
    three things to do after, 309

  Creeper, to lie on in working under car, how to make, 240

  Crossings, railway, extra care necessary, 180

  Crown of the road causes slipping, 90

  Current, electric, course of, 108;
    break in, order of tests to find, 109;
    more used in starting in winter, 126

  Cut-out, object, 144;
    now prohibited and unnecessary, 145;
    sometimes causes fires when opened in garage, 216

  Cut-out, reverse current, 283

  Cuts in tires, 70

  Cycle of the engine, number of strokes, 17

  Cylinders, 16;
    importance of testing, 24;
    size of, in relation to air taken in, 47;
    proper power from each, 61;
    worn oval, 67;
    water in, 68;
    outside kept free from oil and grease, 238;
    raised by fiber gasket, 252;
    loose on base, causes knock, 256;
    worn causes knocking, 259;
    loose due to lost washers or pins, 270;
    test for compression, 274


  D

  Dashboard, wires and pipes, dials and gauges and switches on, 284

  Death from gasoline fumes, 224;
    how to avoid, 226

  Descending hills, use of engine as a brake, 172

  Differential, location and purpose of, 13;
    housing, 13;
    rules for care of, 311

  Disc clutch, multiple, 18

  Distance between cars, necessary to keep enough, 87

  Distributor, 16;
    dirty, causes knocking, 260;
    examine in case of trouble, 276

  Doors of garage left open when engine is running, 227

  Drivers must look out for pedestrians, 296

  Drive shaft, 19

  Driving, 156;
    in congested streets, 173

  Drums, brake, description and location, 14, 15;
    how injured, 98;
    keep free from oil, 247

  Dry cells may be carried while touring, 248

  Dust pan, parts drop into, 269


  E

  Electric, bulbs, extra set needed while touring, 249;
    lights and accessories cause trouble, 282

  Electrical, equipment, 108;
    trouble, tests for, 109;
    systems, knowledge of, necessary to operate and care for a modern
    car, 282, 283, 284

  Electricity, static, causes fires, 217

  Electrolite, replenish with water, 312

  Electrolitic action set up by salt in freeze-proof solution, 192

  Emergencies, be prepared for, with proper tools, 27

  Emergency brake, lever, 20, 159;
    to be set, 308

  Engine, three things necessary to start, 10, 273;
    three things necessary to keep running, 10, 21;
    location of, 15;
    description of, 16;
    cycle, number of strokes in, 17;
    power in, how secured, 22;
    use of, as a brake, 95, 172, 234;
    gap in secondary circuit helps to start, 112;
    skips at low speeds, 116;
    missing at high and low speeds, how to overcome, 116, 117;
    bearings, 150;
    how to start, 165;
    to prevent stalling, 167;
    speed of, learn to judge by sound, 167;
    stalls on a hill, what to do if, 172;
    missing due to cold weather, 184;
    higher temperature to the boiling point of water, best for
      efficiency, 189, 197;
    efficiency of, improved by covering radiator when running against
      the wind, 190;
    two things necessary to operate in winter, 191;
    freeze-proof solution, what to use, 191;
    priming in cold weather, 194;
    to start, sometimes necessary to substitute hot water for
      anti-freezing solution, 194;
    runs better in winter when fan is disconnected, 195;
    radiator cover necessary in cold weather, 195;
    overheating in summer causes trouble, 197;
    knocking at high speed, 198;
    overheats when driven at high speed with spark retarded, 198;
    overheating caused by sediment in radiator, 199;
    overheating caused by careless stretching of hose, 201;
    overheating rarely caused by pump, 201;
    keep free from carbon to prevent overheating, 202;
    will climb worst hills, if kept in good condition, 229;
    remove oil and grease from outside, 237, 238;
    remove carbon before touring, 247;
    knocks from too high compression caused by carbon, 251;
    knocking stopped by raising cylinder, 252;
    loose on frame, causes knocking, 259;
    loose, due to lost washers or pins, 270;
    oil and water necessary to keep running, 273;
    conditions existing in case of trouble, 273;
    stalled on crossing, instance of, 287;
    five things to do before cranking, 308

  Engine oil, for multiple disc clutch, 311

  Equipment, which may be purchased separately, 24;
    electrical, 108;
    extra, to be carried on car, 157

  Exhaust, steam from, in cold weather, 50

  Exhaust pipe, 15;
    may set fire to car, 215, 216;
    fumes from, cause death, 224;
    how to prevent, 226;
    composition of fumes, 226

  Exhaust stroke, 17

  Exhaust valves, sticking, cause knock, 257;
    carbon in, 274

  Expansion of charge, 17

  Expense of upkeep, 73

  Explosion, none, from gasoline, 222

  Extinguisher, fire, necessary, 218;
    dry and liquid, 223;
    carry while touring, 249


  F

  Fan, disconnect in cold weather, 195;
    formed by spokes of fly-wheel, 200;
    collects dust, 239;
    causes knocking, 260

  Fan belts, troubles of, how to care for, 200;
    collects dust, 239;
    coupling, causes knocking, 259

  Fan blades cause knocking, 259

  Feed systems, gravity, pressure, and vacuum, 163

  Felt, use of, to prevent oil on brake linings, 96

  Fence rail as jack, 30

  File, interrupter point, 28

  Fire, causes of, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 221;
    extinguisher necessary, 218;
    don’t run away from, stay and fight hard, 220;
    to put out, use sand, salt, or patent extinguisher, 222;
    carry extinguisher while touring, 249

  First-aid kit, 32

  Five things to do before cranking engine, 308

  Float in carburetor, 23

  Fly wheel, 17;
    spokes of, forming fan, 200;
    loose, causes knocking, 259;
    out of balance, causes knocking, 259

  Force, how produced in a gasoline engine, 17

  Force-feed lubrication, 16

  Four things to do before leaving garage, 308

  Freeze-proof solution, for engine, 191;
    composition of, depends on temperature, 192;
    best to use, 193;
    home-made, cheapest and just as efficient, 193;
    sometimes wise to replace, with hot water to start engine, 194

  Fresh-air problem, solution of, 301

  Fuel supply systems, 16;
    tank, 16

  Fuller’s earth for slipping clutch, 310

  Fumes of gasoline cause death, 224;
    chemical changes, composition of, 224, 226;
    heavier than air, 225;
    how to avoid, 226;
    intoxication from, 227, 228

  Fumes from stable or barnyard affect polished auto bodies, 243

  “Furnace,” hot-air for warming air before it enters carburetor, 187

  Fuse, 109;
    substitute for, in horn, 113


  G

  Gap in secondary circuit, 112

  Garage doors, leave open while engine is running, 227

  Garage, what to do before leaving, 157, 308;
    opening near floor for escape of gasoline fumes, 227

  Gaskets, intake manifold, 53;
    dented or jammed, 64;
    under cylinders increase size of compression chamber,
      and stop knocking, 253, 254

  Gas knock, 257

  Gasoline, and air, charge of, 17;
    under what conditions it explodes, 21;
    proportion of vapor to air to produce good combustion, 21;
    causes of excessive use of, 46;
    adjustment of carburetor to limit supply of, 47;
    needs oxygen for complete consumption, 47;
    water in, 52;
    strainer for, 52;
    different qualities of, 55;
    cost of, 58;
    economy of, 61, 62, 63;
    loss through leaking, 65;
    excess of, indicated by black smoke, 68;
    affects tires, 72;
    examine supply before leaving garage, 157;
    feed systems, 163;
    teakettle and dishrag method of vaporizing, 184, 188, 194;
    volatility of, decreasing, 185;
    present supply has higher heat-producing quality when vaporized,
      but heavier, harder to vaporize in cold weather, 186;
    heat necessary to change from liquid to vapor, 186, 187;
    stove makes vaporization easier, 187;
    when vaporized, sometimes condenses again in cold engine, 187;
    stove and water jacket both needed in cold weather, 188;
    vaporizes properly in a warm garage, some condenses in cold
      air, 188;
    unnecessary amount used by retarded spark, 198;
    less required in hot weather than in cold, 206;
    in drip-pan, cause of fire, 215;
    burns, does not explode under normal conditions, 221;
    will not explode unless vaporized, 222;
    fire, how to put out, 222;
    fumes, of, cause death, 224;
    chemical changes, composition of fumes of, 224-226;
    fumes of, heavier than air, 225;
    how to avoid fumes of, 226;
    intoxication from fumes of, 227, 228;
    loosens up grease and oil in cleaning car, 238;
    carry extra supply when touring, 246;
    necessary to start engine, 273;
    inspect, in case of trouble, 275;
    used for slipping clutch, 310

  Gasoline tank, where placed, how gasoline supply is maintained, 162;
    examine in case of trouble, 275

  Gas-pipe, carbon in, 272

  Gear, low-speed, as a brake, 95;
    high-speed, run on as much as possible, 168;
    always turn corners on second speed, 171

  Gear casings, collect dust, 239;
     refill before touring, 245

  Gear shifting, 137;
    necessary for proper adjustment of load to speed, 138;
    noiseless shifting desirable, 138;
    how best to shift from first to second, and second to third, 139;
    how best to shift from third to second, and second to
      first, 139, 140;
    when to go back to second, to first, 140;
    don’t shift too soon, 140;
    in hill climbing, 140;
    how to make a silent shift on a hill, 141;
    what makes gears grind, 141;
    how to avoid a noisy shift to first on starting, 141;
    on hills, 229;
    on an up grade, 231;
    starting up hill, 231;
    which gear is best to use, 232;
    avoid straining car by careful choice of gears, 232, 233;
    gears to use descending hills, 233, 234;
    no speeding on hills, perfect control of car necessary, 234

  Gear-shifting lever, where placed, how operated, 159;
    how to move, when stuck in neutral, 168;
    place in neutral, 308

  Gear-shifting pedals, 20

  Gears, purpose of, 18, 131;
    trouble comes in the shifting gears, not in the transmission, 130;
    grinding or clashing detrimental, 131, 141;
    diagram and explanation of three-speed gears, 131;
    to start, 133;
    to increase speed, 133, 134;
    to decrease speed, 135;
    to reverse, 136;
    care necessary, 136;
    use of, in hill-climbing, 171;
    examine before touring, 245

  Generator, 16;
    must not overcharge battery, 125;
    adjustable for summer and winter, 127

  Glycerin in freeze-proof solution, 192

  Gravity fuel supply, 16, 163

  Grease, 61;
    affects tires, 72;
    heavier quality needed in summer, 207;
    carry extra supply when touring, 246

  Grease cups, turn down, before leaving garage, 157, 311, 312

  Greasing car, rules for, 311, 312

  Grinding and clashing of gears, 131, 141

  Ground connections, 110

  Ground wire, loose, 114

  Guides, valve push-rod, enclosed in housings, 44;
    lubrication of, 44


  H

  Headlight trouble, 114

  Heat, much, necessary for vaporization of gasoline, 186, 189

  High-speed gear, run on, as much as possible, 168

  High-tension magneto system, 15

  Hill-climbing, how to shift gears, 140, 141;
    use of throttle, spark, and gears, 171;
    what to do if engine stalls, 172;
    use of clutch, 172;
    blowing horn when, 297

  Hills, descending, use of engine as a brake, 172;
    use of brakes on, 173;
    the steepest can be made by any modern car which is in good
      condition, 229

  Horn blowing, 292;
    how it has arisen, 295;
    much of it unnecessary, 296;
    blowing not necessary after others have seen you, 297;
    while passing and turning, 297;
    on hills, 297;
    when others are passing, 298

  Horn trouble, 113, 284

  Hose, careless stretching of, causes overheating, 201;
    defective, causes knocking, 260

  Hose and water, how to use in cleaning car, 240

  Hot weather, over-inflation of tire, instance of, 203;
    expands air in tires, giving greater pressure, 204

  Housings, differential, 13;
    for valve push-rod guides, 44

  Hub of rear wheel needs inspection when keyed to shaft, 43

  Hub caps, loss of, allows grit to get into bearings, 270

  Hugo, Hon. Francis M., speech by, 319

  Hydro-carbon in burning gasoline, 224

  Hydrometer, 109;
    rules for readings, 313


  I

  Ignition, switch, 20;
    magneto, 116;
    battery, 120;
    prevented by short-circuiting due to carbon, 120;
    switch, where placed, its use, how operated 162;
    use of, when braking with engine, on hills, 173;
    wrongly timed, causes knocking, 260;
    inspect in case of trouble, 276

  Ignition system, kinds, 15;
    work of, 24;
    bearings, 152;
    requires many changes of spark lever, 198;
    test before touring, 248;
    rules for locating trouble in, 314

  Inflation, tire, under, 60;
    increased by hot weather, 204;
    lower pressure needed in hot weather, 205;
    proper degree of, 211, 212

  Inlet valve, 17;
    trouble in, 274

  Inspect, don’t expect, 285

  Instruction book, manufacturer’s, importance of fully
    mastering, 1, 269

  Instructions, importance of following, 8, 9

  Insulation, heavy, on secondary wires absorbs current, 119

  Insurance premium lower when extinguisher is carried, 218

  Intake manifold, 16;
    gaskets, 53;
    leaky, 63;
    loose, 64

  Intake valve, 52

  Interrupter point file, 28

  Interrupter points, adjusting, to overcome engine missing at high
      or low speed, 116;
    cleaning of, 121;
    carbon in, 272;
    inspect in case of trouble, 276

  Iron, angle, used in chassis, 13

  Iron parts, how to keep from rusting, 239


  J

  Jack, importance of handle, 30;
    use of fence-rail as a, 30

  Jerking, how to overcome, 167

  Jet, low speed, clogged, 291

  Joints, universal, 19, 40


  K

  Kerosene, can be used for cleaning out the sump, 37;
    loosens up grease and oil, 238;
    for cleaning car, 241;
    for multiple disc clutch, 311

  Kit, first-aid, 32

  Knocking, of engine, 198;
    prevented by removal of carbon, 247;
    too high compression, 251;
    caused by cam-shaft gear, sticking exhaust valves, 257;
    stopped by increasing size of compression chamber, 252;
    many causes for, 255;
    some need immediate attention, some do not, 256;
    loose connecting rod bearing, loose cylinder,
    lack of lubrication, spark advanced too far, short circuit, 256;
    not caused by lean mixture, or over-advanced spark, 258;
    caused by mechanical looseness due to improper adjustment or
      wear, 258;
    by faulty ignition, 259;
    by faulty carburetion, 260;
    by faulty lubrication, 260;
    by overheating of engine, 260;
    by faulty compression, 260

  Knocks in the chassis, 262

  Knuckle-pins, how kept in place and relieved of weight, 104;
    inclined fore and aft, 105

  Knuckles, steering, 14, 40


  L

  Lamps, 109, 110

  Leaks of oil and gasoline, sources of, 65

  Lever, spark timing, 19;
    emergency brake, 20;
    throttle,
    19, 20, 161;
    clutch, lubrication of, 41;
    gear shifting, 159;
    emergency brake, 159;
    spark control, 161, 198

  Lighting switch, 20, 109

  Lighting system, rules for locating troubles in, 314

  Lights dim, what makes the, 283

  Linings, brake, can be ruined, 95;
    oil on, 96;
    wear thin, 98;
    when necessary to replace, 98

  Linkage, brake, 15, 97

  Links, loose cross, how to fasten, 271

  Linseed oil, use of, in cleaning car, 241

  Lubrication, systems, 16;
    why needed, 33;
    most common system, 34;
    troubles, 35;
    necessity of frequent inspection, 36;
    needed in many minor places, 39;
    steering knuckles, 40;
    universal joint, 40;
    clutch and brake levers, self-starter and accelerator, 41;
    spring shackles, 42;
    wheel bearings, 43;
    spring leaves, valve push-rod guides, overhead valves, 44;
    of brakes important, 97;
    system how made and supplied, its care, 164;
    in cold weather, 195;
    proper oil necessary, 195;
    heavier grease needed in summer, 207;
    inspect before touring, 246;
    time table, 312

  Lubricants, poor, cause knocking, 260


  M

  Magnetic field, distortion of, 117

  Magneto, high-tension, systems, 15;
    ignition, 116;
    manipulation of spark lever when using, 198;
    coupling causes knocking, 259;
    trouble,
    instance of, 291;
    rules for timing, 310

  Manifold, intake, 16;
    leaky, 63;
    loose, 64

  “Mechanicien” French term for driver of a car, 321

  Mechanics, careless, 269

  Misfiring, 63

  Mixing chamber, 23

  Mixture, 17;
    rich and lean, 21;
    proper, 56;
    thin, 63, 66;
    weak, 64;
    anti-freezing, 164, 165;
    warming device, necessary in winter, 186;
    too rich or too lean calls attention to other parts which are
      causing knocking, 258

  Motor, _see_ Engine

  Motor, starting, _see_ Self-starter

  Motorist, absent-mindedness in—bad habit, 285, 286, 287

  Motoring, future of, depends upon behavior of motorists toward the
    public, 320

  “Motorman” best term for driver of an automobile, 321

  Mud, dried, how to remove from car, 241

  Muffler, purpose of, 15;
    often neglected or misused, 143;
    its uses, and advantages, 143, 144;
    original object of the cut-out, 144;
    cut-out now prohibited and unnecessary, 145;
    needs careful attention, 145;
    clogging prevents escape of gases, and brings loss of
      power, 145, 146;
    instance of bad effect of clogging, 146;
    usually no provision made for inspection, 147;
    kerosene clogs, 147;
    special information sometimes necessary, 148

  Multiple disc clutch, 18


  N

  Neatsfoot oil for harsh gripping clutch, 310, 311, 312

  Needle valve, 52, 63, 276;
    adjust at low speed, 309

  Nitrogen in gasoline fumes, 224

  Noise, in the chassis, 262;
    from torque rod, from worn brake rods, from worn spring-shackle
      bolts, 264;
    from worn steering knuckle-pins, 265;
    from tools and accessories, 265;
    from broken gear teeth and other parts, 265

  Non-skid, tires, 81, 84, 85;
    chains, 81, 82;
    devices, which to use under various conditions, 85;
    chains often drop links, 270

  Nuts, tighten before touring, 248;
    absence of, cause squeaks, 269;
    examination of, 269;
    must know location of, 271


  O

  Oil, effect of absence of, in lubrication, 36;
    things which wear it out and make necessary to replace, 36, 37;
    how often to drain out, 37;
    things which affect its lubricating value, 37;
    in the combustion chamber, 48;
    how to prevent, 49;
    waste of, through leakage, 65;
    affects tires, 72, 165;
    on the brake lining, cause, results, how to prevent, 96;
    examine supply of, before leaving garage, 157, 308;
    proper, necessary for cold weather, 195;
    take car maker’s advice, 196;
    on fan belts, 200;
    remove from exterior of engine, 238;
    carry reserve supply when touring, 246;
    lack of, causes knocking, 260;
    excess of, causes knocking, 260;
    necessary to keep engine running, 273

  Oil feed sight, 20

  Oil level, how to correct when too high, 49

  Oil pump, 34, 35

  Oil the car, when to, 311, 312

  Oiled roads dangerous, 90;
    necessary to take at low speed, 92;
    during summer season, 207

  Outlet valves, 22

  Overheating, caused by sediment in radiator, 199;
    rarely caused by pump, 201;
    caused by careless stretching of hose, 201;
    caused by carbon in engine, 202

  Over-inflation of tire, in hot weather, instance of, 203;
    makes riding uncomfortable, 211

  Owner, originality, initiative, and ingenuity of, important, 9;
    should learn how to do many things himself, 202


  P

  Pail, folding, 29

  Parts dropped in streets, 268, 269;
    lost, puncture tires, 270

  Passengers, drive for the comfort of, 169

  Passing others, blowing horn while, 297, 298

  Pedals, gear-shifting, 20;
    starting, 20, 158, 288;
    brake, 20, 158;
    clutch, 20, 158;
    accelerator, 20, 160, 168;
    reverse, 95

  Pedestrians have right of way everywhere, 296

  “Pep,” 56

  Petcocks, 274

  Pin, tie rod, 270

  Pipe, exhaust, 15;
    exhaust, may set fire to car, 215, 216;
    attach to exhaust in garage, to lead fumes to outer air, 227

  Pipe lines, clogged, cause knocking, 260

  Pipes, leaky supply, 65;
    to prevent bursting of, 193

  Piston head, hole punched in, by valve head, 274

  Piston rings, 16;
    grooving and drilling to release surplus oil, 49;
    leaky, 53, 54;
    to prevent working around, 67;
    loose, cause knocking, 259;
    carbon in, 272

  Pistons, 16;
    too small, cause knocking, 259

  Pliers, carry while touring, 249

  Plug, spark, 17;
    cracks or porosity in, 119;
    carry extra set while touring, 249;
    to test in case of trouble, 277

  Policemen, don’t run away from, 10

  Power, stroke, 17;
    how connected to wheels, 18;
    how secured in engine, 22;
    necessity of pressure to get, 22;
    proper, from each cylinder, 61

  Pre-ignition, caused by increase of pressure in combustion
      chamber, 252;
    causes knocking, 260

  Premium on fire insurance lower when extinguishers carried, 218

  Pressure, necessity of, for power, 22;
    on tires increases in hot weather, 204;
    on tires test for increase in, in hot weather, 210;
    proper for tires, 211, 212;
    in combustion chamber, 251

  Pressure fuel system, 16, 163

  Priming, how done, 163;
    in cold weather, 194

  Propeller-shaft bearings, 154

  Pump, oil, 34, 35;
    overheating rarely caused by, 200;
    parts of, cause knocking, 260

  Pump type of cooling system, 15

  Puncture caused by lost parts, 270

  Push-rod adjustment causes knocking, 259

  Push-rods, clearance between valve stems and, causes trouble, 290


  R

  Radiator, location of, 15;
    examine, before leaving garage, 157;
    sediment in, 164, 199;
    to remedy discharge of steam from, 165;
    adjustable device to regulate admittance of air, 189;
    covers, 189, 195;
    cover partly or wholly in cold weather, 188, 189;
    if covered, improved efficiency of engine, 190;
    bursting of, to prevent, 193;
    water boiling in, 198;
    clogged, causes knocking, 260

  Radius rods, 13

  Railway crossings, extra care necessary, 180

  Rattles, causes of, 269

  Reverse the car, how to, 169

  Reverse pedal, use of, as a brake, 95

  Reversing, shifting of gears in, 136

  Rings, piston, 16, 49, 53, 54, 67

  Rivets of brake lining, 98

  Road rules, of Y. M. C. A., 156;
    local, must be obeyed, 173

  Roads, oiled, dangerous, 90;
    necessary to take at low speed, 92;
    generally sprinkled or oiled during summer season, 207

  Roads, signs along, importance of, 90;
    parts found along, 269

  Roadway, crown of the, causes slipping, 87, 90

  Rod, radius, 13;
    torque, 13, 264;
    tie, 14, 101, 106, 107;
    connecting, 17, 68

  Rotary motion, how obtained, 17

  Rubber hose decomposed by glycerin in freeze-proof solution, 192

  Rules, importance of following, 8, 9, 10;
    miscellaneous, 308

  Running brake, 158


  S

  Safety devices, best necessary, 89

  Salt in freeze-proof solution, 192

  Schools, automobile, manufacturers’ for purchasers, 3, 7;
    danger of being taught at inefficient or fraudulent
      institutions, 324

  Screws, absence of, causes squeaks, 269

  Secondary current absorbed by carbon, 119

  Sediment, in battery causing short-circuit, 126;
    in radiator, 164, 199

  Self-starter, pedal, 20;
    lubrication of, 41;
    types of, 128;
    bearings, 153

  Service stations, 7

  Shaft, crank, 17;
    drive, 19;
    rear, in driving causes click, 262

  Shifting gears, 133;
    on hills, 229;
    on an up grade, 231;
    starting uphill, 231;
    choice of gears, 232;
    avoid straining car, 232, 233;
    descending hills, 233, 234

  Short circuiting, causes fires, 217;
    causes knocking, 259

  Shut-off valve, 275

  Sight oil feed, 20

  Signs along the road, importance of, 90

  Skidding, 76;
    effects of, on car, 77;
    in winter, 77;
    turning corners, 78;
    rear wheel, how to stop, 79;
    street-car tracks, 80;
    uneven brakes, 86, 88;
    unequal distribution of weight, 81;
    best prevented by care, 82, 83;
    due mostly to excessive speed, 86;
    caused by crown of road, 87;
    by turning corners at high speed, by sharp turn of
      steering-wheel, 87;
    stopped by turning steering-wheel, 88

  Skipping sometimes overcome by enriching the mixture, 190

  Smoke, its sources, 46;
    remedies, 47, 48, 49;
    how to tell from what it comes, 50;
    black, 68

  Soap, not to be used on polished surfaces of car, 241

  Spark, 17;
    why advanced and retarded and how, 23;
    intensity of, increased by gap in secondary circuit, 112;
    has more kick, 116;
    very weak, perhaps caused by condenser, 121;
    use of, in hill-climbing, 171;
    retarded, uses unnecessary gasoline, and overheats engine, 198;
    greatly retarded indirectly causes fires, 216;
    retard to prevent knocking on hills, 231;
    over advanced does not cause knocking, 258;
    too late causes knocking, 259;
    at right time, necessary to start engine, 273;
    test for in case of trouble, 276;
    fully retarded, 308;
    advance two-thirds, 309

  Spark-control bearings, 153

  Spark lever, 19, 161, 198

  Spark plugs, 17;
    widening gaps of, to prevent engine missing, 117;
    insulating surface inside cylinder, 118;
    cracks in, insulation, 119;
    testing of, 120;
    short-circuited by carbon, 120;
    keep free from oil and grease, 238;
    carry when touring, 249;
    points of, cause knocking, 259, 260;
    carbon between points of, 272;
    how to test in case of trouble, 277

  Sparking at commutator, 283

  Sparks from commutators cause fires, 221

  Speed, how to shift gears in increasing or decreasing, 133, 134, 135;
    of engine, learn to judge by sound, 167;
    running at extreme, cause of fires, 215

  Speeds, number of, in gears, 18

  Spindles, 14

  Splash lubrication, 16;
    pan, 34

  Sponge, use of, in cleaning car, 240

  Spray nozzle, 275

  Spray valve, 63

  Spring leaves, lubrication of, 44

  Spring repair attachments, 248

  Spring-shackle bolts sometimes make noise, 264

  Spring shackles, lubrication of, 42

  Springs, examine before touring, 248

  Squeaks, causes of, 269

  Stalling engine, how caused, 167;
    what to do, on a hill, 172

  Starter, switch, trouble in, 280;
    a great convenience, but a source of trouble, 281, 282;
    pedal sticking, instance of, 288;
    makes automobile available to women, 302

  Starting, motor, 16;
    pedal, 20, 158;
    systems, types, 128;
    crank, 157;
    engine, three things necessary, 273

  Steam, from exhaust in cold weather, 50;
    to remedy discharge from radiator, 165

  Steering, of automobile compared with steering of different type
      of boats, 102;
    with broken tie rod, 106, 107

  Steering gear, out of true, 71;
    bearings, 154

  Steering knuckles, 14;
    lubrication in, 40

  Steering-shaft, worm on, 19

  Steering tie rod, 101

  Steering wheel, 19, 162

  Stop, how to, 168

  Storage battery, 15

  Stove, supplied by many manufacturers to heat air before it enters
      carburetor, 187;
    may be dispensed with in hot weather, 206

  Strain, how taken off knuckle pins, 104

  Streets, how to turn in narrow, 169;
    driving in congested, 173

  Strokes, suction, compression, power, and exhaust, 17

  Suburbs of any city, the place for automobiling, 303

  Suction stroke of engine, 17

  Sump, 34

  Supply pipes, leaky, 65

  Switch, lighting, 20, 109;
    ignition, 20, 162;
    self-starter, trouble in, 280;
    thrown to battery position, 308

  System, importance of, in locating trouble, 9;
    a process of elimination, 273

  Systems, cooling, kinds, 15;
    ignition, kinds, 15;
    lubrication, kinds, 16;
    fuel supply, kinds, 16, 163


  T

  Talc French, for slipping clutch, 310

  Tank, fuel supply, 16;
    gasoline, 162;
    water, 164

  Tape, tire, carry, while touring, 249

  Temperature, high, to the boiling point of water, but for
      efficiency of engine, 189

  Terminals, electric, testing of, 109

  Tests for electrical troubles, examples of, 109

  Thermo-syphon type of cooling system, 15

  Things to do, four before leaving garage, 308;
    five, before cranking engine, 308;
    three after cranking, 309

  Throttle, purpose, 23;
    use of, in hill-climbing, 171;
    open, in starting, 308;
    close, till engine idles, 309

  Throttle bearings, 153

  Throttle lever, its use, where placed, how operated, 19, 20, 161

  Tie rod, must not be bent, 14, 101;
    broken, 106, 107

  Tie rod pin, 270

  Timing, correct, 24

  Timing gears, to adjust, 309

  Timing gear teeth cause knocking, 259

  Timing, ignition, wrong, causes knocking, 260

  Tire pressure, tests of increase due to running in hot weather, 210

  Tire repair materials, carry, while touring, 249

  Tire-valve tool, 30

  Tires, purpose and location, 19;
    abuse of, 59, 60;
    deterioration of, 69;
    cuts in, 70;
    affected by steering gear, 71;
    by clutch, 71;
    by brakes, 72;
    by oil, grease, gasoline, and wet weather, 72;
    general cost of, 73;
    storing, in winter, 74;
    porosity of, 75;
    keep clean, 75;
    non-skid, 81, 84, 85, 86;
    examine, before leaving garage, 157;
    how to care for, 165;
    expand in hot weather, 204;
    pressure test of, after hot weather running, 205;
    under-inflation and over-inflation, 205;
    inflated too hard make riding uncomfortable, 211;
    weakened from any cause blow-out quicker, 211;
    proper pressure for, 211, 212;
    extra, carry on car, 249;
    puncture caused by lost parts, 270

  Tool for tire valves, 30

  Tools, furnished with car, 26;
    for emergencies, 27;
    too many better than too few, 27;
    additional, desirable, 28;
    to be carried on car, 157

  Tops, how to clean and care for, 242

  Torque rod, 13;
    causes knocks, 264

  Touring, what to do before, 244;
    refill gear case, 245;
    examine gears, 245;
    drain, clean, and refill crank case, 245;
    attend to lubrication, 246;
    carry extra oil, grease and gasoline on car, 246;
    examine brakes, 246;
    keep brake drums free from oil, 247;
    have carbon removed, 247;
    tighten nuts and inspect all parts, 248;
    test compression, grind in valves, inspect ignition system,
      recharge battery, dry cells should be carried, examine
      springs, 248;
    things which should be carried, 249

  Tow rope, 31;
    fastened to post and rear wheel, 86;
    carry while touring, 249

  Traffic, driving in, 173;
    rules give pedestrian right of way, 296;
    rules should be taught by auto schools, 325

  Transmission, 130;
    rules for care of, 311

  Transmission gear bearings, 154

  Trolley crossings, extra care necessary, 182

  Trouble, hunting must be systematic, 272;
    a process of elimination, 273;
    the first thing to do, 273;
    indications when engine turns over easily or hard, 273;
    compression tests, 273, 274;
    exhaust valves, 274;
    inlet valve, 274;
    inspect gasoline, 275;
    inspect carburetor, 275;
    inspect ignition system, 276; 277, 314;
    chart, Y. M. C. A., 279;
    in the self-starter switch, 280;
    caused by added conveniences, 280, 281;
    necessary to almost dismantle complex types of engines, 281;
    made by starter, 281, 282;
    made by electric lights and accessories, 282;
    by complicated electric systems and wiring, 282, 283, 284

  Tubes, how to keep, 73;
    carry extra while touring, 249

  Turn buckle, 14

  Turn, in narrow streets, how to, 169;
    corners, how to, 170

  Turning, blowing horn when, 297


  U

  Universal joints, 19, 40

  Upholstery, protect with slip covers, 243


  V

  Vacuum fuel supply, 16, 164

  Valve head, punches hole in piston head, 274

  Valve push-rod guides enclosed in housings, 44;
    lubrication of, 44

  Valve-stems, clearance between push rods and, causes trouble, 290

  Valve, needle, 52, 63, 276, 309;
    spray, 63;
    sticking causes knocking, 259;
    auxiliary air, 275, 309;
    shut off, 275

  Valves inlet, 17, 22;
    outlet, 22;
    overhead, lubrication of, 44;
    leaky, 54, 66;
    carbonized, 67, 272, 274;
    exhaust, 257;
    inlet, 274

  Vaporization of gasoline absorbs much heat, 187;
    best in cold weather when stove and water jacket are both used, 188

  Velocipede, setting of wheel compared with automobile, 105

  Vibration, effects of, 65

  Voltmeter, 109


  W

  Washers, supply to all nuts before touring, 248;
    absence of, causes squeaks, 269;
    lock, 270

  Washing automobile, what to use, how to do it, 175

  Waste, carry on car, 30;
    packed around battery has caused fires, 217

  Water, in cylinder and crank case, 68;
    where placed, its care, 164;
    boiling in radiator, 198;
    evaporates from battery quicker in hot weather, 206;
    of no use in fighting gasoline fires, 222;
    running, should be used in cleaning car whenever possible, 242;
    needed, 273;
    take on before leaving garage, 308

  Water jacket, on mixing chamber of gasoline, 187;
    to prevent bursting of, 193

  Wet weather affects tires, 72

  Wheel, fly, 17;
    steering, 19, 162

  Wheels, how front are made to converge and undergather, 14;
    how power is connected to, 18;
    why not parallel, 101, 102, 103;
    set to undergather, 104;
    setting of, compared with bicycle, 105

  Wheel bearings, lubrication of, 43

  Wind sometimes cools the engine too much when traveling against, 190

  Wire, spool of, 31;
    extra wire for additional device, 111;
    carry while touring, 249;
    to fasten cross link, 271

  Wire gauze, 52

  Wire terminals, keep free from oil and grease, 238

  Wires to plugs, inspect, in case of trouble, 277

  Wiring diagram, knowledge of, important, 115

  Wobbling, tendency to overcome by converging of wheels, 103

  Women as drivers, 300;
    Eastern and Western compared, 302;
    as apt as men at mastering details, 303;
    at Y. M. C. A. Auto School, 303;
    all types, pupils, 304;
    take cars apart and assemble them, 305;
    road instruction for, 306;
    have the main qualities needed for drivers, 307;
    taking up the auto seriously, 307

  Wood, block of, to put under jack, 30

  Worm on steering shaft, 19

  Wrist pin, out of line or loose, causes knocking, 259


  Y

  Yokes, 14

  Y. M. C. A. Automobile School, road rules, 56;
    general trouble chart, 279;
    women as pupils, 303



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