THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA

A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME XI SLICE III

Frost to Fyzabad

Articles in This Slice

251

FROST (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch, vorst, Ger. Frost, from the common Teutonic verb meaning “to freeze,” Dutch, vriezen, Ger. frieren; the Indo-European root is seen in Lat. pruina, hoar-frost, cf. prurire, to itch, burn, pruna, burning coal, Sansk. plush, to burn), in meteorology, the act, or agent of the process, of freezing; hence the terms “hoar-frost” and “white-frost” applied to visible frozen vapour formed on exposed surfaces. A frost can only occur when the surface temperature falls below 32° F., the freezing-point of water; if the temperature be between 28° and 32° it is a “light frost,” if below 28° it is a “heavy,” “killing” or “black frost”; the term “black frost” is also used when no hoar-frost is present. The number of degrees below freezing-point is termed “degrees of frost.” As soon as a mass of air is cooled to its dew-point, water begins to be precipitated in the form of rain, dew, snow or hail. Hoarfrost is only formed at the immediate surface of the land if the latter be at a temperature below 32°, and this may occur even when the temperature of the air a few feet above the ground is 12°-16° above the freezing-point. The heaviest hoar-frosts are formed under weather conditions similar to those under which the heaviest summer dews occur, namely, clear and calm nights, when there is no cloud to impede the radiation of heat from the surface of the land, which thereby becomes rapidly and completely cooled. The danger of frost is minimized when the soil is very moist, as for example after 10-12 mm. of rain; and it is a practice in America to flood fields on the receipt of a frost warning, radiation being checked by the light fog sheets which develop over moist soils, just as a cloud-layer in the upper atmosphere impedes radiation on a grand scale. A layer of smoke will also impede radiation locally, and to this end smoky fires are sometimes lit in such positions that the smoke may drift over planted ground which it is desirable to preserve from frost. Similarly, frost may occur in open country when a town, protected by its smoke-cloud above, is free of it. In a valley with fairly high and steep flanks frost sometimes occurs locally at the bottom, because the layer of air cooled by contact with the cold surface of the higher ground is heavier than that not so cooled, and therefore tends to flow or settle downwards along the slope of the land. When meteorological considerations point to a frost, an estimate of the night temperature may be obtained by multiplying the difference between the readings of the wet and dry bulb thermometer by 2.5 and subtracting the result from the dry bulb temperature. This rule applies when the evening air is at about 50° and 30.1 in. pressure, the sky being clear. An instrument has been devised in France for the prediction of frost. It consists of a wet bulb and a dry bulb thermometer, mounted on a board on which is also a scale of lines corresponding to degrees of the dry bulb, and a pointer traversing a scale graduated according to degrees of the wet bulb. Observations for the night are taken about half an hour before sunset. By means of the pointer and scale, the point may be found at which the line of the dry-bulb reading meets the pointer set to the reading of the wet bulb. The scale is further divided by colours so that the observed point may fall within one of three zones, indicating certain frost, probable frost or no probability of frost.

FROSTBITE, a form of mortification (q.v.), due to the action of extreme cold in cutting off the blood-supply from the fingers, toes, nose, ears, &c. In comparatively trifling forms it occurs as “chaps” and “chilblains,” but the term frostbite is usually applied only to more severe cases, where the part affected becomes in danger of gangrene. An immediate application of snow, or ice-water, will restore the circulation; the application of heat would cause inflammation. But if the mortification has gone too far for the circulation to be restored, the part will be lost, and surgical treatment may be necessary.

FROSTBURG, a town of Allegany county, Maryland, U.S.A., 11 m. W. of Cumberland. Pop. (1890) 3804; (1900) 5274 (578 foreign-born and 236 negroes); (1910) 6028. It is served by the Cumberland & Pennsylvania railway and the Cumberland & Westernport electric railway. The town is about 2000 ft. above sea-level on a plateau between the Great Savage and Dans mountains, and its delightful scenery and air have made it attractive as a summer resort. It is the seat of the second state normal school, opened in 1904. Frostburg is in the midst of the coal region of the state, and is itself almost completely undermined; it has planing mills and manufactures large quantities of fire-brick. The municipality owns and operates its waterworks. Natural gas is piped to Frostburg from the West Virginia fields, 120 m. away. Frostburg was first settled in 1812; was called Mount Pleasant until about 1830, when the present name was substituted in honour of Meshech Frost, one of the town’s founders; and was incorporated in 1870.

FROTHINGHAM, OCTAVIUS BROOKS (1822-1895), American clergyman and author, was born in Boston on the 26th of November 1822, son of Nathaniel Langdon Frothingham (1793-1870), a prominent Unitarian preacher of Boston, and through his mother’s family related to Phillips Brooks. He graduated from Harvard College in 1843 and from the Divinity School in 1846. He was pastor of the North Unitarian church of Salem, Massachusetts, in 1847-1855. From 1855 to 1860 he was pastor of a new Unitarian society in Jersey City, where he gave up the Lord’s Supper, thinking that it ministered to self-satisfaction; and it was as a radical Unitarian that he became pastor of another young church in New York City in 1860. Indeed in 1864 he was recognized as leader of the radicals after his reply to Dr Hedge’s address to the graduating students of the Divinity School on Anti-Supernaturalism in the Pulpit. In 1865, when he had practically given up “transcendentalism,” his church building was sold and his congregation began to worship in Lyric Hall under the name of the Independent Liberal Church; in 1875 they removed to the Masonic Temple, but four years later ill-health compelled Frothingham’s resignation, and the church dissolved. Paralysis threatened him and he never fully recovered his health; in 1881 he returned to Boston, where he died on the 27th of November 1895. To this later period of his life belongs his best literary work. While he was in New York he was for a time art critic of the Tribune. Always himself on the unpopular side and an able but thoroughly fair critic of the majority, he habitually under-estimated his own worth; he was not only an anti-slavery leader when abolition was not popular even in New England, and a radical and rationalist when it was impossible for him to stay conveniently in the Unitarian Church, but he 252 was the first president of the National Free Religious Association (1867) and an early and ardent disciple of Darwin and Spencer. To his radical views he was always faithful. It is a mistake to say that he grew more conservative in later years; but his judgment grew more generous and catholic. He was a greater orator than man of letters, and his sermons in New York were delivered to large audiences, averaging one thousand at the Masonic Temple, and were printed each week; in eloquence and in the charm of his spoken word he was probably surpassed in his day by none save George William Curtis. Personally he seemed cold and distant, partly because of his impressive appearance, and partly because of his own modesty, which made him backward in seeking friendships.

FROUDE, JAMES ANTHONY (1818-1894), English historian, son of R.H. Froude, archdeacon of Totnes, was born at Dartington, Devon, on the 23rd of April 1818. He was educated at Westminster and Oriel College, Oxford, then the centre of the ecclesiastical revival. He obtained a second class and the chancellor’s English essay prize, and was elected a fellow of Exeter College (1842). His elder brother, Richard Hurrell Froude (1803-1836), had been one of the leaders of the High Church movement at Oxford. Froude joined that party and helped J.H. Newman, afterwards cardinal, in his Lives of the English Saints. He was ordained deacon in 1845. By that time his religious opinions had begun to change, he grew dissatisfied with the views of the High Church party, and came under the influence of Carlyle’s teaching. Signs of this change first appeared publicly in his Shadows of the Clouds, a volume containing two stories of a religious sort, which he published in 1847 under the pseudonym of “Zeta,” and his complete desertion of his party was declared a year later in his Nemesis of Faith, an heretical and unpleasant book, of which the earlier part seems to be autobiographical.

On the demand of the college he resigned his fellowship at Oxford, and mainly at least supported himself by writing, contributing largely to Fraser’s Magazine and the Westminster Review. The excellence of his style was soon generally recognized. The first two volumes of his History of England from the Fall of Wolsey to the Defeat of the Spanish Armada appeared in 1856, and the work was completed in 1870. As an historian he is chiefly remarkable for literary excellence, for the art with which he represents his conception of the past. He condemns a scientific treatment of history and disregards its philosophy. He held that its office was simply to record human actions and that it should be written as a drama. Accordingly he gives prominence to the personal element in history. His presentations of character and motives, whether truthful or not, are undeniably fine; but his doctrine that there should be “no theorizing” about history tended to narrow his survey, and consequently he sometimes, as in his remarks on the foreign policy of Elizabeth, seems to misapprehend the tendencies of a period on which he is writing.

Froude’s work is often marred by prejudice and incorrect statements. He wrote with a purpose. The keynote of his History is contained in his assertion that the Reformation was “the root and source of the expansive force which has spread the Anglo-Saxon race over the globe.” Hence he overpraises Henry VIII. and others who forwarded the movement, and speaks too harshly of some of its opponents. So too, in his English in Ireland (1872-1874), which was written to show the futility of attempts to conciliate the Irish, he aggravates all that can be said against the Irish, touches too lightly on English atrocities, and writes unjustly of the influence of Roman Catholicism. A strong anti-clerical prejudice is manifest in his historical work generally, and is doubtless the result of the change in his views on Church matters and his abandonment of the clerical profession. Carlyle’s influence on him may be traced both in his admiration for strong rulers and strong government, which led him to write as though tyranny and brutality were excusable, and in his independent treatment of character. His rehabilitation of Henry VIII. was a useful protest against the idea that the king was a mere sanguinary profligate, but his representation of him as the self-denying minister of his people’s will is erroneous, and is founded on the false theory that the preambles of the acts of Henry’s parliaments represented the opinions of the educated laymen of England. As an advocate he occasionally forgets that sobriety of judgment and expression become an historian. He was not a judge of evidence, and seems to have been unwilling to admit the force of any argument or the authority of any statement which militated against his case. In his Divorce of Catherine of Aragon (1891) he made an unfortunate attempt to show that certain fresh evidence on the subject, brought forward by Dr Gairdner, Dr Friedmann and others, was not inconsistent with the views which he has expressed in his History nearly forty years before. He worked diligently at original manuscript authorities at Simancas, the Record Office and Hatfield House; but he used his materials carelessly, and evidently brought to his investigation of them a mind already made up as to their significance. His Life of Caesar (1879), a glorification of imperialism, betrays an imperfect acquaintance with Roman politics and the life of Cicero; and of his two pleasant books of travel, The English in the West Indies (1888) shows that he made little effort to master his subject, and Oceana (1886), the record of a tour in Australia and New Zealand, among a multitude of other blunders, notes the prosperity of the working-classes in Adelaide at the date of his visit, when, in fact, owing to a failure in the wheat-crop, hundreds were then living on charity. He was constitutionally inaccurate, and seems to have been unable to represent the exact sense of a document which lay before him, or even to copy from it correctly. Historical scholars ridiculed his mistakes, and Freeman, the most violent of his critics, never let slip a chance of hitting at him in the Saturday Review. Froude’s temperament was sensitive, and he suffered from these attacks, which were often unjust and always too savage in tone. The literary quarrel between him and Freeman excited general interest when it blazed out in a series of articles which Freeman wrote in the Contemporary Review (1878-1879) on Froude’s Short Study of Thomas Becket.

Notwithstanding its defects, Froude’s History is a great achievement; it presents an important and powerful account of the Reformation period in England, and lays before us a picture of the past magnificently conceived, and painted in colours which will never lose their freshness and beauty. As with Froude’s work generally, its literary merit is remarkable; it is a well-balanced and orderly narrative, coherent in design and symmetrical in execution. Though it is perhaps needlessly long, the thread of the story is never lost amid a crowd of details; every incident is made subordinate to the general idea, appears in its appropriate place, and contributes its share to the perfection of the whole. The excellence of its form is matched by the beauty of its style, for Froude was a master of English prose. The most notable characteristic of his style is its graceful simplicity; it is never affected or laboured; his sentences are short and easy, and follow one another naturally. He is always lucid. He was never in doubt as to his own meaning, and never at a loss for the most appropriate words in which to express it. Simple as his language is, it is dignified and worthy of its subject. Nowhere perhaps does his style appear to more advantage than in his four series of essays entitled Short Studies on Great Subjects (1867-1882), for it is seen there unfettered by the obligations of narrative. Yet his narrative is admirably told. For the most part flowing easily along, it rises on fit occasions to splendour, picturesque beauty or pathos. Few more brilliant pieces of historical 253 writing exist than his description of the coronation procession of Anne Boleyn through the streets of London, few more full of picturesque power than that in which he relates how the spire of St Paul’s was struck by lightning; and to have once read is to remember for ever the touching and stately words in which he compares the monks of the London Charterhouse preparing for death with the Spartans at Thermopylae. Proofs of his power in the sustained narration of stirring events are abundant; his treatment of the Pilgrimage of Grace, of the sea fight at St Helens and the repulse of the French invasion, and of the murder of Rizzio, are among the most conspicuous examples of it. Nor is he less successful when recording pathetic events, for his stories of certain martyrdoms, and of the execution of Mary queen of Scots, are told with exquisite feeling and in language of well-restrained emotion. And his characters are alive. We may not always agree with his portraiture, but the men and women whom he saw exist for us instinct with the life with which he endows them and animated by the motives which he attributes to them. His successes must be set against his failures. At the least he wrote a great history, one which can never be disregarded by future writers on his period, be their opinions what they may; which attracts and delights a multitude of readers, and is a splendid example of literary form and grace in historical composition.

The merits of his work met with full recognition. Each instalment of his History, in common with almost everything which he wrote, was widely read, and in spite of some adverse criticisms was received with eager applause. In 1868 he was elected rector of St Andrews University, defeating Disraeli by a majority of fourteen. He was warmly welcomed in the United States, which he visited in 1872, but the lectures on Ireland which he delivered there caused much dissatisfaction. On the death of his adversary Freeman in 1892, he was appointed, on the recommendation of Lord Salisbury, to succeed him as regius professor of modern history at Oxford. Except to a few Oxford men, who considered that historical scholarship should have been held to be a necessary qualification for the office, his appointment gave general satisfaction. His lectures on Erasmus and other 16th-century subjects were largely attended. With some allowance for the purpose for which they were originally written, they present much the same characteristics as his earlier historical books. His health gave way in the summer of 1894, and he died on the 20th of October.

His long life was full of literary work. Besides his labours as an author, he was for fourteen years editor of Fraser’s Magazine. He was one of Carlyle’s literary executors, and brought some sharp criticism upon himself by publishing Carlyle’s Reminiscences and the Memorials of Jane Welsh Carlyle, for they exhibited the domestic life and character of his old friend in an unpleasant light. Carlyle had given the manuscripts to him, telling him that he might publish them if he thought it well to do so, and at the close of his life agreed to their publication. Froude therefore declared that in giving them to the world he was carrying out his friend’s wish by enabling him to make a posthumous confession of his faults. Besides publishing these manuscripts he wrote a Life of Carlyle. His earlier study of Irish history afforded him suggestions for a historical novel entitled The Two Chiefs of Dunboy (1889). In spite of one or two stirring scenes it is a tedious book, and its personages are little more than machines for the enunciation of the author’s opinions and sentiments. Though Froude had some intimate friends he was generally reserved. When he cared to please, his manners and conversation were charming. Those who knew him well formed a high estimate of his ability in practical affairs. In 1874 Lord Carnarvon, then colonial secretary, sent Froude to South Africa to report on the best means of promoting a confederation of its colonies and states, and in 1875 he was again sent to the Cape as a member of a proposed conference to further confederation. Froude’s speeches in South Africa were rather injudicious, and his mission was a failure (see South Africa: History). He was twice married. His first wife, a daughter of Pascoe Grenfell and sister of Mrs Charles Kingsley, died in 1860; his second, a daughter of John Warre, M.P. for Taunton, died in 1874.

FRUCTOSE, Laevulose, or Fruit-Sugar, a carbohydrate of the formula C6H12O6. It is closely related to ordinary d-glucose, with which it occurs in many fruits, starches and also in honey. It is a hydrolytic product of inulin, from which it may be prepared; but it is more usual to obtain it from “invert sugar,” the mixture obtained by hydrolysing cane sugar with sulphuric acid. Cane sugar then yields a syrupy mixture of glucose and fructose, which, having been freed from the acid and concentrated, is mixed with water, cooled in ice and calcium hydroxide added. The fructose is precipitated as a saccharate, which is filtered, suspended in water and decomposed by carbon dioxide. The liquid is filtered, the filtrate concentrated, and the syrup so obtained washed with cold alcohol. On cooling the fructose separates. It may be obtained as a syrup, as fine, silky needles, a white crystalline powder, or as a granular crystalline, somewhat hygroscopic mass. When anhydrous it melts at about 95° C. It is readily soluble in water and in dilute alcohol, but insoluble in absolute alcohol. It is sweeter than cane sugar and is more easily assimilated. It has been employed under the name diabetin as a sweetening agent for diabetics, since it does not increase the sugar-content of the urine; other medicinal applications are in phthisis (mixed with quassia or other bitter), and for children suffering from tuberculosis or scrofula in place of cane sugar or milk-sugar.

Chemically, fructose is an oxyketone or ketose, its structural formula being CH2OH·(CH·OH)3·CO·CH2OH; this result followed from its conversion by H. Kiliani into methylbutylacetic acid. The form described above is laevo-rotatory, but it is termed d-fructose, since it is related to d-glucose. Solutions exhibit mutarotation, fresh solutions having a specific rotation of −104.0°, which gradually diminishes to −92°. It was synthesized by Emil Fischer, who found the synthetic sugar which he named α-acrose to be (d + l)-fructose, and by splitting this mixture he obtained both the d and l forms. Fructose resembles d-glucose in being fermentable by yeast (it is the one ketose which exhibits this property), and also in its power of reducing alkaline copper and silver solutions; this latter property is assigned to the readiness with which hydroxyl and ketone groups in close proximity suffer oxidation. For the structural (stereochemical) relations of fructose see Sugar.

FRUGONI, CARLO INNOCENZIO MARIA (1692-1768), Italian poet, was born at Genoa on the 21st of November 1692. He was originally destined for the church and at the age of fifteen, in opposition to his strong wishes, was shut up in a convent; but although in the following year he was induced to pronounce monastic vows, he had no liking for this life. He acquired considerable reputation as an elegant writer both of Latin and Italian prose and verse; and from 1716 to 1724 he filled the chairs of rhetoric at Brescia, Rome, Genoa, Bologna and Modena successively, attracting by his brilliant fluency a large number of students at each university. Through Cardinal Bentivoglio he was recommended to Antonio Farnese, duke of Parma, who appointed him his poet laureate; and he remained at the court of Parma until the death of Antonio, after which he returned to Genoa. Shortly afterwards, through the intercession of Bentivoglio, he obtained from the pope the remission of his monastic vows, and ultimately succeeded in recovering a portion of his paternal inheritance. After the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle he returned to the court of Parma, and there devoted the later years of his life chiefly to poetical composition. He died on the 20th of December 1768. As a poet Frugoni was one of the best of the school of the Arcadian Academy, and his lyrics and pastorals had great facility and elegance.

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FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy), in its widest sense, any product of the soil that can be enjoyed by man or animals; the word is so used constantly in the Bible, and extended, as a Hebraism, to offspring or progeny of man and of animals, in such expressions as “the fruit of the body,” “of the womb,” “fruit of thy cattle” (Deut. xxviii. 4), &c., and generally to the product of any action or effort. Between this wide and frequently figurative use of the word and its application in the strict botanical sense treated below, there is a popular meaning, regarding the objects denoted by the word entirely from the standpoint of edibility, and differentiating them roughly from those other products of the soil, which, regarded similarly, are known as vegetables. In this sense “fruit” is applied to such seed-envelopes of plants as are edible, either raw or cooked, and are usually sweet, juicy or of a refreshing flavour. But applications of the word in this sense are apt to be loose and shifting according to the fashion of the time.

Fruit, in the botanical sense, is developed from the flower as the result of fertilization of the ovule. After fertilization various changes take place in the parts of the flower. Those more immediately concerned in the process, the anther and stigma, rapidly wither and decay, while the filaments and style often remain for some time; the floral envelopes become dry, the petals fall, and the sepals are either deciduous, or remain persistent in an altered form; the ovary becomes enlarged, forming the pericarp; and the ovules are developed as the seeds, containing the embryo-plant. The term fruit is strictly applied to the mature pistil or ovary, with the seeds in its interior; but it often includes other parts of the flower, such as the bracts and floral envelopes. Thus the fruit of the hazel and oak consists of the ovary enveloped by the bracts; that of the apple and pear, of the ovary and floral receptacle; and that of the pine-apple, of the whole inflorescence. Such fruits are sometimes distinguished as pseudocarps. In popular language, the fruit includes all those parts which exhibit a striking change as the result of fertilization. In general, the fruit is not ripened unless fertilization has been effected; but cases occur as the result of cultivation in which the fruit swells and becomes to all appearance perfect, while no seeds are produced. Thus, there are seedless oranges, grapes and pineapples. When the ovules are unfertilized, it is common to find that the ovary withers and does not come to maturity; but in the case of bananas, plantains and bread-fruit, the non-development of seeds seems to lead to a larger growth and a greater succulence of fruit.

The fruit, like the ovary, may be formed of a single carpel or of several. It may have one cell or cavity, being unilocular; or many, multilocular, &c. The number and nature of the divisions depend on the number of carpels and the extent to which their edges are folded inwards. The appearances presented by the ovary do not always remain permanent in the fruit. Great changes are observed to take place, not merely as regards the increased size of the ovary, its softening or hardening, but also in its internal structure, owing to the suppression, additional formation or enlargement of parts. Thus, in the ash (fig. 1) an ovary with two cells, each containing an ovule attached to a central placenta, is changed into a unilocular fruit with one seed; one ovule becomes abortive, while the other, g, gradually enlarging until the septum is pushed to one side, unites with the walls of the cell, and the placenta appears to be parietal. In the oak and hazel, an ovary with three and two cells respectively, and two ovules in each, produces a one-celled fruit with one seed. In the coco-nut, a trilocular and triovular ovary produces a one-celled, one-seeded fruit. This abortion may depend on the pressure caused by the development of certain ovules, or it may proceed from non-fertilization of all the ovules and consequent non-enlargement of the carpels. Again, by the growth of the placenta, or the folding inwards of parts of the carpels, divisions occur in the fruit which did not exist in the ovary. In Cathartocarpus Fistula a one-celled ovary is changed into a fruit having each of its seeds in a separate cell, in consequence of spurious dissepiments being produced horizontal from the inner wall of the ovary. In flax (Linum) by the folding inwards of the back of the carpels a five-celled ovary becomes a ten-celled fruit. In Astragalus the folding inwards of the dorsal suture converts a one-celled ovary into a two-celled fruit; and in Oxytropis the folding of the ventral suture gives rise to a similar change. The development of cellular or pulpy matter, and the enlargement of parts not forming whorls of the flower, frequently alter the appearance of the fruit, and render it difficult to discover its formation. In the gooseberry (fig. 29), grape, guava, tomato and pomegranate, the seeds nestle in pulp formed by the placentas. In the orange the pulpy matter surrounding the seeds is formed by succulent cells, which are produced from the inner partitioned lining of the pericarp. In the strawberry the receptacle becomes succulent, and bears the mature carpels on its convex surface (fig. 2); in the rose there is a fleshy hollow receptacle which bears the carpels on its concave surface (fig. 3). In the juniper the scaly bracts grow up round the seeds and become succulent, and in the fig (fig. 4) the receptacle becomes succulent and encloses an inflorescence.

Fig. 1.—Samara or winged fruit of Ash (Fraxinus). 1, Entire, with its wing a; 2, lower portion cut transversely, to show that it consists of two cells; one of which, l, is abortive, and is reduced to a very small cavity, while the other is much enlarged and filled with a seed g.

Fig. 2.—Fruit of the Strawberry (Fragaria vesca), consisting of an enlarged succulent receptacle, bearing on its surface the small dry seed-like fruits (achenes). (After Duchartre.)

From Strasburger’s Lehrbuch der Botanik, by permission of Gustav Fischer.

Fig. 3.—Fruit of the Rose cut vertically. s’, Fleshy hollowed receptacle; s, persistent sepals; fr, ripe carpels; e, stamens, withered.

Fig. 4.—Peduncle of Fig (Ficus Carica), ending in a hollow receptacle enclosing numerous male and female flowers.

Fig. 5.—Fruit of Cherry (Prunus Cerasus) in longitudinal section. ep, Epicarp; m, mesocarp; en, endocarp.

From Strasburger’s Lehrbuch der Botanik, by permission of Gustav Fischer.

The pericarp consists usually of three layers, the external, or epicarp (fig. 5, ep); the middle, or mesocarp, m; and the internal, or endocarp, en. These layers are well seen in such a fruit as the peach, plum or cherry, where they are separable one from the other; in them the epicarp forms what is commonly called the skin; the mesocarp, much developed, forms the flesh or pulp, and hence has sometimes been called sarcocarp; while the endocarp, hardened by the production of woody cells, forms the stone or putamen immediately covering the kernel or seed. The pulpy matter found in the interior of fruits, such as the gooseberry, grape and others, is formed from the placentas, and must not be confounded with the sarcocarp. In some fruits, as in the nut, the three layers become blended together and are indistinguishable. In bladder senna (Colutea arborescens) the pericarp retains its leaf-like appearance, but in most cases it becomes altered both in consistence and in colour. Thus in the date the epicarp is the outer brownish skin, the pulpy matter is the mesocarp or sarcocarp, and the thin papery-like lining is the endocarp covering the hard seed. In the medlar the endocarp becomes of a stony hardness. In the melon the epicarp and endocarp are very thin, while the mesocarp forms the bulk of the fruit, differing in texture and taste in its external and internal parts. The rind of the orange consists of epicarp and mesocarp, while the endocarp forms partitions in the interior, filled with pulpy cells. The part of the pericarp attached to the peduncle is the base, and the point where the style or stigma existed is the apex. This latter is not always the apparent apex, as in the case of the ovary; it may be lateral or even basilar. The style sometimes remains in a hardened form, rendering the fruit apiculate; at other times it falls off, leaving only traces of its existence. The presence of the style or stigma serves to distinguish certain single-seeded pericarps from seeds.

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Fig. 6.—Seed-vessel or capsule of Campion, opening by ten teeth at the apex. The calyx c is seen surrounding the seed-vessel.

Fig. 7.—Capsule of Poppy, opening by pores p, under the radiating peltate stigma s.

When the fruit is mature and the seeds are ripe, the carpels usually give way either at the ventral or dorsal suture or at both, and so allow the seeds to escape. The fruit in this case is dehiscent. But some fruits are indehiscent, falling to Dehiscence of fruits. the ground entire, and the seeds eventually reaching the soil by their decay. By dehiscence the pericarp becomes divided into different pieces, or valves, the fruit being univalvular, bivalvular or multivalvular, &c., according as there are one, two or many valves. The splitting extends the whole length of the fruit, or is partial, the valves forming teeth at the apex, as in the order Caryophyllaceae (fig. 6). Sometimes the valves are detached only at certain points, and thus dehiscence takes place by pores at the apex, as in poppy (fig. 7), or at the base, as in Campanula. Indehiscent fruits are either dry, as the nut, or fleshy, as the cherry and apple. They are formed of one or several carpels. In the former case they usually contain only a single seed, which may become so incorporated with the pericarp as to appear to be naked, as in the grain of wheat and generally in grasses. In such cases the presence of the remains of style or stigma determines their true nature.

Fig. 8.—Dry dehiscent fruit. The pod (legume) of the Pea; r, the dorsal suture; b, the ventral; c, calyx; s, seeds.

From Vines’ Students’ Text-Book of Botany, by permission of Swan Sonnenschein & Co.

Fig. 9.—(1) Fruit or capsule of Meadow Saffron (Colchicum autumnale), dehiscing along the septa (septicidally); (2) same cut across, showing the three chambers with the seeds attached along the middle line (axile placentation).

Fig. 10.—Diagram to illustrate the septicidal dehiscence in a pentalocular capsule. The loculaments l correspond to the number of the carpels, which separate by splitting through the septa, s.

Fig. 11.—The seed vessel (capsule) of the Flower-de-Luce (Iris), opening in a loculicidal manner. The three valves bear the septa in the centre, and the opening takes place through the back of the loculaments. Each valve is formed by the halves of contiguous carpels.

Fig. 12.—Diagram to illustrate loculicidal dehiscence. The loculaments l, split at the back, and the valves separate, bearing the septa s on their centres.

Fig. 13.—Diagram to illustrate septifragal dehiscence, in which the dehiscence takes place through the back of the loculaments l, and the valves separate from the septa s, which are left attached to the placentas in the centre.

Dehiscent fruits, when composed of single carpels, may open by the ventral suture only, as in the paeony, hellebore, Aquilegia (fig. 28) and Caltha; by the dorsal suture only, as in magnolias and some Proteaceae, or by both together, as in the pea (fig. 8) and bean; in these cases the dehiscence is sutural. When composed of several united carpels, two types of dehiscence occur—a longitudinal and a transverse. In the longitudinal the separation may take place by the dissepiments throughout their length, so that the fruit is resolved into its original carpels, and each valve represents a carpel, as in rhododendron, Colchicum, &c.; this dehiscence, in consequence of taking place through the septum, is called septicidal (figs. 9, 10). The valves separate from their commissure, or central line of union, carrying the placentas with them, or they leave the latter in the centre, so as to form with the axis a column of a cylindrical, conical or prismatic shape. Dehiscence is loculicidal when the union between the edges of the carpels is persistent, and they dehisce by the dorsal suture, or through the back of the loculaments, as in the lily and iris (figs. 11, 12). In these cases each valve consists of a half of each of two contiguous carpels. The placentas either remain united to the axis, or they separate from it, being attached to the septa on the valves. When the outer walls of the carpels break off from the septa, leaving them attached to the central column, the dehiscence is said to be septifragal (fig. 13), and where, as in Linum catharticum and Calluna, the splitting takes place first of all in a septicidal manner, the fruit is described as septicidally septifragal; while in other cases, as in thorn apple (Datura Stramonium), where the splitting is at first loculicidal, the dehiscence is loculicidally septifragal. In all those forms the separation of the valves takes place either from above downwards or from below upwards. In Saxifraga a splitting for a short distance of the ventral sutures of the carpels takes place, so that a large apical pore is formed. In the fruit of Cruciferae, as wallflower (fig. 14), the valves separate from the base of the fruit, leaving a central replum, or frame, which supports the false septum formed by a prolongation from the parietal placentas on opposite sides of the fruit, extending between the ventral sutures of the carpels. In Orchidaceae (fig. 15) the pericarp, when ripe, separates into three valves in a loculicidal manner, but the midribs of the carpels, to which the placentas are attached, often remain adherent to the axis both at the apex and base after the valves bearing the seeds have fallen. The other type of dehiscence is transverse, or circumscissile, when the upper part of the united carpels falls off in the form of a lid or operculum, as in Anagallis and in henbane (Hyoscyamus) (fig. 16).

Fig. 14.—Siliqua or seed-vessel of Wallflower (Cheiranthus Cheiri), opening by two valves, which separate from the base upwards, leaving the seeds attached to the dissepiment which is supported by the replum.

From Strasburger’s Lehrbuch der Botanik, by permission of Gustav Fischer.

Fig. 15.—Capsule of an Orchid (Xylobium). v, valve.

Fig. 16.—Seed-vessel of Anagallisarvensis, opening by circumscissile dehiscence.

From Strasburger’s Lehrbuch der Botanik, by permission of Gustav Fischer.

Fig. 17.—Lomentum of Hedysarum which, when ripe, separates transversely into single-seeded portions or mericarps.

Fig. 18.—Fruit of Geranium pratense, after splitting.

Sometimes the axis is prolonged beyond the base of the carpels, as in the mallow and castor-oil plant, the carpels being united to it throughout their length by their faces, and separating from it without opening. In the Umbelliferae the two carpels separate from the lower part of the axis, and remain attached by their apices to a prolongation of it, called a carpophore or podocarp, which splits into two (fig. 25) and suspends them; hence the fruit is termed a cremocarp, which divides into two mericarps. The general term schizocarp is applied to all dry fruits, which break up into two or more one-seeded indehiscent mericarps, as in Hedysarum (fig. 17). In the order Geraniaceae the styles remain attached to a central column, and the mericarps separate from below upwards, before dehiscing by their ventral suture (fig. 18). Carpels which separate one from another in this manner are called cocci. They are well 256 seen in the order Euphorbiaceae, where there are usually three such carpels, and the fruit is termed tricoccus. In many of them, as Hura crepitans, the cocci separate with great force and elasticity. In many leguminous plants, such as Ornithopus, Hedysarum (fig. 17), Entada, Coronilla and the gum-arabic plant (Acacia arabica), the fruit becomes a schizocarp by the formation of transverse partitions from the folding in of the sides of the pericarp, and distinct separations taking place at these partitions.

Fruits are formed by one flower, or are the product of several flowers combined. In the former case they are either apocarpous, of one mature carpel or of several separate free carpels; or syncarpous, of several carpels, more or less completely united. When the fruit is composed of the ovaries of several flowers united, it is usual to find the bracts and floral envelopes also joined with them, so as to form one mass; hence such fruits are known as multiple, confluent or anthocarpous. The term simple is applied to fruits which are formed by the ovary of a single flower, whether they are composed of one or several carpels, and whether these carpels are separate or combined.

From Vines’ Students’ Text-Book of Botany, by permission of Swan Sonnenschein & Co.

Fig. 19.—Dry one-seeded fruit of dock (Rumex) cut vertically. ov, Pericarp formed from ovary wall; s, seed; e, endosperm; pl, embryo with radicle pointing upwards and cotyledons downwards—enlarged.

Fig. 20.—Achene of Ranunculus arvensis in longitudinal section; e, endosperm; pl, embryo. (After Baillon, enlarged.)

From Strasburger’s Lehrbuch der Botanik, by permission of Gustav Fischer.

Fig. 21.—Fruit of Common Sycamore (Acer Pseudoplatanus), dividing into two mericarps m; s, pedicel; fl, wings (nat. size).

The object of the fruit in the economy of the plant is the protection and nursing of the developing seed and the dispersion of the ripe seeds. Hence, generally, one-seeded fruits are indehiscent, while fruits containing more than one seed open to allow Dispersal of fruit or seed. of the dispersal of the seeds over as wide an area as possible. The form, colour, structure and method of dehiscence of fruits and the form of the contained seeds are intimately associated with the means of dispersal, which fall into several categories. (1) By a mechanism residing in the fruit. Thus many fruits open suddenly when they are dry, and the seeds are ejected by the twisting or curving of the valves, or in some other way; e.g. in gorse, by the spiral curving of the valves; in Impatiens, by the twisting of the cocci; in squirting cucumber, by the pressure exerted on the pulpy contents by the walls of the pericarp. (2) By aid of various external agencies such as water. Fruits or seeds are sometimes sufficiently buoyant to float for a long time on sea- or fresh-water; e.g. coco-nut, by means of its thick, fibrous coat (mesocarp), is carried hundreds of miles in the sea, the tough, leathery outer coat (epicarp) preventing it from becoming water-soaked. Fruits and seeds of West Indian plants are thrown up on the coasts of north-west Europe, having been carried by the Gulf Stream, and will often germinate; many are rendered buoyant by air-containing cavities, and the embryo is protected from the seawater by the tough coat of fruit or seed. Water-lily seeds are surrounded with a spongy tissue when set free from the fruit, and float for some distance before dropping to the bottom. (3) The most general agent in the dispersal of seeds is the wind or currents of air—the fruit or seed being rendered buoyant by wing-developments as in fruits of ash (fig. 1) or maple (fig. 21), seeds of pines and firs, or many members of the order Bignoniaceae; or hair-developments as in fruits of clematis, where the style forms a feathery appendage, fruits of many Compositae (dandelion, thistle, &c.), which are crowned by a plumose pappus, or seeds of willow and poplar, or Asclepias (fig. 36), which bear tufts of silky hairs; to this category belong bladder-like fruits, such as bladder-senna, which are easily rolled by the wind, or cases like the so-called rose of Jericho, a small cruciferous plant (Anastatica hierocuntica), where the plant dries up after developing its fruits and becomes detached from the ground; the branches curl inwards, and the whole plant is rolled over the dry ground by the wind. The wind also aids the dispersal of the seeds in the case of fruits which open by small teeth (many Caryophyllaceae [fig. 6]) or pores (poppy [fig. 7], Campanula, &c.); the seeds are in these cases small and numerous, and are jerked through the pores when the capsules, which are generally borne on long, dry stems or stalks, are shaken by the wind. (4) In other cases members of the animal world aid in seed-dispersal. Fruits often bear stiff hairs or small hooks, which cling to the coat of an animal or the feathers of a bird; such are fruits of cleavers (Galium Aparine), a common hedge-row plant, Ranunculus arvensis (fig. 20), carrot, Geum, &c.; or the fruit or seed has an often bright-coloured, fleshy covering, which is sought by birds as food, as in stone-fruits such as plum, cherry (fig. 5), &c., where the seed is protected from injury in the mouth or stomach of the animal by the hard endocarp; or the hips of the rose (fig. 3), where the succulent scarlet “fruit” (the swollen receptacle) envelops a number of small dry true fruits (achenes), which cling by means of stiff hairs to the beak of the bird.

Fig. 22.—Vertical section of a grain of wheat, showing embryo below at the base of the endosperm e; s, scutellum separating embryo from endosperm; f.l, foliage leaf; p.s, sheath of plumule; p.r, primary root; s.p.r, sheath of primary root.

Fig. 23.—Fruit of Comfrey (Symphytum) surrounded by persistent calyx, c. The style s appears to arise from the base of the carpels, enlarged.

Fig. 24.—Ovary of Foeniculum officinale with pendulous ovules, in longitudinal section. (After Berg and Schmidt, magnified.)

From Strasburger’s Lehrbuch der Botanik, by permission of Gustav Fischer.

Fig. 25.—Fruit of Carum Carui. A, Ovary of the flower; B, ripe fruit. The two carpels have separated so as to form two mericarps (m). Part of the septum constitutes the carpophore (a). p, Top of flower-stalk; d, disk on top of ovary; n, stigma.

From Vines’ Students’ Text-Book of Botany, by permission of Swan Sonnenschein & Co.

Simple fruits have either a dry or succulent pericarp. The achene is a dry, one-seeded, indehiscent fruit, the pericarp of which is closely applied to the seed, but separable from it. It is solitary, forming a single fruit, as in the dock (fig. 19) and in the Forms of fruit. cashew, where it is supported on a fleshy peduncle; or aggregate, as in Ranunculus (fig. 20), where several achenes are placed on a common elevated receptacle. In the strawberry the achenes (fig. 2) are aggregated on a convex succulent receptacle. In the rose they are supported on a concave receptacle (fig. 3), and in the fig the succulent receptacle completely encloses the achenes (fig. 4). In Dorstenia the achenes are situated on a flat or slightly concave receptacle. Hence what in common language are called the seeds of the strawberry, rose and fig, are in reality ripe carpels. The styles occasionally remain attached to the achenes in the form of feathery appendages, as in Clematis. In Compositae, the fruit is an inferior achene (cypsela), to which the pappus (modified calyx) remains adherent. Such is also the nature of the fruit in Dipsacaceae (e.g. scabious). When the pericarp is thin, and appears like a bladder surrounding the seed, the achene is termed a utricle, as in Amarantaceae. When the pericarp is extended in the form of a winged appendage, a samara or samaroid achene is produced, as in the ash (fig. 1) and common sycamore (fig. 21). In these cases there are usually two achenes united, one of which, however, as in Fraxinus (fig. 1), may be abortive. The wing surrounds the fruit longitudinally in the elm. When the pericarp becomes so incorporated with the seed as to be inseparable from it, as in grains of wheat (fig. 22), maize, oats and other grasses, then the name caryopsis is given. The one-seeded portions (mericarps) of schizocarps often take the form of achenes, e.g. the mericarps of the 257 mallows or of umbellifers (figs. 24, 25). In Labiatae and Boraginaceae (e.g. comfrey, fig. 23), where the bicarpellary ovary becomes our one-seeded portions in the fruit, the partial fruits are of the nature of achenes or nutlets according to the texture (leathery or hard) of the pericarp.

From Strasburger’s Lehrbuch der Botanik, by permission of Gustav Fischer.

Fig. 26.—Cupule of Quercus Aegilops. cp, cupule; gl, fruit. (After Duchartre.)

The nut or glans is a dry one-celled indehiscent fruit with a hardened pericarp, often surrounded by bracts at the base, and, when mature, containing only one seed. In the young state the ovary often contains two or more ovules, but only one comes to maturity. It is illustrated by the fruits of the hazel and chestnut, which are covered by leafy bracts, in the form of a husk, and by the acorn, in which the bracts and receptacle form a cupula or cup (fig. 26). The parts of the pericarp of the nut are united so as to appear one. In common language the term nut is very vaguely applied both to fruit and seeds.

The drupe is a succulent usually one-seeded indehiscent fruit, with a pericarp easily distinguishable into epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp. This term is applied to such fruits as the cherry (fig. 5), peach, plum, apricot or mango. The endocarp is usually hard, forming the stone (putamen) of the fruit, which encloses the kernel or seed. The mesocarp is generally pulpy and succulent, so as to be truly a sarcocarp, as in the peach, but it is sometimes of a tough texture, as in the almond, and at other times is more or less fibrous, as in the coco-nut. In the almond there are often two ovules formed, only one of which comes to perfection. In the raspberry and bramble several small drupes or drupels are aggregated so as to constitute an etaerio.

The follicle is a dry unilocular many-seeded fruit, formed from one carpel and dehiscing by the ventral suture. It is rare to meet with a solitary follicle forming the fruit. There are usually several aggregated together, either in a whorl on a shortened receptacle, as in hellebore, aconite, larkspur, columbine (figs. 27, 28) or the order Crassulaceae, or in a spiral manner on an elongated receptacle, as in Magnolia and Banksia. Occasionally, follicles dehisce by the dorsal suture, as in Magnolia grandiflora and Banksia.

Fig. 27.—Fruit of Columbine (Aquilegia), formed of five follicles.

Fig. 28.—Single follicle, showing dehiscence by the ventral suture.

Fig. 29.—Transverse section of berry of Gooseberry, showing the seeds attached to the parietal placentas and immersed in pulp, which is formed partly from the endocarp, partly from the seed-coat.

Fig. 30.—Section of the fruit of the Apple (Pyrus Malus), or pome, consisting of a fleshy covering formed by the floral receptacle and the true fruit or core with five cavities with seeds.

The legume or pod is a dry monocarpellary unilocular many-seeded fruit, formed from one carpel, dehiscing both by the ventral and the dorsal suture. It characterizes leguminous plants, as the bean and pea (fig. 8). In the bladder-senna it forms an inflated legume. In some Leguminosae, as Arachis, Cathartocarpus Fistula and the tamarind, the fruit must be considered a legume, although it does not dehisce. The first of these plants produces its fruit underground, and is called earth-nut; the second has a partitioned legume and is schizocarpic; and both the second and third have pulpy matter surrounding the seeds. Some legumes are schizocarpic by the formation of constrictions externally. Such a form is the lomentum or lomentaceous legume of Hedysarum (fig. 17), Coronilla, Ornithopus, Entada and of some Acacias. In Medicago the legume is twisted like a snail, and in Caesalpinia coriaria, or Divi-divi, it is vermiform or curved like a worm. Sometimes the number of seeds is reduced, as in Erythrina monosperma and Geoffroya superba, which are one-seeded, and in Pterocarpus and Dalbergia, which are two-seeded.

Fig. 31.—Transverse section of the fruit of the Melon (Cucumis Melo), showing the placentas with the seeds attached to them. The three carpels forming the pepo are separated by partitions. From the centre processes pass outwards, ending in the curved placenta.

The berry (bacca) is a term applied generally to all fruits with seeds immersed in pulp, and includes fruits of very various origin. In Actaea (baneberry) or Berberis (barberry) it is derived from a single free carpel; generally, however, it is the product of a syncarpous ovary, which is superior, as in grape or potato, or inferior, as in gooseberry (fig. 29) or currant. In the pomegranate there is a peculiar baccate many-celled inferior fruit, having a tough rind, enclosing two rows of carpels placed one above the other. The seeds are immersed in pulp, and are attached irregularly to the wall, base and centre of the loculi. In the baobab there is a multilocular syncarpous fruit, in which the seeds are immersed in pulp.

The pepo, another indehiscent syncarpous fruit, is illustrated by the fruit of the gourd, melon (fig. 31) and other Cucurbitaceae. It is formed of three carpels, surmounted by the calyx; the rind is thick and fleshy, and there are three or more seed-bearing parietal placentas, either surrounding a central cavity or prolonged inwards into it. The fruit of the papaw resembles the pepo, but the calyx is not superior.

The hesperidium is the name given to such indehiscent fleshy syncarpous fruits as the orange, lemon and shaddock, in which the epicarp and mesocarp form a separable rind, and the endocarp sends prolongations inwards, forming triangular divisions, to the inner angle of which the seeds are attached, pulpy cells being developed around them from the wall. Both pepo and hesperidium may be considered as modifications of the berry.

The pome (fig. 30), seen in the apple, pear, quince, medlar and hawthorn, is a fleshy indehiscent syncarpous fruit, in the formation of which the receptacle takes part. The outer succulent part is the swollen receptacle, the horny core being the true fruit developed from the usually five carpels and enclosing the seeds. In the medlar the core (or true pericarp) is of a stony hardness, while the outer succulent covering is open at the summit. The pome somewhat resembles the fruit of the rose (fig. 3), where the succulent receptacle surrounds a number of separate achenes.

The name capsule is applied generally to all dry syncarpous fruits, which dehisce by valves. It may thus be unilocular or multilocular, one- or many-seeded. The true valvular capsule is observed in Colchicum (fig. 9), lily and iris (fig. 11). The porose capsule is seen in the poppy (fig. 7), Antirrhinum and Campanula. In Campanula the pores occur at the base of the capsule, which becomes inverted when ripe. When the capsule opens by a lid, or by circumscissile dehiscence, it is called a pyxidium, as in pimpernel (Anagallis arvensis) (fig. 16), henbane and monkey-pot (Lecythis). The capsule assumes a screw-like form in Helicteres, and a star-like form in star-anise (Illicium anisatum). In certain instances the cells of the capsule separate from each other, and open with elasticity to scatter the seeds. This kind of capsule is met with in the sandbox tree (Hura crepitans) and other Euphorbiaceae, where the cocci, containing each a single seed, burst asunder with force; and in Geraniaceae, where the cocci, each containing, when mature, usually one seed, separate from the carpophore, become curved upwards by their adherent styles, and open by the ventral suture (fig. 18).

The siliqua is a dry syncarpous bilocular many-seeded fruit, formed from two carpels, with a false septum, dehiscing by two valves from below upwards, the valves separating from the placentas and leaving them united by the septum (fig. 32). The seeds are attached on both sides of the septum, either in one row or in two. When the fruit is long and narrow it is a siliqua (fig. 14); when broad and short, silicula (fig. 33). It occurs in cruciferous plants, as wallflower, cabbage and cress. In Glaucium and Eschscholtzia (Papaveraceae) the dissepiment is of a spongy nature. It may become transversely constricted (lomentaceous), as in radish (Raphanus) and sea-kale, and it may be reduced, as in woad (Isatis), to a one-seeded condition.

It sometimes happens that the ovaries of two flowers unite so as to form a double fruit (syncarp). This may be seen in many species of honeysuckle. But the fruits which are now to be considered consist usually of the floral envelopes, as well as the ovaries of several flowers united into one, and are called multiple or confluent. The term anthocarpous has also been applied as indicating that the floral envelopes as well as the carpels are concerned in the formation of the fruit.

The sorosis is a succulent multiple fruit formed by the confluence 258 of a spike of flowers, as in the fruit of the pine-apple (fig. 34), the bread-fruit and jack-fruit. Similarly the fruit of the mulberry represents a catkin-like inflorescence.

The syconus is an anthocarpous fruit, in which the receptacle completely encloses numerous flowers and becomes succulent. The fig (fig. 4) is of this nature, and what are called its seeds are the achenes of the numerous flowers scattered over the succulent hollowed receptacle. In Dorstenia the axis is less deeply hollowed, and of a harder texture, the fruit exhibiting often very anomalous forms.

The strobilus, or cone, is a seed-bearing spike, more or less elongated, covered with scales, each of which may be regarded as representing a separate flower, and has often two seeds at its base; the seeds are naked, no ovary being present. This fruit is seen in the cones of firs, spruces, larches and cedars, which have received the name of Coniferae, or cone-bearers, on this account. Cone-like fruit is also seen in most Cycadaceae. The scales of the strobilus are sometimes thick and closely united, so as to form a more or less angular and rounded mass, as in the cypress; while in the juniper they become fleshy, and are so incorporated as to form a globular fruit like a berry. The dry fruit of the cypress and the succulent fruit of the juniper have received the name of galbulus. In the hop the fruit is called also a strobilus, but in it the scales are thin and membranous, and the seeds are not naked but are contained in pericarps.

Fig. 32.—Honesty (Lunaria biennis), showing the septum after the carpels have fallen away.

From Strasburger’s Lehrbuch der Botanik, by permission of Gustav Fischer.

Fig. 33.—Silicula or pouch of shepherd’s purse (Capsella), opening by two folded valves, which separate from above downwards. The partition is narrow, hence the silicula is angustiseptal.

From Strasburger’s Lehrbuch der Botanik, by permission of Gustav Fischer.

Fig. 34.—Fruit of the pine-apple (Ananassa sativa), developed from a spike of numerous flowers with bracts, united so as to form a collective or anthocarpous fruit. The crown of the pine-apple, c, consists of a series of empty bracts prolonged beyond the fruit.

The same causes which produce alterations in the other parts of the flower give rise to anomalous appearances in the fruit. The carpels, in place of bearing seeds, are sometimes changed into leaves, with lobes at their margins. Leaves are sometimes produced from the upper part of the fruit. In the genus Citrus, to which the orange and lemon belong, it is very common to meet with a separation of the carpels, so as to produce what are called horned oranges and fingered citrons. In this case a syncarpous fruit has a tendency to become apocarpous. In the orange we occasionally find a supernumerary row of carpels produced, giving rise to the appearance of small and imperfect oranges enclosed within the original one; the navel orange is of this nature. It sometimes happens that, by the union of flowers, double fruits are produced. Occasionally a double fruit is produced, not by the incorporation of two flowers, but by the abnormal development of a second carpel in the flower.

Arrangement of Fruits.

A. True fruits—developed from the ovary alone.

1. Pericarp not fleshy or fibrous.

i. Indehiscent—not opening to allow the escape of the seeds—generally one-seeded. Achene; caryopsis; cypsela; nut; schizocarp.

ii. Dehiscent—the pericarp splits to allow the escape of the seeds—generally many-seeded. Follicle; legume; siliqua; capsule.

2. Pericarp generally differentiated into distinct layers, one of which is succulent or fibrous. Drupe; berry.

B. Pseudocarps—the development extends beyond the ovary. Pome; syconus; sorosis.

The Seed.—The seed is formed from the ovule as the result of fertilization. It is contained in a seed-vessel formed from the ovary in the plants called angiospermous; while in gymnospermous plants, such as Coniferae and Cycadaceae, it is naked, or, in other words, has no true pericarp. It sometimes happens in Angiosperms, that the seed-vessel is ruptured at an early period of growth, so that the seeds become more or less exposed during their development; this occurs in mignonette, where the capsule opens at the apex, and in Cuphea, where the placenta bursts through the ovary and floral envelopes, and appears as an erect process bearing the young seeds. After fertilization the ovule is greatly changed, in connexion with the formation of the embryo. In the embryo-sac of most Angiosperms (q.v.) there is a development of cellular tissue, the endosperm, more or less filling the embryo-sac. In Gymnosperms (q.v.) the endosperm is formed preparatory to fertilization. The fertilized egg enlarges and becomes multicellular, forming the embryo. The embryo-sac enlarges greatly, displacing gradually the surrounding nucellus, which eventually forms merely a thin layer around the sac, or completely disappears. The remainder of the nucellus and the integuments of the ovules form the seed-coats. In some cases (fig. 35) a delicate inner coat or tegmen can be distinguished from a tougher outer coat or testa; often, however, the layers are not thus separable. The consistency of the seed-coat, its thickness, the character of its surface, &c., vary widely, the variations being often closely associated with the environment or with the means of seed-dispersal. An account of the development of the seed from the ovule will be found in the article Angiosperms. When the pericarp is dehiscent the seed-covering is of a strong and often rough character; but when the pericarp is indehiscent and encloses the seed for a long period, the outer seed-coat is thin and soft. The cells of the testa are often coloured, and have projections and appendages of various kinds. Thus in Abrus precatorius and Adenanthera pavonina it is of a bright red colour; in French beans it is beautifully mottled; in the almond it is veined; in the tulip and primrose it is rough; in the snapdragon it is marked with depressions; in cotton and Asclepias (fig. 36) it has hairs attached to it; and in mahogany, Bignonia, and the pines and firs it is expanded in the form of wing-like appendages (fig. 37). In Collomia, Acanthodium, Cobaea scandens and other seeds, it contains spiral cells, from which, when moistened with water, the fibres uncoil in a beautiful manner; and in flax (Linum) and others the cells are converted into mucilage. These structural peculiarities of the testa in different plants have relation to the scattering of the seed and its germination upon a suitable nidus. But in some plants the pericarps assume structures which subserve the same purpose; this especially occurs in small pericarps enclosing single seeds, as achenes, caryopsides, &c. Thus in Compositae and valerian, the pappose limb of the calyx forms a parachute to the pericarp; in Labiatae and some Compositae spiral cells are formed in the epicarp; and the epicarp is prolonged as a wing in Fraxinus (fig. 1) and Acer (fig. 21).

Fig. 35.—Seed of Pea (Pisum) with one cotyledon removed. c, Remaining cotyledon; ch, chalaza-point at which the nourishing vessels enter; e, tegmen or inner coat; f, funicle or stalk; g, plumule of embryo; m, micropyle; pl, placenta; r, radicle of embryo; t, tigellum or stalk between root and plumule; te, testa.

Fig. 36.—Seed of Asclepias, with a cluster of hairs arising from the edges of the micropyle.

Sometimes there is an additional covering to the seed, formed after fertilization, to which the name arillus has been given (fig. 38). This is seen in the passion-flower, where the covering arises from the placenta or extremity of the funicle at the base of the ovule and passes upwards towards the apex, leaving the micropyle uncovered. In the nutmeg and spindle tree this additional coat is formed from above downwards, constituting in the former case a laciniated scarlet covering called mace. In such instances it has been called an arillode (fig. 39). This arillode, after growing downwards, may be reflected upwards so as to cover the micropyle. The fleshy scarlet covering formed around the naked seed in the yew is by some considered of the nature of an aril. On the testa, at various points, there are produced at times other cellular bodies, to which the name of strophioles, or caruncles, has been given, the seeds being strophiolate or carunculate. These tumours may occur near the base of the seed, as in Polygala, or at the apex, as in Castor-oil plant (Ricinus); or they may occur in the course of the raphe, as in blood-root (Sanguinaria) and Asarabacca. The funicles of the ovules frequently attain a great length in the seed, and in some magnolias, when the fruit dehisces, they appear as long scarlet cords suspending the seeds outside. The hilum or umbilicus of the seed is usually 259 well marked, as a scar of varying size; in the calabar bean and in some species of Mucuna and Dolichos it extends along a large portion of the edge of the seed; it frequently exhibits marked colours, being black in the bean, white in many species of Phaseolus, &c. The micropyle (fig. 35, m) of the seed may be recognizable by the naked eye, as in the pea and bean tribe, Iris, &c., or it may be very minute or microscopic. It indicates the true apex of the seed, and is important as marking the point to which the root of the embryo is directed. At the micropyle in the bean is observed a small process of integument, which, when the young plant sprouts, is pushed up like a lid; it is called the embryotega. The chalaza (fig. 38, ch) is often of a different colour from the rest of the seed. In the orange (fig. 40) it is of a reddish-brown colour, and is easily recognized at one end of the seed when the integuments are carefully removed. In anatropal seeds the raphe forms a distinct ridge along one side of the seed (fig. 41).

The position of the seed as regards the pericarp resembles that of the ovule in the ovary, and the same terms are applied—erect, ascending, pendulous, suspended, curved, &c. These terms have no reference to the mode in which the fruit is attached to the axis. Thus the seed may be erect while the fruit itself is pendent, in the ordinary meaning of that term. The part of the seed next the axis or the ventral suture is its face, the opposite side being the back. Seeds exhibit great varieties of form. They may be flattened laterally (compressed), or from above downwards (depressed). They may be round, oval, triangular, polygonal, rolled up like a snail, as in Physostemon, or coiled up like a snake, as in Ophiocaryon paradoxum.

Fig. 37.—Seed of Pine (Pinus), with a membranous appendage w to the testa, called a wing.

Fig. 38.—Young anatropal seed of the white Water-lily (Nymphaea alba), cut vertically. It is attached to the placenta by the funicle f, cellular prolongations from which form an aril a a. The vessels of the cord are prolonged to the base of the nucellus n by means of the raphe r. The base of the nucellus is indicated by the chalaza ch, while the apex is at the micropyle m. The covering of the seed is marked i. n is the nucellus or perisperm, enclosing the embryo-sac es, in which the endosperm is formed. The embryo e, with its suspensor, is contained in the sac, the radicle pointing to the micropyle m.

Fig. 39.—Arillode a, or false aril, of the Spindle-tree (Euonymus), arising from the micropyle f.

Fig. 40.—Anatropal seed of the Orange (Citrus Aurantium) opened to show the chalaza c, which forms a brown spot at one end.

Fig. 41.—Entire anatropal seed of the Orange (Citrus Aurantium), with its rugose or wrinkled testa, and the raphe r ramifying in the thickness of the testa on one side.

The endosperm formed in the embryo-sac of angiosperms after fertilization, and found previous to it in gymnosperms, consists of cells containing nitrogenous and starchy or fatty matter, destined for the nutriment of the embryo. It occupies the whole cavity of the embryo-sac, or is formed only at certain portions of it, at the apex, as in Rhinanthus, at the base, as in Vaccinium, or in the middle, as in Veronica. As the endosperm increases in size along with the embryo-sac and the embryo, the substance of the original nucellus of the ovule is gradually absorbed. Sometimes, however, as in Musaceae, Cannaceae, Zingiberaceae, no endosperm is formed; the cells of the original nucellus, becoming filled with food-materials for the embryo, are not absorbed, but remain surrounding the embryo-sac with the embryo, and constitute the perisperm. Again, in other plants, as Nymphaeaceae (fig. 38) and Piperaceae, both endosperm and perisperm are present. It was from observations on cases such as these that old authors, imagining a resemblance betwixt the plant-ovule and the animal ovum, applied the name albumen to the outer nutrient mass or perisperm, and designated the endosperm as vitellus. The term albumen is very generally used as including all the nutrient matter stored up in the seed, but it would be advisable to discard the name as implying a definite chemical substance. There is a large class of plants in which although at first after fertilization a mass of endosperm is formed, yet, as the embryo increases in size, the nutrient matter from the endospermic cells passes out from them, and is absorbed by the cells of the embryo plant. In the mature seed, in such cases, there is no separate mass of tissue containing nutrient food-material apart from the embryo itself. Such a seed is said to be exalbuminous, as in Compositae, Cruciferae and most Leguminosae (e.g. pea, fig. 35). When either endosperm or perisperm or both are present the seed is said to be albuminous.

Fig. 42.—The dicotyledonous embryo of the Pea laid open. c, c, The two fleshy cotyledons, or seed-lobes, which remain under ground when the plant sprouts; r, the radicular extremity of the axis whence the root arises; t, the axis (hypocotyl) bearing the young stalk and leaves g (plumule), which lie in a depression of the cotyledons f.

The albumen varies much in its nature and consistence, and furnishes important characters. It may be farinaceous or mealy, consisting chiefly of cells filled with starch, as in cereal grains, where it is abundant; fleshy or cartilaginous, consisting of thicker cells which are still soft, as in the coco-nut, and which sometimes contain oil, as in the oily albumen of Croton, Ricinus and poppy; horny, when the cell-walls are slightly thickened and capable of distension, as in date and coffee; the cell-walls sometimes become greatly thickened, filling up the testa as a hard mass, as in vegetable ivory (Phytelephas). The albumen may be uniform throughout, or it may present a mottled appearance, as in the nutmeg, the seeds of Anonaceae and some Palms, where it is called ruminated. This mottled appearance is due to a protrusion of a dark lamella of the integument between folded protuberances of albumen. A cavity is sometimes left in the centre which is usually filled with fluid, as in the coco-nut. The relative size of the embryo and of the endosperm varies much. In Monocotyledons the embryo is usually small, and the endosperm large, and the same is true in the case of coffee and many other plants amongst Dicotyledons. The opposite is the case in other plants, as in the Labiatae, Plumbaginaceae, &c.

The embryo consists of an axis bearing the cotyledons (fig. 42, c), or the first leaves of the plant. To that part of this axis immediately beneath the cotyledons the terms hypocotyl, caulicle or tigellum (t) have been applied, and continuous backwards with it is the young root or radicle (r), the descending axis, their point of union being the collar or neck. The terminal growing bud of the axis is called the plumule or gemmule (g), and represents the ascending axis. The radicular extremity points towards the micropyle, while the cotyledonary extremity is pointed towards the base of the ovule or the chalaza. Hence, by ascertaining the position of the micropyle and chalaza, the two extremities of the embryo can in general be discovered. It is in many cases difficult to recognize the parts in an embryo; thus in Cuscuta, the embryo appears as an elongated axis without divisions; and in Caryocar the mass of the embryo is made up by the radicular extremity and hypocotyl, in a groove of which the cotyledonary extremity lies embedded (fig. 52). In some monocotyledonous embryos, as in Orchidaceae, the embryo is a cellular mass showing no parts. In parasitic plants also which form no chlorophyll, as Orobanche, Monotropa, &c., the embryo remains without differentiation, consisting merely of a mass of cells until the ripening of the seed. When the embryo is surrounded by the endosperm on all sides except its radicular extremity it is internal (see figs. 19, 20); when lying outside the endosperm, and only coming into contact with it at certain points, it is external, as in grasses (e.g. wheat, fig. 22). When the embryo follows the direction of the axis of the seed, it is axile or axial (fig. 43); when it is not in the direction of the axis, it becomes abaxile or abaxial. In campylotropal seeds the embryo is curved, and in place of being embedded in endosperm, is frequently external to it, following the concavity of the seed (fig. 44), and becoming peripherical, with the chalaza situated in the curvature of the embryo, as in Caryophyllaceae.

It has been already stated that the radicle of the embryo is directed to the micropyle, and the cotyledons to the chalaza. In some cases, by the growth of the integuments, the former is turned round so as not to correspond with the apex of the nucellus, and then the embryo has the radicle directed to one side, and is called excentric, as is seen in Primulaceae, Plantaginaceae and many palms, especially the date. The position of the embryo in different kinds of seeds varies. In an orthotropal seed the embryo is inverted or antitropal, the radicle pointing to the apex of the seed, or to the part opposite the hilum. Again, in an anatropal seed the embryo is erect or homotropal (fig. 43), the radicle being directed to the base of the seed. In curved or campylotropal seeds the embryo is folded so that its radicular and cotyledonary extremities are approximated, and it becomes amphitropal (fig. 44). In this instance the seed may be exalbuminous, and the embryo may be folded on itself; or albuminous, the embryo surrounding more or less completely the endosperm and being peripherical. According to the mode in which the seed is attached to the pericarp, the radicle may be directed upwards or downwards, or laterally, as regards the ovary. In an orthotropal seed attached to the base of the pericarp it is superior, as also in a suspended anatropal seed. In other anatropal seeds the radicle is inferior. When the seed is horizontal as regards the pericarp, the radicle is either centrifugal, when it points to the outer wall of the ovary; or centripetal, when it points to the axis or inner wall of the ovary. These characters are of value for purposes of classification, as they are often constant in large groups of genera.

260

Plants in which there are two cotyledons produced in the embryo are dicotyledonous. The two cotyledons thus formed are opposite to each other (figs. 42 and 45), but are not always of the same size. Thus, in Abronia and other members of the order Nyctaginaceae, one of them is smaller than the other (often very small), and in Carapa guianensis there appears to be only one, in consequence of the intimate union which takes place between the two. The union between the cotyledonary leaves may continue after the young plant begins to germinate. Such embryos have been called pseudomonocotyledonous. The texture of the cotyledons varies. They may be thick, as in the pea (fig. 42), exhibiting no traces of venation, with their flat internal surfaces in contact, and their backs more or less convex; or they may be in the form of thin and delicate laminae, flattened on both sides, and having distinct venation, as in Ricinus, Jatropha, Euonymus, &c. The cotyledons usually form the greater part of the mature embryo, and this is remarkably well seen in such exalbuminous seeds as the bean and pea.

Fig. 43.—Seed of Pansy (Viola tricolor) cut vertically. The embryo pl is axial, in the midst of fleshy endosperm al. The seed is anatropal, and the embryo is homotropal; the cotyledons co point to the base of the nucellus or chalaza ch, while the radicle, or the other extremity of the embryo, points to the micropyle, close to the hilum h. The hilum or base of the seed, and the chalaza or base of the nucellus are united by means of the raphe r.

Fig. 44.—Seed of the Red Campion (Lychnis), cut vertically, showing the peripheral embryo, with its two cotyledons and its radicle. The embryo is curved round the albumen, so that its cotyledons and radicle both come near the hilum (amphitropal).

Fig. 45.—Mature dicotyledonous embryo of the Almond, with one of the cotyledons removed. r, Radicle; t, young stem or caulicle; c, one of the cotyledons left; i, line of insertion of the cotyledon which has been removed; g, plumule.

Fig. 46.—Exalbuminous seed of Wallflower (Cheiranthus) cut vertically. The radicle r is folded on the edges of the cotyledons c which are accumbent.

Fig. 47.—Transverse section of the seed of the Wallflower (Cheiranthus), showing the radicle r folded on the edges of the accumbent cotyledons c.

Fig. 48.—Transverse section of the seed of the Dame’s Violet (Hesperis). The radicle r is folded on the back of the cotyledons c, which are said to be incumbent.

Cotyledons are usually entire and sessile. But they occasionally become lobed, as in the walnut and the lime; or petiolate, as in Geranium molle; or auriculate, as in the ash. Like leaves in the bud, cotyledons may be either applied directly to each other, or may be folded in various ways. In geranium the cotyledons are twisted and doubled; in convolvulus they are corrugated; and in the potato and in Bunias, they are spiral,—the same terms being applied as to the foliage leaves. The radicle and cotyledons are either straight or variously curved. Thus, in some cruciferous plants, as the wallflower, the cotyledons are applied by their faces, and the radicle (figs. 46, 47) is folded on their edges, so as to be lateral; the cotyledons are here accumbent. In others, as Hesperis, the cotyledons (fig. 48) are applied to each other by their faces, and the radicle, r, is folded on their back, so as to be dorsal, and the cotyledons are incumbent. Again, the cotyledons are conduplicate when the radicle is dorsal, and enclosed between their folds. In other divisions the radicle is folded in a spiral manner, and the cotyledons follow the same course.

In many gymnosperms more than two cotyledons are present, and they are arranged in a whorl. This occurs in Coniferae, especially in the pine, fir (fig. 49), spruce and larch, in which six, nine, twelve and even fifteen have been observed. They are linear, and resemble in their form and mode of development the clustered or fasciculated leaves of the larch. Plants having numerous cotyledons are termed polycotyledonous. In species of Streptocarpus the cotyledons are permanent, and act the part of leaves. One of them is frequently largely developed, while the other is small or abortive.

Fig. 49.—Polycotylodonous embryo of the Pine (Pinus) beginning to sprout. t, Hypocotyl; r, radicle. The cotyledons c are numerous. Within the cotyledons the primordial leaves are seen, constituting the plumule or first bud of the plant.

Fig. 50.—Embryo of a species of Arrow-grass (Triglochin), showing a uniform conical mass, with a slit s near the lower part. The cotyledon c envelops the young bud, which protrudes at the slit during germination. The radicle is developed from the lower part of the axis r.

Fig. 51.—Grain of wheat (Triticum) germinating, showing (b) the cotyledon and (c) the rootlets surrounded by their sheaths (coleorrhizae).

Fig. 52.—Embryo of Caryocar. t, Thick hypocotyl, forming nearly the whole mass, becoming narrowed and curved at its extremity, and applied to the groove s. In the figure this narrowed portion is slightly separated from the groove; c, two rudimentary cotyledons.

In those plants in which there is only a single cotyledon in the embryo, hence called monocotyledonous, the embryo usually has a cylindrical form more or less rounded at the extremities, or elongated and fusiform, often oblique. The axis is usually very short compared with the cotyledon, which in general encloses the plumule by its lower portion, and exhibits on one side a small slit which indicates the union of the edges of the vaginal or sheathing portion of the leaf (fig. 50). In grasses, by the enlargement of the embryo in a particular direction, the endosperm is pushed on one side, and thus the embryo comes to lie outside at the base of the endosperm (figs. 22, 51). The lamina of the cotyledon is not developed. Upon the side of the embryo next the endosperm and enveloping it is a large shield-shaped body, termed the scutellum. This is an outgrowth from the base of the cotyledon, enveloping more or less the cotyledon and plumule, in some cases, as in maize, completely investing it; in other cases, as in rice, merely sending small prolongations over its anterior face at the apex. By others this scutellum is considered as the true cotyledon, and the sheathing structure covering the plumule is regarded as a ligule or axillary stipule (see Grasses). In many aquatic monocotyledons (e.g. Potamogeton, Ruppia and others) there is a much-developed hypocotyl, which forms the greater part of the embryo and acts as a store of nutriment in germination; these are known as macropodous embryos. A similar case is that of Caryocar among Dicotyledons, where the swollen hypocotyl occupies most of the embryo (fig. 52). In some grasses, as oats and rice, a projection of cellular tissue is seen upon the side of the embryo opposite to the scutellum, that is, on the anterior side. This has been termed the epiblast. It is very large in rice. This by some was considered the rudimentary second cotyledon; but is now generally regarded as an outgrowth of the sheath of the true cotyledon.

FRUIT AND FLOWER FARMING. The different sorts of fruits and flowers are dealt with in articles under their own headings, to which reference may be made; and these give the substantial facts as to their cultivation. See also the article Horticulture.

Great Britain

Table I.—Extent of Orchards in Great Britain in each Year, 1887 to 1901.

Table II.—Areas under Orchards in England, Wales and Scotland—Acres.

The extent of the fruit industry may be gathered from the figures for the acreage of land under cultivation in orchards and small fruit plantations. The Board of Agriculture returns concerning the orchard areas of Great Britain showed a continuous expansion year by year from 199,178 acres in 1888 to 234,660 acres in 1901, as will be learnt from Table I. There was, it is true, an exception in 1892, but the decline in that year is explained by the circumstance that since 1891 the agricultural returns have been collected only from holdings of more than one acre, whereas they were previously obtained from all holdings of a quarter of an acre or more. As there are many holdings of less than an acre in extent upon which fruit is grown, and as fruit is largely raised also in suburban and other gardens which 261 do not come into the returns, it may be taken for granted that the actual extent of land devoted to fruit culture exceeds that which is indicated by the official figures. In the Board of Agriculture returns up to June 1908, 308,000 acres are stated to be devoted to fruit cultivation of all kinds in Great Britain. Table II. shows that the expansion of the orchard area of Great Britain is mainly confined to England, for it has slightly decreased in Wales and Scotland. The acreage officially returned as under orchards is that of arable or grass land which is also used for fruit trees of any kind. Conditions of soil and climate determine the irregular distribution of orchards in Great Britain. The dozen counties which possess the largest extent of orchard land all lie in the south or west of the island. According to the returns for 1908 (excluding small fruit areas) they were the following:—

Leaving out of consideration the county of Kent, which grows a greater variety of fruit than any of the others, the counties of Devon, Hereford, Somerset, Worcester and Gloucester have an aggregate orchard area of 124,872 acres. These five counties of the west and south-west of England—constituting in one continuous area what is essentially the cider country of Great Britain—embrace therefore rather less than half of the entire orchard area of the island, while Salop, Monmouth and Wilts have about 300 less than they had a few years ago. Five English counties have less than 1000 acres each of orchards, namely, the county of London, and the northern counties of Cumberland, Westmorland, Northumberland and Durham. Rutland has just over 100 acres. The largest orchard areas in Wales are in the two counties adjoining Hereford—Brecon with 1136 acres and Radnor with 727 acres; at the other extreme is Anglesey, with a decreasing orchard area of only 22 acres. Of the Scottish counties, Lanark takes the lead with 1285 acres, Perth, Stirling and Haddington following with 684 and 129 acres respectively. Ayr and Midlothian are the only other counties possessing 100 acres or more of orchards, whilst Kincardine, Orkney and Shetland return no orchard area, and Banff, Bute, Kinross, Nairn, Peebles, Sutherland and Wigtown return less than 10 acres each. It may be added that in 1908 Jersey returned 1090 acres of orchards, Guernsey, &c., 144 acres, and the Isle of Man, 121 acres; the two last-named places showing a decline as compared with eight years previously.

Outside the cider counties proper of England, the counties in which orchards for commercial fruit-growing have increased considerably in recent years include Berks, Buckingham, Cambridge, Essex, Lincoln, Middlesex, Monmouth, Norfolk, Oxford, Salop, Sussex, Warwick and Wilts. Apples are the principal fruit grown in the western and south-western counties, pears also being fairly common. In parts of Gloucestershire, however, and in the Evesham and Pershore districts of Worcestershire, plum orchards exist. Plums are almost as largely grown as apples in Cambridgeshire. Large quantities of apples, plums, damsons, cherries, and a fair quantity of pears are grown for the market in Kent, whilst apples, plums and pears predominate in Middlesex. In many counties damsons are cultivated around fruit plantations to shelter the latter from the wind.

Of small fruit (currants, gooseberries, strawberries, raspberries, &c.) no return was made of the acreage previous to 1888, in which year it was given as 36,724 acres for Great Britain. In 1889 it rose to 41,933 acres.

Later figures are shown in Table III. It will be observed that, owing to corrections made in the enumeration in 1897, a considerable reduction in the area is recorded for that year, and presumably the error then discovered existed in all the preceding returns. The returns for 1907 gave the acreage of small fruit as 82,175 acres, and in 1908 at 84,880 acres—an area more than double that of 1889.

Table III.—Areas of Small Fruit in Great Britain.

Table IV.—Areas under Small Fruit in England, Wales and Scotland—Acres.

There has undoubtedly been a considerable expansion, rather than a contraction, of small fruit plantations since 1896. The acreage of small fruit in Great Britain is about one-third that of the orchards. As may be seen in Table IV., it is mainly confined to England, though Scotland has over 4000 more acres of small fruit than of orchards. About one-third of the area of small fruit in England belongs to Kent alone, that county having returned 24,137 acres in 1908. Cambridge now ranks next with 6878 acres, followed by Norfolk with 5876 acres, Worcestershire with 4852 acres, Middlesex with 4163 acres, Hants with 3320 acres and Essex with 2150 acres. It should be remarked that between 1900 and 1908 Cambridgeshire had almost doubled its area of small fruits, from 3740 to 6878 acres; whilst both Norfolk and Worcestershire in 1908 had larger areas devoted to small fruits than Middlesex—in which county there had been a decrease of about 400 acres during the same period. The largest county area of small fruit in Wales is 806 acres in Denbighshire, and in Scotland 2791 acres in Perthshire, 2259 acres in Lanarkshire, followed by 412 acres in Forfarshire. The only counties in Great Britain which make no return under the head of small fruit are Orkney and Shetland; and Sutherland only gives 2½ acres. It is hardly necessary to say that considerable areas of small fruit, in kitchen gardens and elsewhere, find no place in the official returns, which, however, include small fruit grown between and under orchard trees.

Gooseberries are largely grown in most small fruit districts. Currants are less widely cultivated, but the red currant is more extensively grown than the black, the latter having suffered seriously from the ravages of the black currant mite. Kent is the great centre for raspberries and for strawberries, though, in addition, the latter fruit is largely grown in Cambridgeshire (2411 acres), Hampshire (2327 acres), Norfolk (2067 acres) and Worcestershire (1273 acres). Essex, Lincolnshire, Cheshire, 262 Cornwall and Middlesex each has more than 500 acres devoted to strawberry cultivation.

The following statement from returns for 1908 shows the area under different kinds of fruit in 1907 and 1908 in Great Britain, and also whether there had been an increase or decrease:

It appears from the Board of Agriculture returns that 27,433 acres of small fruit was grown in orchards, so that the total extent of land under fruit cultivation in Great Britain at the end of 1908 was about 308,000 acres.

There are no official returns as to the acreage devoted to orchard cultivation in Ireland. The figures relating to small fruit, moreover, extend back only to 1899, when the area under this head was returned as 4809 acres, which became 4359 acres in 1900 and 4877 acres in 1901. In most parts of the country there are districts favourable to the culture of small fruits, such as strawberries, raspberries, gooseberries and currants, and of top fruits, such as apples, pears, plums and damsons. The only localities largely identified with fruit culture as an industry are the Drogheda district and the Armagh district. In the former all the kinds named are grown except strawberries, the speciality being raspberries, which are marketed in Dublin, Belfast and Liverpool. In the Armagh district, again, all the kinds named are grown, but in this case strawberries are the speciality, the markets utilized being Richhill, Belfast, and those in Scotland. In the Drogheda district the grower bears the cost of picking, packing and shipping, but he cannot estimate his net returns until his fruit is on the market. Around Armagh the Scottish system prevails—that is, the fruit is sold while growing, the buyer being responsible for the picking and marketing.

The amount of fruit imported into the United Kingdom has such an important bearing on the possibilities of the industry that the following figures also may be useful:

Fruit-growing in Kent.—Kent is by far the largest fruit-growing county in England. For centuries that county has been famous for its fruit, and appears to have been the centre for the distribution of trees and grafts throughout the country. The cultivation 263 of fruit land upon farms in many parts of Kent has always been an important feature in its agriculture. An excellent description of this noteworthy characteristic of Kentish farming is contained in a comprehensive paper on the agriculture of Kent by Mr Charles Whitehead,1 whose remarks, with various additions and modifications, are here reproduced.

The Flower-growing Industry.—During the last two or three decades of the 19th century a very marked increase in flower production occurred in England. Notably was this the case in the neighbourhood of London, where, within a radius of 15 or 20 m., the fruit crops, which had largely taken the place of garden vegetables, were themselves ousted in turn to satisfy the increasing demand for land for flower cultivation. No flower has entered more largely into the development of the industry than the narcissus or daffodil, of which there are now some 600 varieties. Comparatively few of these, however, are grown for market purposes, although all are charming from the amateur point of view. On some flower farms a dozen or more acres are devoted to narcissi alone, the production of bulbs for sale as well as of flowers for market being the object of the growers.

In the London district the country in the Thames valley west of the metropolis is as largely occupied by flower farms as it is by fruit farms—in fact, the cultivation of flowers is commonly associated with that of fruit. In the vicinity of Richmond narcissi are extensively grown, as they also are more to the west in the Long Ditton district, and likewise around Twickenham, Isleworth, Hounslow, Feltham and Hampton. Roses come more into evidence in the neighbourhood of Hounslow, Cranford, 266 Hillingdon and Uxbridge, and in some gardens daffodils and roses occupy alternate rows. In this district also such flowers as herbaceous paeonies, Spanish irises, German irises, Christmas roses, lilies of the valley, chrysanthemums, foxgloves, hollyhocks, wallflowers, carnations, &c., are extensively grown in many market gardens. South of London is the Mitcham country, long noted for its production of lavender. The incessant growth of the lavender plant upon the same land, however, has led to the decline of this industry, which has been largely transferred to districts in the counties of Bedford, Essex and Hertford. At Mitcham, nevertheless, mixed flowers are very largely grown for the supply of the metropolis, and one farm alone has nearly 100 acres under flowers and glass-houses. Chrysanthemums, asters, Iceland poppies, gaillardias, pansies, bedding calceolarias, zonal pelargoniums and other plants are cultivated in immense quantities. At Swanley and Eynsford, in Kent, flowers are extensively cultivated in association with fruit and vegetables. Narcissi, chrysanthemums, violets, carnations, campanulas, roses, pansies, irises, sweet peas, and many other flowers are here raised, and disposed of in the form both of cut flowers and of plants.

The Scilly Isles are important as providing the main source of supply of narcissi to the English markets in the early months of the year. This trade arose almost by accident, for it was about the year 1865 that a box of narcissi sent to Covent Garden Market, London, realized £1; and the knowledge of this fact getting abroad, the farmers of the isles began collecting wild bulbs from the fields in order to cultivate them and increase their stocks. Some ten years, however, elapsed before the industry promised to become remunerative. In 1885 a Bulb and Flower Association was established to promote the industrial growth of flowers. The exports of flowers in that year reached 65 tons, and they steadily increased until 1893, when they amounted to 450 tons. A slight decline followed, but in 1896 the quantity exported was no less than 514 tons. This would represent upwards of 3½ million bunches of flowers, chiefly narcissi and anemones. Rather more than 500 acres are devoted to flower-growing in the isles, by far the greater part of this area being assigned to narcissi, whilst anemones, gladioli, marguerites, arum lilies, Spanish irises, pinks and wallflowers are cultivated on a much smaller scale. The great advantage enjoyed by the Scilly flower-growers is earliness of production, due to climatic causes; the soil, moreover, is well suited to flower culture and there is an abundance of sunshine. The long journey to London is somewhat of a drawback, in regard to both time and freight, but the earliness of the flowers more than compensates for this. Open-air narcissi are usually ready at the beginning of January, and the supply is maintained in different varieties up to the middle or end of May. The narcissus bulbs are usually planted in October, 4 in. by 3 in. apart for the smaller sorts and 6 in. by 4 to 6 in. for the larger. A compost of farmyard manure, seaweed, earth and road scrapings is the usual dressing, but nitrate of soda, guano and bones are also occasionally employed. A better plan, perhaps, is to manure heavily the previous crop, frequently potatoes, no direct manuring then being needed for the bulbs, these not being left in the ground more than two or three years. The expenses of cultivation are heavy, the cost of bulbs alone—of which it requires nearly a quarter of a million of the smaller varieties, or half as many of the largest, to plant an acre—being considerable. The polyanthus varieties of narcissus are likely to continue the most remunerative to the flower-growers of Scilly, as they flourish better in these isles than on the mainland.

In the district around the Wash, in the vicinity of such towns as Wisbech, Spalding and Boston, the industrial culture of bulbs and flowers underwent great expansion in the period between 1880 and 1909. At Wisbech one concern alone has a farm of some 900 acres, devoted chiefly to flowers and fruit, the soil being a deep fine alluvium. Roses are grown here, one field containing upwards of 100,000 trees. Nearly 20 acres are devoted to narcissi, which are grown for the bulbs and also, together with tulips, for cut flowers. Carnations are cultivated both in the field and in pots. Cut flowers are sent out in large quantities, neatly and effectively packed, the parcel post being mainly employed as a means of distribution. In the neighbourhood of Spalding crocuses and snowdrops are less extensively grown than used to be the case. On one farm, however, upwards of 20 acres are devoted to narcissi alone, whilst gladioli, lilies and irises are grown on a smaller scale. Around Boston narcissi are also extensively grown for the market, both bulbs and cut blooms being sold. The bulbs are planted 3 in. apart in rows, the latter being 9 in. apart, and are allowed to stand from two to four years.

Hothouse Culture of Fruit and Flowers.—The cultivation of fruit and flowers under glass has increased enormously since about the year 1880, especially in the neighbourhood of London, where large sums of money have been sunk in the erection and equipment of hothouses. In the parish of Cheshunt, Herts, alone there are upwards of 130 acres covered with glass, and between that place on the north and London on the south extensive areas of land are similarly utilized. In Middlesex, in the north, in the districts of Edmonton, Enfield, Ponders End and Finchley, and in the west from Isleworth to Hampton, Feltham, Hillingdon, Sipson and Uxbridge, many crops are now cultivated under glass. At Erith, Swanley, and other places in Kent, as also at Worthing, in Sussex, glass-house culture has much extended. A careful estimate puts the area of industrial hothouses in England at about 1200 acres, but it is probably much more than this. Most of the greenhouses are fixtures, but in some parts of the kingdom structures that move on rails and wheels are used, to enable the ground to be prepared in the open for one crop while another is maturing under glass. The leading products are grapes, tomatoes and cucumbers, the last-named two being true fruits from the botanist’s point of view, though commercially included with vegetables. To these may be added on the same ground dwarf or French beans, and runner or climbing beans. Peaches, nectarines and strawberries are largely grown under glass, and, in private hothouses—from which the produce is used mainly for household consumption, and which are not taken into consideration here—pineapples, figs and other fruit. Conservative estimates indicate the average annual yield of hothouse grapes to be about 12 tons per acre and of tomatoes 20 tons. The greater part of the space in the hothouses is assigned to fruit, but whilst some houses are devoted exclusively to flowers, in others, where fruit is the main object, flowers are forced in considerable quantities in winter and early spring. The flowers grown under glass include tulips, hyacinths, primulas, cyclamens, spiraeas, mignonettes, fuchsias, 267 calceolarias, roses, chrysanthemums, daffodils, arum lilies or callas, liliums, azaleas, eucharises, camellias, stephanotis, tuberoses, bouvardias, gardenias, heaths or ericas, poinsettias, lilies of the valley, zonal pelargoniums, tuberous and fibrous rooted begonias, and many others. There is an increasing demand for foliage hothouse plants, such as ferns, palms, crotons, aspidistras, araucarias, dracaenas, India-rubber plants, aralias, grevilleas, &c. Berried plants like solanums and aucubas also find a ready sale, while the ornamental kinds of asparagus such as sprengeri and plumosus nanus, are ever in demand for trailing decorations, as well as myrsiphyilum. Special mention must be made of the winter or perpetual flowering carnations which are now grown by hundreds of thousands in all parts of the kingdom for decorative work during the winter season. The converse of forcing plants into early blossom is adopted with such an important crop as lily of the valley. During the summer season the crowns are placed in refrigerators with about 2 degrees of frost, and quantities are taken out as required every week and transferred to the greenhouse to develop. Tomatoes are grown largely in houses exclusively occupied by them, in which case two and sometimes three crops can be gathered in the year. In the Channel Islands, where potatoes grown under glass are lifted in April and May, in order to secure the high prices of the early markets, tomato seedlings are planted out from boxes into the ground as quickly as the potatoes are removed, the tomato planter working only a few rows behind the potato digger. The trade in imported tomatoes is so considerable that home growers are well justified in their endeavours to meet the demand more fully with native produce, whether raised under glass or in the open. Tomatoes were not separately enumerated in the imports previous to 1900. It has already been stated that in 1900 the raw tomatoes imported amounted to 833,032 cwt., valued at £792,339, and in 1901 to 793,991 cwt., valued at £734,051. From the monthly quantities given in Table VII., it would appear that the imports are largest in June, July and August, about one-half of the year’s total arriving during those three months. It is too early in June and July for home-grown outdoor tomatoes to enter into competition with the imported product, but home-grown hothouse tomatoes should be qualified to challenge this trade.

Table VII.—Quantities of Tomatoes imported into the United Kingdom.

An important feature of modern flower growing is the production and cultivation of what are known as “hardy herbaceous perennials.” Some 2000 or 3000 different species and varieties of these are now raised in special nurseries; and during the spring, summer and autumn seasons magnificent displays are to be seen not only in the markets but at the exhibitions in London and at the great provincial shows held throughout the kingdom. The production of many of these perennials is so easy that amateurs in several instances have taken it up as a business hobby; and in some cases, chiefly through advertising in the horticultural press, very lucrative concerns have been established.

Ornamental flowering trees and shrubs constitute another feature of modern gardening. These are grown and imported by thousands chiefly for their sprays of blossom or foliage, and for planting in large or small gardens, public parks, &c., for landscape effect. Indeed there is scarcely an easily grown plant from the northern or southern temperate zones that does not now find a place in the nursery or garden, provided it is sufficiently attractive to sell for its flowers, foliage or appearance.

Conditions of the Fruit and Flower growing Industries.—As regards open-air fruit-growing, the outlook for new ventures is perhaps brighter than in the hothouse industry, not—as Mr Bear has pointed out—because the area of fruit land in England is too small, but because the level of efficiency, from the selection of varieties to the packing and marketing of the produce, is very much lower in the former than in the latter branch of enterprise. In other words, whereas the practice of the majority of hothouse nurserymen is so skilled, so up-to-date, and so entirely under high pressure that a new competitor, however well trained, will find it difficult to rise above mediocrity, the converse is true of open-air fruit-growers. Many, and an increasing proportion, of the latter are thoroughly efficient in all branches of their business, and are in possession of plantations of the best market varieties of fruit, well cultivated, pruned and otherwise managed. But the extent of fruit plantations completely up to the mark in relation to varieties and treatment of trees and bushes, and in connexion with which the packing and marketing of the produce are equally satisfactory, is small in proportion to the total fruit area of the country. Information concerning the best treatment of fruit trees has spread widely in recent years, and old plantations, as a rule, suffer from the neglect or errors of the past, however skilful their present holders may be. Although the majority of professional market fruit-growers may be well up to the standard in skill, there are numerous contributors to the fruit supply who are either ignorant of the best methods of cultivation and marketing or careless in their application. The bad condition of the great majority of farm orchards is notorious, and many landowners, farmers and amateur gardeners who have planted fruit on a more or less extensive scale have mismanaged their undertakings. For these reasons new growers of open-air fruit for market have opportunities of succeeding by means of superiority to the majority of those with whom they will compete, provided that they possess the requisite knowledge, energy and capital. It has been asserted on sound authority that there is no chance of success for fruit-growers except in districts favourable as regards soil, climate and nearness to a railway or a good market; and, even under these conditions, only for men who have had experience in the industry and are prepared to devote their unremitting attention to it. Most important is it to a beginner that he should ascertain the varieties of fruit that flourish best in his particular district. Certain kinds seem to do well or fairly well in all parts of the country; others, whilst heavy croppers in some localities, are often unsatisfactory in others.

As has been intimated, there is probably in England less room for expansion of fruit culture under glass than in the open. The large increase of glass-houses in modern times appears to have brought the supply of hothouse produce, even at greatly reduced prices, at least up to the level of the demand; and as most nurserymen continue to extend their expanse of glass, the prospect for new competitors is not a bright one. Moreover, the vast scale upon which some of the growers conduct the hothouse industry puts small producers at a great disadvantage, not only because the extensive producers can grow grapes and other fruit more economically than small growers—with the possible exception of those who do all or nearly all their own work—but also, and still more, because the former have greater advantages in transporting and marketing their fruit. There has, in recent years, been a much greater fall in the prices of hothouse than of open-air fruit, especially under the existing system of distribution, which involves the payment by consumers of 50 to 100% more in prices than growers receive. The best openings for new nurseries are probably not where they are now to be found in large groups, and especially not in the neighbourhood 268 of London, but in suitable spots near the great centres of population in the Midlands and the North, or big towns elsewhere not already well supplied with nurseries. By such a selection of a locality the beginner may build up a retail trade in hothouse fruit, or at least a trade with local fruiterers and grocers, thus avoiding railway charges and salesmen’s commissions to a great extent, though it may often be advantageous to send certain kinds of produce to a distant market. Above all, a man who has no knowledge of the hothouse industry should avoid embarking his capital in it, trusting himself in the hands of a foreman, as experience shows that such a venture usually leads to disaster. Some years of training in different nurseries are desirable for any young man who is desirous of becoming a grower of hothouse fruits or flowers.

There can be no doubt that flower-growing is greatly extending in England, and that competition among home growers is becoming more severe. Foreign supplies of flowers have increased, but not nearly as greatly in proportion as home supplies, and it seems clear that home growers have gained ground in relation to their foreign rivals, except with respect to flowers for the growth of which foreigners have extraordinary natural advantages. There seems some danger of the home culture of the narcissus being over-done, and the florists’ chrysanthemum appears to be produced in excess of the demand. Again, in the production of violets the warm and sunny South of France has an advantage not possessed by England, whilst Holland, likewise for climatic reasons, maintains her hold upon the hyacinth and tulip trade. Whether the production of flowers as a whole is gaining ground upon the demand or not is a difficult question to answer. It is true that the prices of flowers have fallen generally; but production, at any rate under glass, has been cheapened, and if a fair profit can be obtained, the fall in prices, without which the existing consumption of flowers would be impossible, does not necessarily imply over-production. There is some difference of opinion among growers upon this point; but nearly all agree that profits are now so small that production on a large scale is necessary to provide a fair income. Industrial flower-growing affords such a wide scope for the exercise of superior skill, industry and alertness, that it is not surprising to find some who are engaged in it doing remarkably well to all appearance, while others are struggling on and hardly paying their way. That a man with only a little capital, starting in a small way, has many disadvantages is certain; also, that his chance of saving money and extending his business quickly is much smaller than it was. To the casual looker-on, who knows nothing of the drudgery of the industry, flower-growing seems a delightful method of getting a living. That it is an entrancing pursuit there is no doubt; but it is equally true that it is a very arduous one, requiring careful forethought, ceaseless attention and abundant energy. Fortunately for those who might be tempted, without any knowledge of the industry, to embark capital in it, flower-growing, if at all comprehensive in scope, so obviously requires a varied and extensive technical knowledge, combined with good commercial ability, that any one can see that a thorough training is necessary to a man who intends to adopt it as a business, especially if hothouse flowers are to be produced.

United States

In the United States horticulture and market gardening have now assumed immense proportions. In a country of over 3,000,000 sq. m., stretching from the Atlantic to the Pacific on the one hand, and from the Gulf of Mexico to the great northern lakes and the Dominion of Canada on the other, a great variation of climatic conditions is not unnatural. From a horticultural point of view there are practically two well-defined regions: (1) that to the east of the Rocky Mountains across to the Atlantic, where the climate is more like that of eastern Asia than of western Europe so far as rainfall, temperature and seasonable conditions are concerned; (2) that to the west of the Rockies, known as the Pacific coast region, where the climate is somewhat similar to that of western Europe. It may be added that in the northern states—in Washington, Montana, North Dakota, Minnesota, Wisconsin, &c.—the winters are often very severe, while the southern states practically enjoy a temperature somewhat similar to that of the Riviera. Indeed the range of temperature between the extreme northern states and the extreme southern may vary as much as 120° F. The great aim of American gardeners, therefore, has been to find out or to produce the kinds of fruits, flowers and vegetables that are likely to flourish in different parts of this immense country.

Fruit Culture.—There is probably no country in the world where so many different kinds of fruit can be grown with advantage to the nation as in the United States. In the temperate regions apples, pears and plums are largely grown, and orchards of these are chiefly to be found in the states of New York, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Michigan, Missouri, Colorado, and also in northern Texas, Arkansas and N. California. To these may be added cranberries and quinces, which are chiefly grown in the New England states. The quinces are not a crop of first-rate importance, but as much as 800,000 bushels of cranberries are grown each year. The peach orchards are assuming great proportions, and are chiefly to be found in Georgia and Texas, while grapes are grown throughout the Republic from east to west in all favourable localities. Oranges, lemons and citrons are more or less extensively grown in Florida and California, and in these regions what are known as Japanese or “Kelsey” plums (forms of Prunus triflora) are also grown as marketable crops. Pomegranates are not yet largely grown, but it is possible their culture will develop in southern Texas and Louisiana, where the climate is tempered by the waters of the Gulf of Mexico. Tomatoes are grown in most parts of the country so easily that there is frequently a glut; while the strawberry region extends from Florida to Virginia, Pennsylvania and other states—thus securing a natural succession from south to north for the various great market centres.

Of the fruits mentioned apples are undoubtedly the most important. Not only are the American people themselves supplied with fresh fruit, but immense quantities are exported to Europe—Great Britain alone absorbing as much as 1,430,000 cwt. in 1908. The varieties originally grown were of course those taken or introduced from Europe by the early settlers. Since the middle of the 19th century great changes have been brought about, and the varieties mostly cultivated now are distinctly American. They have been raised by crossing and intercrossing the most suitable European forms with others since imported from Russia. In the extreme northern states indeed, where it is essential to have apple trees that will stand the severest winters, the Russian varieties crossed with the berry crab of eastern Europe (Pyrus baccata) have produced 269 a race eminently suited to that particular region. The individual fruits are not very large, but the trees are remarkably hardy. Farther south larger fruited varieties are grown, and among these may be noted Baldwins, Newton pippins, Spitzenbergs and Rhode Island greening. Apple orchards are numerous in the State of New York, where it is estimated that over 100,000 acres are devoted to them. In the hilly regions of Missouri, Arkansas and Colorado there are also great plantations of apples. The trees, however, are grown on different principles from those in New York State. In the latter state apple trees with ordinary care live to more than 100 years of age and produce great crops; in the other states, however, an apple tree is said to be middle-aged at 20, decrepit at 30 and practically useless at 40 years of age. They possess the advantage, however, of bearing early and heavily.

Until the introduction of the cold-storage system, about the year 1880, America could hardly be regarded as a commercial fruit-growing country. Since then, however, owing to the great improvements made in railway refrigerating vans and storage houses, immense quantities of fruit can be despatched in good condition to any part of the world; or they can be kept at home in safety until such time as the markets of Chicago, New York, Boston, Baltimore, Philadelphia, &c., are considered favourable for their reception.

Apple trees are planted at distances varying from 25 ft. to 30 ft. apart in the middle western states, to 40 ft. to 50 ft. apart in New York State. Here and there, however, in some of the very best orchards the trees are planted 60 ft. apart every way. Each tree thus has a chance to develop to its utmost limits, and as air and light reach it better, a far larger fruit-bearing surface is secured. Actual experience has shown that trees planted at 60 ft. apart—about 28 to the acre—produce more fruit by 43 bushels than trees at 30 ft. apart—i.e. about 48 to the acre.

Until recent years pruning as known to English and French gardeners was practically unknown. There was indeed no great necessity for it, as the trees, not being cramped for space, threw their branches outwards and upwards, and thus rarely become overcrowded. When practised, however, the operation could scarcely be called pruning; lopping or trimming would be more accurate descriptions.

Apple orchards are not immune from insect pests and fungoid diseases, and an enormous business is now done in spraying machines and various insecticides. It pays to spray the trees, and figures have been given to show that orchards that have been sprayed four times have produced an average income of £211 per acre against £103 per acre from unsprayed orchards.

The spring frosts are also troublesome, and in the Colorado and other orchards the process known as “smudging” is now adopted to save the crops. This consists in placing 20 or 30, or even more, iron or tin pots to an acre, each pot containing wooden chips soaked in tar (or pitch) mixed with kerosene. Whenever the thermometer shows 3 or 4 degrees of frost the smudge-pots are lighted. A dense white smoke then arises and is diffused throughout the orchards, enveloping the blossoming heads of the trees in a dense cloud. This prevents the frost from killing the tender pistils in the blossoms, and when several smudge-pots are alight at the same time the temperature of the orchard is raised two or three degrees. This work has generally to be done between 3 and 5 A.M., and the growers naturally have an anxious time until all danger is over. The failure to attend to smudging, even on one occasion, may result in the loss of the entire crop of plums, apples or pears.

Next to apples perhaps peaches are the most important fruit crop. The industry is chiefly carried on in Georgia, Texas and S. Carolina, and on a smaller scale in some of the adjoining states. Peaches thus flourish in regions that are quite unsuitable for apples or pears. In many orchards in Georgia, where over 3,000,000 acres have been planted, there are as many as 100,000 peach trees; while some of the large fruit companies grow as many as 365,000. In one place in West Virginia there is, however, a peach orchard containing 175,000 trees, and in Missouri another company has 3 sq. m. devoted to peach culture. As a rule the crops do well. Sometimes, however, a disease known as the “yellows” makes sad havoc amongst them, and scarcely a fruit is picked in an orchard which early in the season gave promise of a magnificent crop.

Plums are an important crop in many states. Besides the European varieties and those that have been raised by crossing with American forms, there is now a growing trade done in Japanese plums. The largest of these is popularly known as “Kelseys,” named after John Kelsey, who raised the first fruit in 1876 from trees brought to California in 1870. Sometimes the fruits are 3 in. in diameter, and like most of the Japanese varieties are more heart-shaped and pointed than plums of European origin. One apparent drawback to the Kelsey plum is its irregularity in ripening. It has been known in some years to be quite ripe in June, while in others the fruits are still green in October.

Pears are much grown in such states as Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, Missouri and California; while bush fruits like currants, gooseberries and raspberries find large spaces devoted in most of the middle and northern states. Naturally a good deal of crossing and intercrossing has taken place amongst the European and American forms of these fruits, but so far as gooseberries are concerned no great advance seems to have been made in securing varieties capable of resisting the devastating gooseberry mildew.

Other fruits of more or less commercial value are oranges, lemons and citrons, chiefly in Florida. Lemons are practically a necessity to the American people, owing to the heat of the summers, when cool and refreshing drinks with an agreeable acidulous taste are in great demand. The pomelo (grape-fruit) is a kind of lemon with a thicker rind and a more acid flavour. At one time its culture was confined to Florida, but of recent years it has found its way into Californian orchards. Notwithstanding the prevailing mildness of the climate in both California and Florida, the crops of oranges, lemons, citrons, &c., are sometimes severely injured by frosts when in blossom.

Other fruits likely to be heard of in the future are the kaki or persimmon, the loquat, which is already grown in Louisiana, as well as the pomegranate.

Great aid and encouragement are given by the government to the progress of American fruit-growing, and by the experiments that are being constantly carried out and tabulated at Cornell University and by the U.S.A. department of agriculture.

Flower Culture.—So far as flowers are concerned there appears to be little difference between the kinds of plants grown in the United States and in England, France, Belgium, Germany, Holland, &c. Indeed there is a great interchange of new varieties of plants between Europe and America, and modifications in systems of culture are being gradually introduced from one side of the Atlantic to the other. The building of greenhouses for commercial purposes is perhaps on a somewhat different scale from that in England, but there are probably no extensive areas of glass such as are to be seen north of London from Enfield Highway to Broxburne. Hot water apparatus differs merely in detail, although most of the boilers used resemble those on the continent of Europe rather than in England. Great business is done in bulbs—mostly imported from Holland—stove and greenhouse plants, hardy perennials, orchids, ferns of the “fancy” and “dagger” types of Nephrolepis, and in carnations and roses. Amongst the latter thousands of such varieties as Beauty, Liberty, Killarney, Richmond and Bride are grown, and realize good prices as a rule in the markets. Carnations of the winter-flowering or “perpetual” type have long been grown in America, and enormous prices have been given for individual plants on certain occasions, rivalling the fancy prices paid in England for certain orchids. The American system of carnation-growing has quite captivated English cultivators, and new varieties are being constantly raised in both countries. Chrysanthemums are another great feature of American florists, and sometimes during the winter season a speculative grower will send a living specimen to one of the London exhibitions in the hope of booking large orders for cuttings of it later on. Sweet 270 peas, dahlias, lilies of the valley, arum lilies and indeed every flower that is popular in England is equally popular in America, and consequently is largely grown.

FRUMENTIUS (c. 300-c. 360), the founder of the Abyssinian church, traditionally identified in Abyssinian literature with Abba Salama or Father of Peace (but see Ethiopia), was a native of Phoenicia. According to the 4th-century historian Rufinus (x. 9), who gives Aedesius himself as his authority, a certain Tyrian, Meropius, accompanied by his kinsmen Frumentius and Aedesius, set out on an expedition to “India,” but fell into the hands of Ethiopians on the shore of the Red Sea and, with his ship’s crew, was put to death. The two young men were taken to the king at Axum, where they were well treated and in time obtained great influence. With the help of Christian merchants who visited the country Frumentius gave Christianity a firm footing, which was strengthened when in 326 he was consecrated bishop by Athanasius of Alexandria, who in his Epistola ad Constantinum mentions the consecration, and gives some details of the history of Frumentius’s mission. Later witnesses speak of his fidelity to the homoousian during the Arian controversies. Aedesius returned to Tyre, where he was ordained presbyter.

FRUNDSBERG, GEORG VON (1473-1528), German soldier, was born at Mindelheim on the 24th of September 1473. He fought for the German king Maximilian I. against the Swiss in 1499, and in the same year was among the imperial troops sent to assist Ludovico Sforza, duke of Milan, against the French. Still serving Maximilian, he took part in 1504 in the war over the succession to the duchy of Bavaria-Landshut, and afterwards fought in the Netherlands. Convinced of the necessity of a native body of trained infantry Frundsberg assisted Maximilian to organize the Landsknechte (q.v.), and subsequently at the head of bands of these formidable troops he was of great service to the Empire and the Habsburgs. In 1509 he shared in the war against Venice, winning fame for himself and his men; and after a short visit to Germany returned to Italy, where in 1513 and 1514 he gained fresh laurels by his enterprises against the Venetians and the French. Peace being made, he returned to Germany, and at the head of the infantry of the Swabian league assisted to drive Ulrich of Württemberg from his duchy in 1519. At the diet of Worms in 1521 he spoke words of encouragement to Luther, and when the struggle between France and the Empire was renewed he took part in the invasion of Picardy, and then proceeding to Italy brought the greater part of Lombardy under the influence of Charles V. through his victory at Bicocca in April 1522. He was partly responsible for the great victory over the French at Pavia in February 1525, and, returning to Germany, he assisted to suppress the Peasant revolt, using on this occasion, however, diplomacy as well as force. When the war in Italy was renewed Frundsberg raised an army at his own expense, and skilfully surmounting many difficulties, joined the constable de Bourbon near Piacenza and marched towards Rome. Before he reached the city, however, his unpaid troops showed signs of mutiny, and their leader, stricken with illness and unable to pacify them, gave up his command. Returning to Germany, he died at Mindelheim on the 20th of August 1528. He was a capable and chivalrous soldier, and a devoted servant of the Habsburgs. His son Caspar (1500-1536) and his grandson Georg (d. 1586) were both soldiers of some distinction. With the latter’s death the family became extinct.

FRUSTUM (Latin for a “piece broken off”), a term in geometry for the part of a solid figure, such as a cone or pyramid, cut off by a plane parallel to the base, or lying between two parallel planes; and hence in architecture a name given to the drum of a column.

FRUYTIERS, PHILIP (1627-1666), Flemish painter and engraver, was a pupil of the Jesuits’ college at Antwerp in 1627, and entered the Antwerp gild of painters without a fee in 1631. He is described in the register of that institution as “illuminator, painter and engraver.” The current account of his life is “that he worked exclusively in water colours, yet was so remarkable in this branch of his art for arrangement, drawing, and especially for force and clearness of colour, as to excite the admiration of Rubens, whom he portrayed with all his family.” The truth is that he was an artist of the most versatile talents, as may be judged from the fact that in 1646 he executed an Assumption with figures of life size, and four smaller pictures in oil, for the church of St Jacques at Antwerp, for which he received the considerable sum of 1150 florins. Unhappily no undoubted production of his hand has been preserved. All that we can point to with certainty is a series of etched plates, chiefly portraits, which are acknowledged to have been powerfully and skilfully handled. If, however, we search the portfolios of art collections on the European continent, we sometimes stumble upon miniatures on vellum, drawn with great talent and coloured with extraordinary brilliancy. In form they quite recall the works of Rubens, and these, it may be, are the work of Philip Fruytiers.

FRY, the name of a well-known English Quaker family, originally living in Wiltshire. About the middle of the 18th century Joseph Fry (1728-1787), a doctor, settled in Bristol, where he acquired a large practice, but eventually abandoned medicine for commerce. He became interested in china-making, soap-boiling and type-founding businesses in Bristol, and in a chemical works at Battersea, all of which ventures proved very profitable. The type-founding business was subsequently removed to London and conducted by his son Edmund. Joseph Fry, however, is best remembered as the founder of the great Bristol firm of J.S. Fry & Sons, chocolate manufacturers. He purchased the chocolate-making patent of William Churchman and on it laid the foundations of the present large business. After his death the Bristol chocolate factory was carried on with increasing success by his widow and by his son, Joseph Storrs Fry (1767-1835).

In 1795 a new and larger factory was built in Union Street, Bristol, which still forms the centre of the firm’s premises, and in 1798 a Watt’s steam-engine was purchased and the cocoa-beans ground by steam. On the death of Joseph Storrs Fry his three sons, Joseph (1795-1879), Francis, and Richard (1807-1878) became partners in the firm, the control being mainly in the hands of Francis Fry (1803-1886). Francis Fry was in every way a remarkable character. The development of the business to its modern enormous proportion was chiefly his work, but this did not exhaust his activities. He took a principal part in the introduction of railways to the west of England, and in 1852 drew up a scheme for a general English railway parcel service. He was an ardent bibliographer, taking a special interest in early English Bibles, of which he made in the course of a long life a large and striking collection, and of the most celebrated of which he published facsimiles with bibliographical notes. Francis Fry died in 1886, and his son Francis J. Fry and nephew Joseph Storrs Fry carried on the business, which in 1896 was for family reasons converted into a private limited company, Joseph Storrs Fry being chairman and all the directors members of the Fry family.

FRY, SIR EDWARD (1827-  ), English judge, second son of Joseph Fry (1795-1879), was born at Bristol on the 4th of November 1827, and educated at University College, London, and London University. He was called to the bar in 1854 and was made a Q.C. in 1869, practising in the rolls court and becoming recognized as a leading equity lawyer. In 1877 he was raised to the bench and knighted. As chancery judge he will be 271 remembered for his careful interpretations and elucidations of the Judicature Acts, then first coming into operation. In 1883 he was made a lord justice of appeal, but resigned in 1892; and subsequently his knowledge of equity and talents for arbitration were utilized by the British government from time to time in various special directions, particularly as chairman of many commissions. He was also one of the British representatives at the Paris North Sea Inquiry Commission (1905), and was appointed a member of the Hague Permanent Arbitration Court. He wrote A Treatise on the Specific Performance of Public Contracts (London, 1858, and many subsequent editions).

FRY, ELIZABETH (1780-1845), English philanthropist, and, after Howard, the chief promoter of prison reform in Europe, was born in Norwich on the 21st of May 1780. Her father, John Gurney, afterwards of Earlham Hall, a wealthy merchant and banker, represented an old family which for some generations had belonged to the Society of Friends. While still a girl she gave many indications of the benevolence of disposition, clearness and independence of judgment, and strength of purpose, for which she was afterwards so distinguished; but it was not until after she had entered her eighteenth year that her religion assumed a decided character, and that she was induced, under the preaching of the American Quaker, William Savery, to become an earnest and enthusiastic though never fanatical “Friend.” In August 1800 she became the wife of Joseph Fry, a London merchant.

Amid increasing family cares she was unwearied in her attention to the poor and the neglected of her neighbourhood; and in 1811 she was acknowledged by her co-religionists as a “minister,” an honour and responsibility for which she was undoubtedly qualified, not only by vigour of intelligence and warmth of heart, but also by an altogether unusual faculty of clear, fluent and persuasive speech. Although she had made several visits to Newgate prison as early as February 1813, it was not until nearly four years afterwards that the great public work of her life may be said to have begun. The association for the Improvement of the Female Prisoners in Newgate was formed in April 1817. Its aim was the much-needed establishment of some of what are now regarded as the first principles of prison discipline, such as entire separation of the sexes, classification of criminals, female supervision for the women, and adequate provision for their religious and secular instruction, as also for their useful employment. The ameliorations effected by this association, and largely by the personal exertions of Mrs Fry, soon became obvious, and led to a rapid extension of similar methods to other places. In 1818 she, along with her brother, visited the prisons of Scotland and the north of England; and the publication (1819) of the notes of this tour, as also the cordial recognition of the value of her work by the House of Commons committee on the prisons of the metropolis, led to a great increase of her correspondence, which now extended to Italy, Denmark and Russia, as well as to all parts of the United Kingdom. Through a visit to Ireland, which she made in 1827, she was led to direct her attention to other houses of detention besides prisons; and her observations resulted in many important improvements in the British hospital system, and in the treatment of the insane. In 1838 she visited France, and besides conferring with many of the leading prison officials, she personally visited most of the houses of detention in Paris, as well as in Rouen, Caen and some other places. In the following year she obtained an official permission to visit all the prisons in that country; and her tour, which extended from Boulogne and Abbeville to Toulouse and Marseilles, resulted in a report which was presented to the minister of the interior and the prefect of police. Before returning to England she had included Geneva, Zürich, Stuttgart and Frankfort-on-Main in her inspection. The summer of 1840 found her travelling through Belgium, Holland and Prussia on the same mission; and in 1841 she also visited Copenhagen. In 1842, through failing health, Mrs Fry was compelled to forgo her plans for a still more widely extended activity, but had the satisfaction of hearing from almost every quarter of Europe that the authorities were giving increased practical effect to her suggestions. In 1844 she was seized with a lingering illness, of which she died on the 12th of October 1845. She was survived by a numerous family, the youngest of whom was born in 1822.

Two interesting volumes of Memoirs, with Extracts from her Journals and Letters, edited by two of her daughters, were published in 1847. See also Elizabeth Fry, by G. King Lewis (1910).

FRYXELL, ANDERS (1795-1881), Swedish historian, was born at Hesselskog, Dalsland, Sweden, on the 7th of February 1795. He was educated at Upsala, took holy orders in 1820, was made a doctor of philosophy in 1821, and in 1823 began to publish the great work of his life, the Stories from Swedish History. He did not bring this labour to a close until, fifty-six years later, he published the forty-sixth and crowning volume of his vast enterprise. Fryxell, as a historian, appealed to every class by the picturesqueness of his style and the breadth of his research; he had the gift of awakening to an extraordinary degree the national sense in his readers. In 1824 he published his Swedish Grammar, which was long without a rival. In 1833 he received the title of professor, and in 1835 he was appointed to the incumbency of Sunne, in the diocese of Karlstad, where he resided for the remainder of his life. In 1840 he was elected to the Swedish Academy in succession to the poet Wallin (1779-1839). In 1847 Fryxell received from his bishop permission to withdraw from all the services of the Church, that he might devote himself without interruption to historical investigation. Among his numerous minor writings are prominent his Characteristics of Sweden between 1592 and 1600 (1830), his Origins of the Inaccuracy with which the History of Sweden in Catholic Times has been Treated (1847), and his Contributions to the Literary History of Sweden. It is now beginning to be seen that the abundant labours of Fryxell were rather of a popular than of a scientific order, and although their influence during his lifetime was unbounded, it is only fair to later and exacter historians to admit that they threaten to become obsolete in more than one direction. On the 21st of March 1881 Anders Fryxell died at Stockholm, and in 1884 his daughter Eva Fryxell (born 1829) published from his MS. an interesting History of My History, which was really a literary autobiography and displays the persistency and tirelessness of his industry.

FUAD PASHA (1815-1869), Turkish statesman, was the son of the distinguished poet Kechéji-zadé Izzet Molla. He was educated at the medical school and was at first an army surgeon. About 1836 he entered the civil service as an official of the foreign ministry. He became secretary of the embassy in London; was employed on special missions in the principalities and at St Petersburg (1848), and was sent to Egypt as special commissioner in 1851. In that year he became minister for foreign affairs, a post to which he was appointed also on four subsequent occasions and which he held at the time of his death. During the Crimean War he commanded the troops on the Greek frontier and distinguished himself by his bravery. He was Turkish delegate at the Paris conference of 1856; was charged with a mission to Syria in 1860; grand vizier in 1860 and 1861, and also minister of war. He accompanied the sultan Abd-ul-Aziz on his journey to Egypt and Europe, when the freedom of the city of London was conferred on him. He died at Nice (whither he had been ordered for his health) in 1869. Fuad was renowned for his boldness and promptness of decision, as well as for his ready wit and his many bons mots. Generally regarded as the partisan of a pro-English policy, he rendered most valuable service to his country by his able management of the foreign relations of Turkey, and not least by his efficacious settlement of affairs in Syria after the massacres of 1860.

FUCHOW, Fu-Chau, Foochow, a city of China, capital of the province of Fu-kien, and one of the principal ports open to foreign commerce. In the local dialect it is called Hokchiu. It is situated on the river Min, about 35 m. from the sea, in 26° 5′ N. and 119º 20′ E., 140 m. N. of Amoy and 280 S. of Hang-chow. The city proper, lying nearly 3 m. from the north bank of the river, is surrounded by a wall about 30 ft. high and 12 ft. thick, which makes a circuit of upwards of 5 m. and is pierced by seven gateways surrounded by tall fantastic watch-towers. 272 The whole district between the city and the river, the island of Nantai, and the southern banks of the Min are occupied by extensive suburbs; and the river itself bears a large floating population. Communication from bank to bank is afforded by a long stone bridge supported by forty solid stone piers in its northern section and by nine in its southern. The most remarkable establishment of Fuchow is the arsenal situated about 3 m. down the stream at Pagoda Island, where the sea-going vessels usually anchor. It was founded in 1867, and is conducted under the direction of French engineers according to European methods. In 1870 it employed about 1000 workmen besides fifty European superintendents, and between that date and 1880 it turned out about 20 or 30 small gunboats. In 1884 it was partially destroyed by the French fleet, and for a number of years the workshops and machinery were allowed to stand idle and go to decay. On the 1st of August 1895 an attack was made on the English mission near the city of Ku-chang, 120 m. west of Fuchow, on which occasion nine missionaries, of whom eight were ladies, were massacred. The port was opened to European commerce in 1842; and in 1853 the firm of Russell and Co. shipped the first cargoes of tea from Fuchow to Europe and America. The total trade in foreign vessels in 1876 was imports to the value of £1,531,617, and exports to the value of £3,330,489. In 1904 the imports amounted to £1,440,351, and the exports to £1,034,436. The number of vessels that entered in 1876 was 275, and of these 211 were British, 27 German, 11 Danish and 9 American. While in 1904, 480 vessels entered the port, 216 of which were British. A large trade is carried on by the native merchants in timber, paper, woollen and cotton goods, oranges and olives; but the foreign houses mainly confine themselves to opium and tea. Commercial intercourse with Australia and New Zealand is on the increase. The principal imports, besides opium, are shirtings, T-cloths, lead and tin, medicines, rice, tobacco, and beans and peas. Two steamboat lines afford regular communication with Hong-Kong twice a month. The town is the seat of several important missions, of which the first was founded in 1846. That supported by the American board had in 1876 issued 1,3000,000 copies of Chinese books and tracts.

FUCHS, JOHANN NEPOMUK VON (1774-1856), German chemist and mineralogist, was born at Mattenzell, near Brennberg in the Bavarian Forest, on the 15th of May 1774. In 1807 he became professor of chemistry and mineralogy at the university of Landshut, and in 1823 conservator of the mineralogical collections at Munich, where he was appointed professor of mineralogy three years later, on the removal thither of the university of Landshut. He retired in 1852, was ennobled by the king of Bavaria in 1854, and died at Munich on the 5th of March 1856. His name is chiefly known for his mineralogical observations and for his work on soluble glass.

FUCHS, LEONHARD (1501-1566), German physician and botanist, was born at Wembdingen in Bavaria on the 17th of January 1501. He attended school at Heilbronn and Erfurt, and in 1521 graduated at the university of Ingolstadt. About the same time he espoused the doctrines of the Reformation. Having in 1524 received his diploma as doctor of medicine, he practised for two years in Munich. He became in 1526 professor of medicine at Ingolstadt, and in 1528 physician to the margrave of Anspach. In Anspach he was the means of saving the lives of many during the epidemic locally known as the “English sweating-sickness.” By the duke of Württemberg he was, in 1535, appointed to the professorship of medicine at the university of Tübingen, a post held by him till his death on the 10th of May 1566. Fuchs was an advocate of the Galenic school of medicine, and published several Latin translations of treatises by its founder and by Hippocrates. But his most important publication was De historia stirpium commentarii insignes (Basel, 1542), a work illustrated with more than five hundred excellent outline illustrations, including figures of the common foxglove and of another species of the genus Digitalis, which was so named by him.

Fuchsia coccinea.

1, Flower cut open after removal of sepals; 2, fruit; 3, floral diagram.

FUCHSIA, so named by Plumier in honour of the botanist Leonhard Fuchs, a genus of plants of the natural order Onagraceae, characterized by entire, usually opposite leaves, pendent flowers, a funnel-shaped, brightly coloured, quadripartite, deciduous calyx, 4 petals, alternating with the calycine segments, 8, rarely 10, exserted stamens, a long filiform style, an inferior ovary, and fruit, a fleshy ovoid many-seeded berry. All the members of the genus, with the exception of the New Zealand species, F. excorticata, F. Colensoi and F. procumbens, are natives of Central and South America—occurring in the interior of forests or in damp and shady mountainous situations. The various species differ not a little in size as well as in other characters; some, as F. verrucosa, being dwarf shrubs; others, as F. arborescens and F. apetala, attaining a height of 12 to 16 ft., and having stems several inches in diameter. Plumier, in his Nova plantarum Americanarum genera (p. 14, tab. 14, Paris, 1703), gave a description of a species of fuchsia, the first known, under the name of Fuchsia triphylla, flore coccineo, and a somewhat conventional outline figure of the same plant was published at Amsterdam in 1757 by Burmann. In the Histoire des plantes médicinales of the South American traveller Feuillée (p. 64, pl. XLVII.), written in 1709-1711, and published by him with his Journal, Paris, 1725, the name Thilco is applied to a species of fuchsia from Chile, which is described, though not evidently so figured, as having a pentamerous calyx. The F. coccinea of Alton (fig.) (see J.D. Hooker, in Journal Linnean Soc., Botany, vol. x. p. 458, 1867), the first species of fuchsia cultivated in England, where it was long confined to the greenhouse, was brought from South America by Captain Firth in 1788 and placed in Kew Gardens. Of this species Mr Lee, a nurseryman at Hammersmith, soon afterwards obtained an example, and procured from it by means of cuttings several hundred plants, which he sold at a guinea each. In 1823 F. macrostemma and F. gracilis, and during the next two or three years several other species, were introduced into England; but it was not until about 1837, or soon after florists had acquired F. fulgens, that varieties of interest began to make their appearance. The numerous hybrid forms now existing are the result chiefly of the intercrossing of that or other long-flowered with globose-flowered plants. F. Venus-victrix, raised by Mr Gulliver, gardener to the Rev. S. Marriott of Horsemonden, Kent, and sold in 1822 to Messrs Cripps, was the earliest white-sepalled fuchsia. The first fuchsia with a white corolla was produced about 1853 by Mr Storey. In some varieties the blossoms are variegated, and in others they are double. There appears to be very little limit to the number of forms to be obtained by careful cultivation and selection. To hybridize, the flower as soon as it opens is emasculated, and it is then fertilized with pollen from some different flower.

Ripe seed is sown either in autumn or about February or March in light, rich, well-drained mould, and is thinly covered with 273 sandy soil and watered. A temperature of 70° to 75° Fahr. has been found suitable for raising. The seedlings are pricked off into shallow pots or pans, and when 3 in. in height are transferred to 3-in. pots, and are then treated the same as plants from cuttings. Fuchsias may be grafted as readily as camellias, preferably by the splice or whip method, the apex of a young shoot being employed as a scion; but the easiest and most usual method of propagation is by cuttings. The most expeditious way to procure these is to put plants in heat in January, and to take their shoots when 3 in. in length. For summer flowering in England they are best made about the end of August, and should be selected from the shortest-jointed young wood. They root readily in a compost of loam and silver-sand if kept close and sprinkled for a short time. In from two to three weeks they may be put into 3-in. pots containing a compost of equal parts of rich loam, silver-sand and leaf-mould. They are subsequently moved from the frame or bed, first to a warm and shady, and then to a more airy part of the greenhouse. In January a little artificial heat may be given, to be gradually increased as the days lengthen. The side-shoots are generally pruned when they have made three or four joints, and for bushy plants the leader is stopped soon after the first potting. Care is taken to keep the plants as near the glass as possible, and shaded from bright sunshine, also to provide them plentifully with water, except at the time of shifting, when the roots should be tolerably dry. For the second potting a suitable soil is a mixture of well-rotted cow-dung or old hotbed mould with leaf-mould and sandy peat, and to promote drainage a little peat-moss may be placed immediately over the crocks in the lower part of the pot. Weak liquid manure greatly promotes the advance of the plants, and should be regularly supplied twice or thrice a week during the flowering season. After this, water is gradually withheld from them, and they may be placed in the open air to ripen their wood.

Among the more hardy or half-hardy plants for inside borders are varieties of the Chilean species, F. macrostemma (or F. magellanica), a shrub 6 to 12 ft. high with a scarlet calyx, such as F. m. globosa, F. m. gracilis; one of the most graceful and hardy of these, a hybrid F. riccartoni, was raised at Riccarton, near Edinburgh, in 1830. For inside culture may be mentioned F. boliviana (Bolivia), 2 to 4 ft. high, with rich crimson flowers with a trumpet-shaped tube; F. corymbiflora (Peru), 4 to 6 ft. high, with scarlet flowers nearly 2 in. long in long terminal clusters; F. fulgens (Mexico), 4 to 6 ft., with drooping apical clusters of scarlet flowers; F. microphylla (Central America), with small leaves and small scarlet funnel-shaped flowers, the petals deep red; F. procumbens (New Zealand), a pretty little creeper, the small flowers of which are succeeded by oval magenta-crimson berries which remain on for months; and F. splendens (Mexico), 6 ft. high, with very showy scarlet and green flowers. But these cannot compare in beauty or freedom of blossom with the numerous varieties raised by gardeners. The nectar of fuchsia flowers has been shown to contain nearly 78% of cane sugar, the remainder being fruit sugar. The berries of some fuchsias are subacid or sweet and edible. From certain species a dye is obtainable. The so-called “native fuchsias” of southern and eastern Australia are plants of the genus Correa, natural order Rutaceae.

FUCHSINE, or Magenta, a red dye-stuff consisting of a mixture of the hydrochlorides or acetates of pararosaniline and rosaniline. It was obtained in 1856 by J. Natanson (Ann., 1856, 98, p. 297) by the action of ethylene chloride on aniline, and by A.W. Hofmann in 1858 from aniline and carbon tetrachloride. It is prepared by oxidizing “aniline for red” (a mixture of aniline and ortho- and para-toluidine) with arsenic acid (H. Medlock, Dingler’s Poly. Jour., 1860, 158, p. 146); by heating aniline for red with nitrobenzene, concentrated hydrochloric acid and iron (Coupier, Ber., 1873, 6, p. 423); or by condensing formaldehyde with aniline and ortho-toluidine and oxidizing the mixture. It forms small crystals, showing a brilliant green reflex, and is soluble in water and alcohol with formation of a deep red solution. It dyes silk, wool and leather direct, and cotton after mordanting with tannin and tartar emetic (see Dyeing). An aqueous solution of fuchsine is decolorized on the addition of sulphurous acid, the easily soluble fuchsine sulphurous acid being formed. This solution is frequently used as a test reagent for the detection of aldehydes, giving, in most cases, a red coloration on the addition of a small quantity of the aldehyde.

FUCINO, LAGO DI [Lat. Lacus Fucinus], a lake bed of the Abruzzi, Italy, in the province of Aquila, 2 m. E. of the town of Avezzano. The lake was 37 m. in circumference and 65 ft. deep. From the lack of an outlet, the level of the lake was subject to great variations, often fraught with disastrous consequences. As early as A.D. 52 the emperor Claudius, realizing a project of Julius Caesar, constructed a tunnel 3½ m. long, with 40 shafts at intervals, by which the surplus waters found an outlet to the Liris (or Garigliano). No less than 30,000 workmen were employed for eleven years in driving this tunnel. In the following reign the tunnel was allowed to fall into disrepair, but was repaired by Trajan. When, however, it finally went out of use is uncertain. The various attempts made to reopen it from 1240 onwards were unsuccessful. By 1852 the lake had gradually risen until it was 30 ft. above its original level, and had become a source of danger to the surrounding countryside. A company undertook to drain it on condition of becoming proprietors of the site when dry; in 1854, however, the rights and privileges were purchased by Prince Giulio Torlonia (d. 1886), the great Roman banker, who carried on the work at his own expense until, in 1876, the lake was finally drained at the cost of some £1,700,000. The 274 reclaimed area is 12½ m. long, 7 m. broad, and is cultivated by families from the Torlonia estates. The outlet by which it was drained is 4 m. long and 24 sq. yds. in section.

FUEL (O. Fr. feuaile, popular Lat. focalia, from focus, hearth, fire), a term applicable to all substances that can be usefully employed for the production of heat by combustion. Any element or combination of elements susceptible of oxidation may under appropriate conditions be made to burn; but only those that ignite at a moderate initial temperature and burn with comparative rapidity, and, what is practically of more importance, are obtainable in quantity at moderate prices, can fairly be regarded as fuels. The elementary substances that can be so classed are primarily hydrogen, carbon and sulphur, while others finding more special applications are silicon, phosphorus, and the more readily oxidizable metals, such as iron, manganese, aluminium and magnesium. More important, however, than the elements are the carbohydrates or compounds of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen, which form the bulk of the natural fuels, wood, peat and coal, as well as of their liquid and gaseous derivatives—coal-gas, coal-tar, pitch, oil, &c., which have high values as fuel. Carbon in the elementary form has its nearest representative in the carbonized fuels, charcoal from wood and coke from coal.

Solid Fuels.

Wood may be considered as having the following average composition when in the air-dried state: Carbon, 39.6; hydrogen, 4.8; oxygen, 34.8; ash, 1.0; water, 20%. When it is freshly felled, the water may be from 18 to Wood. 50%. Air-dried or even green wood ignites readily when a considerable surface is exposed to the kindling flame, but in large masses with regular or smooth surfaces it is often difficult to get it to burn. When previously torrefied or scorched by heating to a temperature of about 200°, at which incipient charring is set up, it is exceedingly inflammable. The ends of imperfectly charred boughs from the charcoal heaps in this condition are used in Paris and other large towns in France for kindling purposes, under the name of fumerons. The inflammability, however, varies with the density,—the so-called hard woods, oak, beech and maple, taking fire less readily than the softer, and, more especially, the coniferous varieties rich in resin. The calorific power of absolutely dry woods may as an average be taken at about 4000 units, and when air-dried, i.e. containing 25% of water, at 2800 to 3000 units. Their evaporative values, i.e. the quantities of water evaporated by unit weight, are 3.68 and 4.44.

Wood being essentially a flaming fuel is admirably adapted for use with heat-receiving surfaces of large extent, such as locomotive and marine boilers, and is also very clean in use. The absence of all cohesion in the cinders or unburnt carbonized residue causes a large amount of ignited particles to be projected from the chimney, when a rapid draught is used, unless special spark-catchers of wire gauze or some analogous contrivance are used. When burnt in open fireplaces the volatile products given off in the apartment on the first heating have an acrid penetrating odour, which is, however, very generally considered to be agreeable. Owing to the large amount of water present, no very high temperatures can be obtained by the direct combustion of wood, and to produce these for metallurgical purposes it is necessary to convert it previously either into charcoal or into inflammable gas.

Peat includes a great number of substances of very unequal fuel value, the most recently formed spongy light brown kind approximating in composition to wood, while the dense pitchy brown compact substance, obtained from Peat. the bottom of bogs of ancient formation, may be compared with lignite or even in some instances with coal. Unlike wood, however, it contains incombustible matter in variable but large quantity, from 5 to 15% or even more. Much of this, when the amount is large, is often due to sand mechanically intermixed; when air-dried the proportion of water is from 8 to 20%. When these constituents are deducted the average composition may be stated to be—carbon, 52 to 66; hydrogen, 4.7 to 7.4; oxygen, 28 to 39; and nitrogen, 1.5 to 3%. Average air-dried peat may be taken as having a calorific value of 3000 to 3500 units, and when dried at 100° C., and with a minimum of ash (4 to 5%), at about 5200 units, or from a quarter to one-third more than that of an equal weight of wood. The lighter and more spongy varieties of peat when air-dried are exceedingly inflammable, firing at a temperature of 200° C.; the denser pulpy kinds ignite less readily when in the natural state, and often require a still higher temperature when prepared by pulping and compression or partial carbonization. Most kinds burn with a red smoky flame, developing a very strong odour, which, however, has its admirers in the same way that wood smoke has. This arises from the destructive distillation of imperfectly carbonized organic matter. The ash, like that of wood, is light and powdery, except when much sand is present, when it is of a denser character.

Peat is principally found in high latitudes, on exposed high tablelands and treeless areas in more temperate climates, and in the valleys of slow-flowing rivers,—as in Ireland, the west of Scotland, the tableland of Bavaria, the North German plain, and parts of the valleys of the Somme, Oise and a few other rivers in northern France. A principal objection to its use is its extreme bulk, which for equal evaporative effect is from 8 to 18 times that of coal. Various methods have been proposed, and adopted more or less successfully, for the purpose of increasing the density of raw peat by compression, either with or without pulping; the latter process gives the heaviest products, but the improvement is scarcely sufficient to compensate for the cost.

Lignite or brown coal is of intermediate character between peat and coal proper. The best kinds are undistinguishable in quality from free-burning coals, and the lowest earthy kinds are not equal to average peat. When freshly Lignite. raised, the proportion of water may be from 45 to 50% and even more, which is reduced from 28 to 20% by exposure to dry air. Most varieties, however, when fully dried, break up into powder, which considerably diminishes their utility as fuel, as they cannot be consolidated by coking. Lignite dust may, however, be compacted into serviceable blocks for burning, by pressure in machines similar to those used for brickmaking, either in the wet state as raised from the mines or when kiln-dried at 200° C. This method was adopted to a very large extent in Prussian Saxony. The calorific value varies between 3500 and 5000 units, and the evaporative factor from 2.16 when freshly raised to 5.84 for the best kinds of lignite when perfectly dried.

Of the other natural fuels, apart from coal (q.v.), the most important is so-called vegetable refuse, such as cotton stalks, brushwood, straw, and the woody residue of sugar-cane after the extraction of the saccharine juice known as Other natural fuels. megasse or cane trash. These are extensively used in countries where wood and coal are scarce, usually for providing steam in the manufactures where they arise, e.g. straw for thrashing, cotton stalks for ploughing, irrigating, or working presses, and cane trash for boiling down sugar or driving the cane mill. According to J. Head (Proc. Inst. of Civil Engineers, vol. xlviii. p. 75), the evaporative values of 1 ℔ of these different articles when burnt in a tubular boiler are—coal, 8 ℔; dry peat, 4 ℔; dry wood, 3.58-3.52 ℔; cotton stalks or megasse, 3.2-2.7 ℔; straw, 2.46-2.30 ℔. Owing to the siliceous nature of the ash of straw, it is desirable to have a means of clearing the grate bars from slags and clinkers at short intervals, and to use a steam jet to clear the tubes from similar deposits.

The common fuel of India and Egypt is derived from the dung of camels and oxen, moulded into thin cakes, and dried in the sun. It has a very low heating power, and in burning gives off acrid ammoniacal smoke and vapour.

Somewhat similar are the tan cakes made from spent tanners’ bark, which are used to some extent in eastern France and in Germany. They are made by moulding the spent bark into cakes, which are then slowly dried by exposure to the air. Their effect is about equivalent to 80 and 30% of equal weights of wood and coal respectively.

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Sulphur, phosphorus and silicon, the other principal combustible elements, are only of limited application as fuels. The first is used in the liquidation of sulphur-bearing rocks. The ore is piled into large heaps, which are ignited at the bottom, a certain proportion, from one-fourth to one-third, of the sulphur content being sacrificed, in order to raise the mass to a sufficient temperature to allow the remainder to melt and run down to the collecting basin. Another application is in the so-called “pyritic smelting,” where ores of copper (q.v.) containing iron pyrites, FeS2, are smelted with appropriate fluxes in a hot blast, without preliminary roasting, the sulphur and iron of the pyrites giving sufficient heat by oxidation to liquefy both slag and metal. Phosphorus, which is of value from its low igniting point, receives its only application in the manufacture of lucifer matches. The high temperature produced by burning phosphorus is in part due to the product of combustion (phosphoric acid) being solid, and therefore there is less heat absorbed than would be the case with a gaseous product. The same effect is observed in a still more striking manner with silicon, which in the only special case of its application to the production of heat, namely, in the Bessemer process of steel-making, gives rise to an enormous increase of temperature in the metal, sufficient indeed to keep the iron melted. The absolute calorific value of silicon is lower than that of carbon, but the product of combustion (silica) being non-volatile at all furnace temperatures, the whole of the heat developed is available for heating the molten iron, instead of a considerable part being consumed in the work of volatilization, as is the case with carbonic oxide, which burns to waste in the air.

Liquid Fuel.

Vegetable oil is not used for fuel except for laboratory purposes, partly because its constituent parts are less adaptable for combustion under the conditions necessary for steam-raising, but chiefly because of the commercial difficulty of producing it with sufficient economy to compete with mineral fuel either solid or liquid.

The use of petroleum as fuel had long been recognized as a scientific possibility, and some attempts had been made to adopt it in practice upon a commercial scale, but the insufficiency, and still more the irregularity, of the supplies prevented it from coming into practical use to any important extent until about 1898, when discoveries of oil specially adapted by chemical composition for fuel purposes changed the aspect of the situation. These discoveries of special oil were made first in Borneo and later in Texas, and experience in treating the oils from both localities has shown that while not less adapted to produce kerosene or illuminating oil, they are better adapted to produce fuel oil than either the Russian or the Pennsylvanian products. Texas oil did not hold its place in the market for long, because the influx of water into the wells lowered their yield, but discoveries of fuel oil in Mexico have come later and will help to maintain the balance of the world’s supply, although this is still a mere fraction of the assured supply of coal.

With regard to the chemical properties of petroleum, it is not necessary to say more in the present place than that the lighter and more volatile constituents, known commercially as naphtha and benzene, must be removed by distillation in order to leave a residue composed principally of hydrocarbons which, while containing the necessary carbon for combustion, shall be sufficiently free from volatile qualities to avoid premature ignition and consequent danger of explosion. Attempts have been made to use crude oil for fuel purposes, and these have had some success in the neighbourhood of the oil wells and under boilers of unusually good ventilation both as regards their chimneys and the surroundings of their stokeholds; but for reasons both of commerce and of safety it is not desirable to use crude oil where some distillation is possible. The more complete the process of distillation, and the consequent removal of the volatile constituents, the higher the flash-point, and the more turgid and viscous is the fuel resulting; and if the process is carried to an extreme, the residue or fuel becomes difficult to ignite by the ordinary process of spraying or atomizing mechanically at the moment immediately preceding combustion. The proportions which have been found to work efficiently in practice are as follows:—

The standards of safety for liquid fuel as determined by flash-point are not yet finally settled, and are changing from time to time. The British admiralty require a flash-point of 270° F., and to this high standard, and the consequent viscosity of the fuel used by vessels in the British fleet, may partly be attributed the low rate of combustion that was at first found possible in them. The German admiralty have fixed a flash-point of 187° F., and have used oil of this standard with perfect safety, and at the same time with much higher measure of evaporative duty than has been attained in British war-vessels. In the British mercantile marine Lloyd’s Register has permitted fuel with a flash-point as low as 150° F. as a minimum, and no harm has resulted. The British Board of Trade, the department of the government which controls the safety of passenger vessels, has fixed a higher standard upon the basis of a minimum of 185°. In the case of locomotives the flash-point as a standard of safety is of less importance than in the case of stationary or marine boilers, because the storage is more open, and the ventilation, both of the storage tanks and the boilers during combustion, much more perfect than in any other class of steam-boilers.

The process of refining by distillation is also necessary to reduce two impurities which greatly retard storage and combustion, i.e. water and sulphur. Water is found in all crude petroleum as it issues from the wells, and sulphur exists in important quantities in oil from the Texas wells. Its removal was at first found very expensive, but there no longer exists difficulty in this respect, and large quantities of petroleum fuel practically free from sulphur are now regularly exported from Texas to New York and to Europe.

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Water mixed with fuel is in intimate mechanical relation, and frequently so remains in considerable quantities even after the process of distillation. It is in fact so thoroughly mixed as to form an emulsion. The effect of feeding such a mixture into a furnace is extremely injurious, because the water must be decomposed chemically into its constituents, hydrogen and oxygen, thus absorbing a large quantity of heat which would otherwise be utilized for evaporation. Water also directly delays combustion by producing from the jet a long, dull, red flame instead of a short bright, white flame, and the process of combustion, which should take place by vaporization of the oil near the furnace mouth, is postponed and transferred to the upper part of the combustion-box, the tubes, and even the base of the chimney, producing loss of heat and injury to the boiler structure. The most effective means of ridding the fuel of this dangerous impurity is by heat and settlement. The coefficients of expansion of water and oil by heat are substantially different, and a moderate rise of temperature therefore separates the particles and precipitates the water, which is easily drawn off—leaving the oil available for use. The heating and precipitation are usually performed upon a patented system of settling tanks and heating apparatus known as the Flannery-Boyd system, which has proved itself indispensable for the successful use at sea of petroleum fuel containing any large proportion of water.

The laboratory and mechanical use of petroleum for fuel has already been referred to, but it was not until the year 1870 that petroleum was applied upon a wider and commercial scale. In the course of distillation of Russian crude Progress of liquid fuel. petroleum for the production of kerosene or lamp oil, large quantities of refuse were produced—known by the Russian name of astatki—and these were found an incumbrance and useless for any commercial purpose. To a Russian oil-refiner gifted with mechanical instinct and the genius for invention occurred the idea of utilizing the waste product as fuel by spraying or atomizing it with steam, so that, the thick and sluggish fluid being broken up into particles, the air necessary for combustion could have free access to it. The earliest apparatus for this purpose was a simple piece of gas-tube, into which the thick oil was fed; by another connexion steam at high pressure was admitted to an inner and smaller tube, and, the end of the tube nearest to the furnace being open, the pressure of the steam blew the oil into the furnace, and by its velocity broke it up into spray. The apparatus worked with success from the first. Experience pointed out the proper proportionate sizes for the inlets of steam and oil, the proper pressure for the steam, and the proportionate sizes for the orifices of admission to the furnaces, as well as the sizes of air-openings and best arrangements of fire-bricks in the furnaces themselves; and what had been a waste product now became a by-product of great value. Practically all the steam power in South Russia, both for factories and navigation of the inland seas and rivers, is now raised from astatki fuel.

In the Far East, including Burma and parts of China and Japan, the use of liquid fuel spread rapidly during the years 1899, 1900 and 1901, owing entirely to the development of the Borneo oil-fields by the enterprise of Sir Marcus Samuel and the large British corporation known as the Shell Transport and Trading Company, of which he is the head. This corporation has since amalgamated with the Royal Dutch Petroleum Company controlling the extensive wells in Dutch Borneo, and together they supply large quantities of liquid fuel for use in the Far East. In the United States of America liquid fuel is not only used for practically the whole of the manufacturing and locomotive purposes of the state of Texas, but factories in New York, and a still larger number in California, are now discarding the use of coal and adopting petroleum, because it is more economical in its consumption and also more easily handled in transit, and saves nearly all the labour of stoking. So far the supplies for China and Japan have been exported from Borneo, but the discoveries of new oil-fields in California, of a character specially adapted for fuel, have encouraged the belief that it may be possible to supply Chile and Peru and other South American countries, where coal is extremely expensive, with Californian fuel; and it has also found its way across the Pacific to Japan. There are believed to be large deposits in West Africa, but in the meantime the only sources of supply to those parts of Africa where manufacture is progressing, i.e. South Africa and Egypt, are the oil-fields of Borneo and Texas, from which the import has well begun, from Texas to Alexandria via the Mediterranean, and from Borneo to Cape Town via Singapore.

In England, notwithstanding the fact that there exist the finest coal-fields in the world, there has been a surprising development of the use of petroleum as fuel. The Great Eastern railway adapted 120 locomotive engines to its use, and these ran with regularity and success both on express passenger and goods trains until the increase in price due to short supply compelled a return to coal fuel. The London, Brighton & South Coast railway also began the adaptation of some of their locomotive engines, but discontinued the use of liquid fuel from the same cause. Several large firms of contractors and cement manufacturers, chiefly on the banks of the Thames, made the same adaptations which proved mechanically successful, but were not continued when the price of liquid fuel increased with the increased demand.

Fig. 1.—Holden Burner.

The chief factors of economy are the greater calorific value of oil than coal (about 16 ℔ of water per ℔ of oil fuel evaporated from a temperature of 212° F.), not only in laboratory practice, but in actual use on a large scale, and the saving of labour both Economy of liquid fuel. in transit from the source of supply to the place of use and in the act of stoking the furnaces. The use of cranes, hand labour with shovels, wagons and locomotives, horses and carts, is unavoidable for the transit of coal; and labour to trim the coal, to stoke it when under combustion, and to handle the residual ashes, are all indispensable to steam-raising by coal. On the other hand, a system of pipes and pumps, and a limited quantity of skilled 278 labour to manage them, is all that is necessary for the transit and combustion of petroleum fuel; and it is certain that even in England will be found places which, from topographical and other circumstances, will use petroleum more economically than coal as fuel for manufacturing purposes under reasonable conditions of price for the fuel.

Fig. 2.—Rusden and Eeles Burner.

The theoretical calorific value of oil fuel is more nearly realized in practice than the theoretical calorific value of coal, because the facilities for complete combustion, due to the artificial admixture of the air by the atomizing process, are greater in the case of oil than coal, and for this reason, among others, the practical evaporative results are proportionately higher with liquid fuel. In some cases the work done in a steam-engine by 2 tons of coal has been performed by 1 ton of oil fuel, but in others the proportions have been as 3 to 2, and these latter can be safely relied on in practice as a minimum. This saving, combined with the savings of labour and transit already explained, will in the near future make the use of liquid fuel compulsory, except in places so near to coal-fields that the cost of coal becomes sufficiently low to counterbalance the savings in weight of fuel consumed and in labour in handling it. In some locomotives on the Great Eastern railway the consumption of oil and coal for the same development of horse-power was as 17 ℔ oil is to 35 ℔ coal; all, however, did not realize so high a result.

The mechanical apparatus for applying petroleum to steam-raising in locomotives is very simple. The space in the tender usually occupied by coal is closed up by steel-plating closely riveted and tested, so as to form a storage tank. From this tank Liquid fuel in locomotives. a feed-pipe is led to a burner of the combined steam-and-oil type already indicated, and this burner is so arranged as to enter a short distance inside the furnace mouth. The ordinary fire-bars are covered with a thin layer of coal, which starts the ignition in the first place, and the whole apparatus is ready for work. The burner best adapted for locomotive practice is the Holden Burner (fig. 1), which was used on the Great Eastern railway. The steam-pipe is connected at A, the oil-pipe at B, and the hand-wheels C and D are for the adjustment of the internal orifices according to the rate of combustion required. The nozzle E is directed towards the furnace, and the external ring FF, supplied by the small pipe G and the by-pass valve H, projects a series of steam jets into the furnace, independent of the injections of atomized fuel, and so induces an artificial inrush of air for the promotion of combustion. This type of burner has also been tried on stationary boilers and on board ship. It works well, although the great consumption of steam by the supplementary ring is a difficulty at sea, where the water lost by the consumption of steam cannot easily be made up.

Although the application of the new fuel for land and locomotive boilers has already been large, the practice at sea has been far more extensive. The reason is chiefly to be found in the fact that although the sources of supply are at a distance Liquid fuel at sea. from Great Britain, yet they are in countries to whose neighbourhood British steamships regularly trade, and in which British naval squadrons are regularly stationed, so that the advantages of adopting liquid fuel have been more immediate and the economy more direct. The certainty of continuous supply of the fuel and the wide distribution of storage stations have so altered the conditions that the general adoption of the new fuel for marine purposes becomes a matter of urgency for the statesman, the merchant and the engineer. None of these can afford to neglect the new conditions, lest they be noted and acted upon by their competitors. Storage for supply now exists at a number of sea ports: London, Barrow, Southampton, Amsterdam, Copenhagen, New Orleans, Savannah, New York, Philadelphia, Singapore, Hong Kong, Madras, Colombo, Suez, Hamburg, Port Arthur, Rangoon, Calcutta, Bombay, Alexandria, Bangkok, Saigon, Penang, Batavia, Surabaya, Amoy, Swatow, Fuchow, Shanghai, Hankow, Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide, Zanzibar, Mombasa, Yokohama, Kobe and Nagasaki; also in South African and South American ports.

Fig. 3.—Storage of Liquid Fuel on Oil-carrying Steamers (Flannery-Boyd System).

The British admiralty have undertaken experiments with liquid fuel at sea, and at the same time investigations of the 279 possibility of supply from sources within the regions of the British empire. There is an enormous supply of shale under the north-eastern counties of England, but no oil that can be pumped—still less oil with a pressure above it so as to “gush” like the wells in America—and the only sources of liquid supply under the British flag appear to be in Burma and Trinidad. The Borneo fields are not under British control, although developed entirely by British capital. The Italian admiralty have fitted several large warships with boiler apparatus to burn petroleum. The German admiralty are regularly using liquid fuel on the China station. The Dutch navy have fitted coal fuel and liquid fuel furnaces in combination, so that the smaller powers required may be developed by coal alone, and the larger powers by supplementing coal fuel with oil fuel. The speeds of some vessels of the destroyer type have by this means been accelerated nearly two knots.

Fig. 4.—Installation on ss. “Trochas.”

Fig. 5.—Details of Furnace, Meyer System.

Fig. 6.—Details of Exterior Elongation of Furnace, Meyer System.

The questions which govern the use of fuel in warships are more largely those of strategy and fighting efficiency than economy of evaporation. Indeed, the cost of constructing and maintaining in fighting efficiency a modern Advantages in warships. warship is so great that the utmost use strategically must be obtained from the vessel, and in this comparison the cost of fuel is relatively so small an item that its increase or decrease may be considered almost a negligible quantity. The desideratum in a warship is to obtain the greatest fighting efficiency based on the thickest armour, the heaviest and most numerous guns, the highest maximum speed, and, last and not least, the greatest range of effective action based upon the maximum supplies of fuel, provisions and other consumable stores that the ship can carry. Now, if by changing the type of fuel it be possible to reduce its weight by 30%, and to abolish the stokers, who are usually more than half the ship’s company, the weight saved will be represented not merely by the fuel, but by the consumable stores otherwise necessary for the stokers. Conversely, the radius of effective action of the ship will be doubled as regards consumable stores if the crew be halved, and will be increased by 50% if the same weight of fuel be carried in the form of liquid instead of coal. In space the gain by using oil fuel is still greater, and 36 cubic feet of oil as stored are equal in practical calorific value to 67 cubic feet of coal according to the allowance usual for ship’s bunkering. On the other hand, coal has been relied upon, when placed in the side bunkers of unarmoured ships, as a protection against shot and shell, and this advantage, if it really exists, could not be claimed in regard to liquid fuel.

Recent experiments in coaling warships at sea have not been very successful, as the least bad weather has prevented the safe transmission of coal bags from the collier to the ship. The same difficulty does not exist for oil fuel, which has been pumped through flexible tubing from one ship to the other even in comparatively rough weather. Smokelessness, so important a feature of sea strategy, has not always been attained by liquid fuel, but where the combustion is complete, by reason of suitable furnace arrangements and careful management, there is no smoke. The great drawback, however, to the use of liquid fuel in fast small vessels is the confined space allotted to the boilers, such confinement being unavoidable in view of the high power concentrated in a small hull. The British admiralty’s experiments, however, have gone far to solve the problem, and the quantity of oil which can be consumed by forced draught in confined boilers now more nearly equals the quantity of coal consumed under similar conditions. All recent vessels built for the British navy are so constructed that the spaces between their double bottoms are oil-tight and capable of storing liquid fuel in the tanks so formed. Most recent battleships and cruisers have also liquid fuel furnace fittings, and in 1910 it already appeared probable that the use of oil fuel in warships would rapidly develop.

In view of recent accusations of insufficiency of coal storage in foreign naval depots, by reason of the allegation that coal so stored quickly perishes, it is interesting to note that liquid fuel may be stored in tanks for an indefinite time without any deterioration whatever.

In the case of merchant steamers large progress has also been made. The Shell Transport and Trading Company have twenty-one vessels successfully navigating in all parts of the world and using liquid fuel. The Hamburg-American Advantages in merchant ships. Steamship Company have four large vessels similarly fitted for oil fuel, which, however, differ in furnace arrangements, as will be hereafter described, although using coal when the fluctuation of the market renders that the more economical fuel. One of the large American transatlantic lines is adopting liquid fuel, and French, German, Danish and American mercantile vessels are also beginning to use it in considerable amounts.

In the case of very large passenger steamers, such as those of 20 knots and upwards in the Atlantic trade, the saving in cost of fuel is trifling compared with the advantage arising from the greater weight and space available for freight. Adopting a basis of 3 to 2 as between coal consumption and oil consumption, there is an increase of 1000 tons of dead weight cargo in even a 280 medium-sized Atlantic steamer, and a collateral gain of about 100,000 cub. ft. of measurement cargo, by reason of the ordinary bunkers being left quite free, and the oil being stored in the double bottom spaces hitherto unutilized except for the purpose of water ballast. The cleanliness and saving of time from bunkering by the use of oil fuel is also an important factor in passenger ships, whilst considerable additional speed is obtainable. The cost of the installation, however, is very considerable, as it includes not only burners and pipes for the furnaces, but also the construction of oil-tight tanks, with pumps and numerous valves and pipe connexions.

Fig. 7.—Furnace on ss. “Ferdinand Laeisz.” A, it is proposed to do away with this ring of brickwork as being useless; B, it is proposed to fill this space up, thus continuing lining of furnace to combustion chamber, and also to fit protection bricks in way of saddle plate.

Fig. 8.—Fuel Tanks, &c., of ss. “Murex.”

Fig. 9.—Furnace Gear of ss. “Murex.”

Fig. 10.—Section through Furnace of ss. “Murex.”

Gaseous Fuel.

Strictly speaking, much, and sometimes even most, of the heating effected by solid or liquid fuel is actually performed by the gases given off during the combustion. We speak, however, of gaseous fuel only in those cases where we supply a combustible gas from the outset, or where we produce from ordinary solid (or liquid) fuel in one place a stream of combustible gas which is burned in another place, more or less distant from that where it has been generated.

I. Natural Gas.—From time immemorial it has been known that in some parts of the Caucasus and of China large quantities of gases issue from the soil, sometimes under water, which can be lighted and burn with a luminous flame. The “eternal fires” of Baku belong to this class. In coal-mines frequently similar streams of gas issue from the coal; these are called “blowers,” and when they are of somewhat regular occurrence are sometimes conducted away in pipes and used for underground lighting. As a regular source of heating power, however, natural gas is employed only in some parts of the United States, especially in Pennsylvania, Kansas, Ohio and West Virginia, where it always occurs in the neighbourhood of coal and petroleum fields. The first public mention of it was made in 1775, but it was not till 1821 that it was turned to use at Fredonia, N.Y. In Pennsylvania natural gas was discovered in 1859, but at first very little use was made of it. Its industrial employment dates only from 1874, and became of great importance about ten years later. Nobody ever doubted that the gas found in these localities was an accumulation of many ages and that, being tapped by thousands of bore-holes, it must rapidly come to an end. This assumption was strengthened by the fact that the “gas-wells,” which at first gave out the gas at a pressure of 700 or 800, sometimes even of 1400 ℔ per sq. in., gradually showed a more and more diminishing pressure and many of them ceased to work altogether. About the year 1890 the belief was fairly general that the stock of natural gas would soon be entirely exhausted. Indeed, the value of the annual production of natural gas in the United States, computed as its equivalent of coal, was then estimated at twenty-one million dollars, in 1895 at twelve millions, in 1899 at eleven and a half millions. But the output rose again to a value of twenty-seven millions in 1901, and to fifty million dollars in 1907. Mostly the gas, derived from upwards of 10,000 gas-wells, is now artificially compressed to a pressure of 300 or 400 ℔ per sq. in. by means of steam-power or gas motors, fed by the gas itself, and is conveyed over great distances in iron pipes, from 9 or 10 to 36 in. in diameter. In 1904 nearly 30,000 m. of pipe lines were in operation. In 1907 the quantity of natural gas consumed in the United States (nearly half of which was in Pennsylvania) was 400,000 million cub. ft., or nearly 3 cub. m. Canada (Ontario) also produces some natural gas, reaching a maximum of about $746,000 in 1907.

The principal constituent of natural gas is always methane, CH4, of which it contains from 68.4 to 94.0% by volume. Those gases which contain less methane contain all the more hydrogen, viz. 2.9 to 29.8%. There is also some ethylene, ethane and carbon monoxide, rarely exceeding 2 or 3%. The quantity of incombustible gases—oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen—ranges from mere traces to about 5%. The density is from 0.45 to 0.55. The heating power of 1000 cub. ft. of natural gas is equal to from 80 to 120 ℔, on the average 100 ℔, of good coal, but it is really worth much more than this proportion would indicate, as it burns completely, without smoke or ashes, and without requiring any manual labour. It is employed for all domestic and for most industrial purposes.

The origin of natural gas is not properly understood, even now. The most natural assumption is, of course, that its formation is connected with that of the petroleum always found in the same neighbourhood, the latter principally consisting of the higher-boiling aliphatic hydrocarbons of the methane series. But whence do they both come? Some bring them into connexion with the formation of coal, others with the decomposition of animal remains, others with that of diatomaceae, &c., and even an inorganic origin of both petroleum and natural gas has been assumed by chemists of the rank of D.I. Mendeléeff and H. Moissan.

II. Gases obtained as By-products.—There are two important cases in which gaseous by-products are utilized as fuel; both are intimately connected with the manufacture of iron, but in a very different way, and the gases are of very different composition.

(a) Blast-furnace Gases.—The gases issuing from the mouths of blast-furnaces (see Iron and Steel) were first utilized in 1837 by Faber du Faur, at Wasseralfingen. Their use became more extensive after 1860, and practically universal after 1870. The volume of gas given off per ton of iron made is about 158,000 cub. ft. Its percentage composition by volume is:

There is always a large amount of mechanically suspended 282 flue-dust in this gas. It is practically equal to a poor producer-gas (see below), and is everywhere used, first for heating the blast in Cowper stoves or similar apparatus, and secondly for raising all the steam required for the operation of the blast-furnace, that is, for driving the blowing-engines, hoisting the materials, &c. Where the iron ore is roasted previously to being fed into the furnace, this can also be done by this gas, but in some cases the waste in using it is so great that there is not enough left for the last purpose. The calorific power of this gas per cubic foot is from 80 to 120 B.Th.U.

Since about 1900 a great advance has been made in this field. Instead of burning the blast-furnace gas under steam boilers and employing the steam for producing mechanical energy, the gas is directly burned in gas-motors on the explosion principle. Thus upwards of three times the mechanical energy is obtained in comparison with the indirect way through the steam boiler. After all the power required for the operations of the blast-furnace has been supplied, there is a surplus of from 10 to 20 h.p. for each ton of pig-iron made, which may be applied to any other purpose.

(b) Coke-oven Gases.—Where the coking of coal is performed in the old beehive ovens or similar apparatus the gas issuing at the mouth of the ovens is lost. The attempts at utilizing the gases in such cases have not been very successful. It is quite different where coke is manufactured in the same way as illuminating gas, viz. by the destructive distillation of coal in closed apparatus (retorts), heated from the outside. This industry, which is described in detail in G. Lunge’s Coal-Tar and Ammonia (4th ed., 1909), originated in France, but has spread far more in Germany, where more than half of the coke produced is made by it; in the United Kingdom and the United States its progress has been much slower, but there also it has long been recognized as the only proper method. The output of coke is increased by about 15% in comparison with the beehive ovens, as the heat required for the process of distillation is not produced by burning part of the coal itself (as in the beehive ovens), but by burning part of the gas. The quality of the coke for iron-making is quite as good as that of beehive coke, although it differs from it in appearance. Moreover, the gases can be made to yield their ammonia, their tar, and even their benzene vapours, the value of which products sometimes exceeds that of the coke itself. And after all this there is still an excess of gas available for any other purpose.

As the principle of distilling the coal is just the same, whether the object is the manufacture of coal gas proper or of coke as the main product, although there is much difference in the details of the manufacture, it follows that the quality of the gas is very similar in both cases, so far as its heating value is concerned. Of course this heating value is less where the benzene has been extracted from coke-oven gas, since this compound is the richest heat-producer in the gas. This is, however, of minor importance in the present case, as there is only about 1% benzene in these gases.

The composition of coke-oven gases, after the extraction of the ammonia and tar, is about 53% hydrogen, 36% methane, 6% carbon monoxide, 2% ethylene and benzene, 0.5% sulphuretted hydrogen, 1.5% carbon dioxide, 1% nitrogen.

III. Coal Gas (Illuminating Gas).—Although ordinary coal gas is primarily manufactured for illuminating purposes, it is also extensively used for cooking, frequently also for heating domestic rooms, baths, &c., and to some extent also for industrial operations on a small scale, where cleanliness and exact regulation of the work are of particular importance. In chemical laboratories it is preferred to every other kind of fuel wherever it is available. The manufacture of coal gas being described elsewhere in this work (see Gas, § Manufacture), we need here only point out that it is obtained by heating bituminous coal in fireclay retorts and purifying the products of this destructive distillation by cooling, washing and other operations. The residual gas, the ordinary composition of which is given in the table below, amounts to about 10,000 cub. ft. for a ton of coal, and represents about 21% of its original heating value, 56.5% being left in the coke, 5.5% in the tar and 17% being lost. As we must deduct from the coke that quantity which is required for the heating of the retorts, and which, even when good gas producers are employed, amounts to 12% of the weight of the coal, or 10% of its heat value, the total loss of heat rises to 27%. Taking, further, into account the cost of labour, the wear and tear, and the capital interest on the plant, coal gas must always be an expensive fuel in comparison with coal itself, and cannot be thought of as a general substitute for the latter. But in many cases the greater expense of the coal gas is more than compensated by its easy distribution, the facility and cleanliness of its application, the general freedom from the mechanical loss, unavoidable in the case of coal fires, the prevention of black smoke and so forth. The following table shows the average composition of coal gas by volume and weight, together with the heat developed by its single constituents, the latter being expressed in kilogram-calories per cub. metre (0.252 kilogram-calories = 1 British heat unit; 1 cub. metre = 35.3 cub. ft.; therefore 0.1123 calories per cub. metre = 1 British heat unit per cub. foot).

One cubic metre of such gas weighs 568 grammes. Rich gas, or gas made by the destructive distillation of certain bituminous schists, of oil, &c., contains much more of the heavy hydrocarbons, and its heat-value is therefore much higher than the above. The carburetted water gas, very generally made in America, and sometimes employed in England for mixing with coal gas, is of varying composition; its heat-value is generally rather less than that of coal gas (see below).

IV. Combustible Gases produced by the Partial Combustion of Coal, &c.—These form by far the most important kind of gaseous fuel. When coal is submitted to destructive distillation to produce the illuminating gas described in the preceding paragraph, only a comparatively small proportion of the heating value of the coal (say, a sixth or at most a fifth part) is obtained in the shape of gaseous fuel, by far the greater proportion remaining behind in the shape of coke.

An entirely different class of gaseous fuels comprises those produced by the incomplete combustion of the total carbon contained in the raw material, where the result is a mixture of gases which, being capable of combining with more oxygen, can be burnt and employed for heating purposes. Apart from some descriptions of waste gases belonging to this class (of which the most notable are those from blast-furnaces), we must distinguish two ways of producing such gaseous fuels entirely different in principle, though sometimes combined in one operation. The incomplete combustion of carbon may be brought about by means of atmospheric oxygen, by means of water, or by a simultaneous combination of these two actions. In the first case the chemical reaction is

C + O = CO    

the nitrogen accompanying the oxygen in the atmospheric air necessarily remains mixed with carbon monoxide, and the resulting gases, which always contain some carbon dioxide, some 283 products of the destructive distillation of the coal, &c., are known as producer gas or Siemens gas. In the second case the chemical reaction is mainly

C + H2O = CO + H2

that is to say, the carbon is converted into monoxide and the hydrogen is set free. As both of these substances can combine with oxygen, and as there is no atmospheric nitrogen to deal with, the resulting gas (water gas) is, apart from a few impurities, entirely combustible. Another kind of water gas is formed by the reaction

C + 2H2O = CO2 + 2H2

but this reaction, which converts all the carbon into the incombustible form of CO2, is considered as an unwelcome, although never entirely avoidable, concomitant of (b).

The reaction by which water gas is produced being endothermic (as we shall see), this gas cannot be obtained except by introducing the balance of energy in another manner. This might be done by heating the apparatus from without, but as this method would be uneconomical, the process is carried out by alternating the endothermic production of water gas with the exothermic combustion of carbon by atmospheric air. Pure water gas is not, therefore, made by a continuous process, but alternates with the production of other gases, combustible or not. But instead of constantly interrupting the process in this way, a continuous operation may be secured by simultaneously carrying on both the reactions (a) and (b) in such proportions that the heat generated by (a) at least equals the heat absorbed by (b). For this purpose the apparatus is fed at the same time with atmospheric air and with a certain quantity of steam, preferably in a superheated state. Gaseous mixtures of this kind have been made, more or less intentionally, for a long time past. One of the best known of them, intended less for the purpose of serving as ordinary fuel than for that of driving machinery, is the Dowson gas.

An advantage common to all kinds of gaseous fuel, which indeed forms the principal reason why it is intentionally produced from solid fuel, in spite of inevitable losses in the course of the operation, is the following. The combustion of solid fuel (coal, &c.) cannot be carried on with the theoretically necessary quantity of atmospheric air, but requires a considerable excess of the latter, at least 50%, sometimes 100% and more. This is best seen from the analyses of smoke gases. If all the oxygen of the air were converted into CO2 and H2O, the amount of CO2 in the smoke gases should be in the case of pure carbon nearly 21 volumes %, as carbon dioxide occupies the same volume as oxygen; while ordinary coal, where the hydrogen takes up a certain quantity of oxygen as well, should show about 18.5% CO2. But the best smoke gases of steam boilers show only 12 or 13%, much more frequently only 10% CO2, and gases from reverberatory furnaces often show less than 5%. This means that the volume of the smoke gases escaping into the air is from 1½ to 2 times (in the case of high-temperature operations often 4 times) greater than the theoretical minimum; and as these gases always carry off a considerable quantity of heat, the loss of heat is all the greater the less complete is the utilization of the oxygen and the higher the temperature of the operation. This explains why, in the case of the best-constructed steam-boiler fires provided with heat economizers, where the smoke gases are deprived of most of their heat, the proportion of the heat value of the fuel actually utilized may rise to 70 or even 75%, while in some metallurgical operations, in glass-making and similar cases, it may be below 5%.

One way of overcoming this difficulty to a certain extent is to reduce the solid fuel to a very fine powder, which can be intimately mixed with the air so that the consumption of the latter is only very slightly in excess of the theoretical quantity; but this process, which has been only recently introduced on a somewhat extended scale, involves much additional expense and trouble, and cannot as yet be considered a real success. Generally, too, it is far less easily applied than gaseous fuel. The latter can be readily and intimately mixed with the exact quantity of air that is required and distributed in any suitable way, and much of the waste heat can be utilized for a preliminary heating of the air and the gas to be burned by means of “recuperators.”

We shall now describe the principal classes of gaseous fuel, produced by the partial combustion of coal.

A. Producer Gas, Siemens Gas.—As we have seen above, this gas is made by the incomplete combustion of fuel. The materials generally employed for its production are anthracite, coke or other fuels which are not liable to cake during the operation, and thus stop the draught or otherwise disturb the process, but by special measures also bituminous coal, lignite, peat and other fuel may be utilized for gas producers. The fuel is arranged in a deep layer, generally from 4 ft. up to 10 ft., and the air is introduced from below, either by natural draught or by means of a blast, and either by a grate or only by a slit in the wall of the “gas producer.” Even if the primary action taking place at the entrance of the air consisted in the complete combustion of the carbon to dioxide, CO2, the latter, in rising through the high column of incandescent fuel, must be reduced to monoxide: CO2 + C = 2CO. But as the temperature in the producer rises rather high, and as in ordinary circumstances the action of oxygen on carbon above 1000° C. consists almost entirely in the direct formation of CO, we may regard this compound as primarily formed in the hotter parts of the gas-producer. It is true that ordinary producer gas always contains more or less CO2, but this may be formed higher up by air entering through leakages in the apparatus. If we ignore the hydrogen contained in the fuel, the theoretical composition of producer gas would be 33.3% CO and 66.7% N, both by volume and weight. Its weight per cubic metre is 1.251 grammes, and its heat value 1013 calories per cubic metre, or less than one-fifth of the heat-value of coal gas. Practically, however, producer gas contains a small percentage of gases, increasing its heat-value, like hydrogen, methane, &c., but on the other hand it is never free from carbon dioxide to the extent of from 2 to 8%. Its heat-value may therefore range between 800 and 1100 calories per cubic metre. Even when taking as the basis of our calculation a theoretical gas of 33.3% CO, we find that there is a great loss of heat-value in the manufacture of this gas. Thermochemistry teaches us that the reaction C + O develops 29.5% of the heat produced by the complete oxidation of C to CO2, thus leaving only 70.5% for the stage CO + O = CO2. If, therefore, the gas given off in the producer is allowed to cool down to ordinary temperature, nearly 30% of the heat-value of the coal is lost by radiation. If, however, the gas producer is built in close proximity to the place where the combustion takes place, so that the gas does not lose very much of its heat, the loss is correspondingly less. Even then there is no reason why this mode of burning the fuel, i.e. first with “primary air” in the producer (C + O = CO), then with “secondary air” in the furnace (CO + O =CO2), should be preferred to the direct complete burning of the fuel on a grate, unless the above-mentioned advantage is secured, viz. reduction of the smoke gases to a minimum by confining the supply of air as nearly as possible to that required for the formation of CO2, which is only possible by producing an intimate mixture of the producer gas with the secondary air. The advantage in question is not very great where the heat of the smoke gases can be very fully utilized, e.g. in well-constructed steam boilers, salt-pans and the like, and as a matter of fact gas producers have not found much use in such cases. But a very great advantage is attained in high-temperature operations, where the smoke gases escape very hot, and where it is on that account all-important to confine their quantity to a minimum.

It is precisely in these cases that another requirement frequently comes in, viz. the production at a given point of a higher temperature than is easily attained by ordinary fires. Gas-firing lends itself very well to this end, as it is easily combined with a preliminary heating up of the air, and even of the gas itself, by means of “recuperators.” The original and best-known form of these, due to Siemens Brothers, consists of two brick chambers filled with loosely stacked fire-bricks in such manner that any gases passed through the chambers must seek their way through the interstices left between the bricks, by which means a thorough 284 interchange of temperature takes place. The smoke gases, instead of escaping directly into the atmosphere, are made to pass through one of these chambers, giving up part of their heat to the brickwork. After a certain time the draught is changed by means of valves, the smoke gases are passed through another chamber, and the cold air intended to feed the combustion is made to pass through the first chamber, where it takes up heat from the white-hot bricks, and is thus heated up to a bright red heat until the chamber is cooled down too far, when the draughts are again reversed. Sometimes the producer gas itself is heated up in this manner (especially when it has been cooled down by travelling a long distance); in that case four recuperator chambers must be provided instead of two. Another class of recuperators is not founded on the alternating system, but acts continuously; the smoke gases travel always in the same direction in flues contiguous to other flues or pipes in which the air flows in the opposite direction, an interchange of heat taking place through the walls of the flues or pipes. Here the surface of contact must be made very large if a good effect is to be produced. In both cases not merely is a saving effected of all the calories which are abstracted by the cold air from the recuperator, but as less fuel has to be burned to get a given effect, the quantity of smoke gas is reduced. For details and other producer gases, see Gas, II. For Fuel and Power.

Gas-firing in the manner just described can be brought about by very simple means, viz. by lowering the fire-grate of an ordinary fire-place to at least 4 ft. below the fire-bridge, and by introducing the air partly below the grate and partly behind the fire-place, at or near the point where the greatest heat is required. Usually, however, more elaborate apparatus is employed, some of which we shall describe below. Gas-firing has now become universal in some of the most important industries and nearly so in others. The present extension of steel-making and other branches of metallurgy is intimately connected with this system, as is the modern method of glass-making, of heating coal gas retorts and so forth.

The composition of producer gas differs considerably, principally according to the material from which it is made. Analyses of ordinary producer gas (not such as falls under the heading of “semi-water gas,” see sub C) by volume show 22 to 33% CO, 1 to 7% CO2, 0.5 to 2% H2, 0.5 to 3% hydrocarbons, and 64 to 68% N2.

B. Water Gas.—The reaction of steam on highly heated carbonaceous matter was first observed by Felice Fontana in 1780. This was four years before Henry Cavendish isolated hydrogen from water, and thirteen years before William Murdoch made illuminating gas by the distillation of coal, so that it was no wonder that Fontana’s laboratory work was soon forgotten. Nor had the use of carburetted water gas, as introduced by Donovan in 1830 for illuminating purposes, more than a very short life. More important is the fact that during nine years the illumination of the town of Narbonne was carried on by incandescent platinum wire, heated by water gas, where also internally heated generators were for the first time regularly employed. The Narbonne process was abandoned in 1865, and for some time no real progress was made in this field in Europe. But in America, T.S.C. Lowe, Strong, Tessié du Motay and others took up the matter, the first permanent success being obtained by the introduction (1873) of Lowe’s system at Phoenixville, Pa. In the United States the abundance of anthracite, as well as of petroleum naphtha, adapted for carburetting the gas, secures a great commercial advantage to this kind of illuminant over coal gas, so that now three-fourths of all American gas-works employ carburetted water gas. In Europe the progress of this industry was naturally much less rapid, but here also since 1882, when the apparatus of Lowe and Dwight was introduced in the town of Essen, great improvements have been worked out, principally by E. Blass, and by these improvements water gas obtained a firm footing also for certain heating purposes. The American process for making carburetted water gas, as an auxiliary to ordinary coal gas, was first introduced by the London Gas Light and Coke Company on a large scale in 1890.

Water gas in its original state is called “blue gas,” because it burns with a blue, non-luminous flame, which produces a very high temperature. According to the equation C + H2O = CO + H2, this gas consists theoretically of equal volumes of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. We shall presently see why it is impossible to avoid the presence of a little carbon dioxide and other gases, but we shall for the moment treat of water gas as if it were composed according to the above equation. The reaction C + H2O = CO + H2 is endothermic, that is, its thermal value is negative. One gram-molecule of carbon produces 97 great calories (1 great calorie or kilogram-calorie = 1000 gram-calories) when burning to CO2, and this is of course the maximum effect obtainable from this source. If the same gram-molecule of carbon is used for making water gas, that is, CO + H2, the heat produced by the combustion of the product is 68.4 + 57.6 = 126 great calories, an apparent surplus of 29 calories, which cannot be got out of nothing. This is made evident by another consideration. In the above reaction C is not burned to CO2, but to CO, a reaction which produces 28.6 calories per gram-molecule. But as the oxygen is furnished from water, which must first be decomposed by the expenditure of energy, we must introduce this amount, 68.5 calories in the case of liquid water, or 57.6 calories in the case of steam, as a negative quantity, and the difference, viz. + 28.6 − 57.6 = 29 great calories, represents the amount of heat to be expended from another source in order to bring about the reaction of one gram-molecule of carbon on one gram-molecule of H2O in the shape of steam. This explains why steam directed upon incandescent coal will produce water gas only for a very short time: even a large mass of coal will quickly be cooled down so much that at first a gas of different composition is formed and soon the process will cease altogether. We can avoid this result by carrying on the process in a retort heated from without by an ordinary coal fire, and all the early water gas apparatus was constructed in this way; but such a method is very uneconomical, and was long ago replaced by a process first patented by J. and T.N. Kirkham in 1854, and very much improved by successive inventors. This process consists in conducting the operation in an upright brick shaft, charged with anthracite, coke or other suitable fuel. This shaft resembles an ordinary gas producer, but it differs in being worked, not in a continuous manner, which, as shown above, would be impossible, but by alternately blowing air and steam through the coal for periods of a few minutes each. During the first phase, when carbon is burned by atmospheric oxygen, and thereby heat is produced, this heat, or rather that part of it which is not carried away by radiation and by the products of combustion on leaving the apparatus, is employed in raising the temperature of the remaining mass of fuel, and is thus available for the second phase, in which the reaction (b) C + H2O = CO + H2 goes on with the abstraction of a corresponding amount of heat from the incandescent fuel, so that the latter rapidly cools down, and the process must be reversed by blowing in air and so forth. The formation of exactly equal volumes of carbon monoxide and hydrogen goes on only at temperatures over 1200° C., that is, for a very few minutes. Even at 1100° C. a little CO2 can be proved to exist in the gas, and at 900° its proportion becomes too high to allow the process to go on. About 650° C. the CO has fallen to a minimum, and the reaction is now essentially (c) C + 2H2O = CO2 + 2H2; soon after the temperature of the mass will have fallen to such a low point that the steam passes through it without any perceptible action. The gas produced by reaction (c) contains only two-thirds of combustible matter, and is on that account less valuable than proper water gas formed by reaction (b); moreover, it requires the generation of twice the amount of steam, and its presence is all the less desirable since it must soon lead to a total cessation of the process. In ordinary circumstances it is evident that the more steam is blown in during a unit of time, the sooner reaction (c) will set in; on the other hand, the more heat has been accumulated in the producer the longer can the blowing-in of steam be continued.

The process of making water gas consequently comprises 285 two alternating operations, viz. first “blowing-up” by means of a current of air, by which the heat of the mass of fuel is raised to about 1200° C.; and, secondly “steaming,” by injecting a current of (preferably superheated) steam until the temperature of the fuel had fallen to about 900° C., and too much carbon dioxide appears in the product. During the steaming the gas is carried off by a special conduit into a scrubber, where the dust mechanically carried away in the current is washed out, and the gas is at the same time cooled down nearly to the ordinary temperature. It is generally stored in a gas-holder, from which it is conducted away as required. It is never quite free from nitrogen, as the producer at the beginning of steaming contains much of this gas, together with CO or CO2. The proportion of hydrogen may exceed 50%, in consequence of reaction (c) setting in at the close of the steaming. Ordinary “blue” water gas, if, as usual, made from coke or anthracite, contains 48-52% H2, 40-41% CO, 1-5% CO2, 4-5% N2, and traces of hydrocarbons, especially methane. If made from bituminous coal, it contains more of the latter. If “carburetted” (a process which increases its volume 50% and more) by the vapours from superheated petroleum naphtha, the proportion of CO ranges about 25%, with about as much methane, and from 10 to 15% of “illuminants” (heavy hydrocarbons). The latter, of course, greatly enhance the fuel-value of the gas. Pure water gas would possess the following fuel-value per cubic metre:

Ordinary “blue” water gas has a fuel-value of at least 2500 calories. Carburetted water gas, which varies very much in its percentage of hydrocarbons, sometimes reaches nearly the heat-value of coal gas, but such gas is only in exceptional cases used for heating purposes.

We must now turn to the “blowing-up” stage of the process. Until recently it was assumed that during this stage the combustion of carbon cannot be carried on beyond the formation of carbon monoxide, for as the gas-producer must necessarily contain a deep layer of fuel (generally about 6 to 10 ft.), any CO2 formed at first would be reduced to CO; and it was further assumed that hardly any CO2 would be formed from the outset, as the temperature of the apparatus is too high for this reaction to take place. But as the combustion of C to CO produces only about 30% of the heat produced when C is burned into CO2, the quantity of fuel consumed for “blowing-up” is very large, and in fact considerably exceeds that consumed in “steaming.” There is, of course, a further loss by radiation and minor sources, and the result is that 1 kilogram of carbon yields only about 1.2 cub. met. of water gas. Each period of blowing-up generally occupies from 8 to 12 minutes, that of steaming only 4 or 5 minutes. This low yield of water gas until quite recently appeared to be unavoidable, and the only question seemed to be whether and to what extent the gas formed during blowing-up, which is in fact identical with ordinary producer gas (Siemens gas), could be utilized. In America, where the water gas is mostly employed for illuminating purposes, at least part of the blowing-up gas is utilized for heating the apparatus in which the naphtha is volatilized and the vapours are “fixed” by superheating. This process, however, never utilizes anything like the whole of the blowing-up gas, nor can this be effected by raising and superheating the steam necessary for the second operation; indeed, the employment of this gas for raising steam is not very easy, owing to the irregularities of and constant interruptions in the supply. In some systems the gas made during the blowing-up stage is passed through chambers, loosely filled with bricks, like Siemens recuperators, where it is burned by “secondary” air: the heat thus imparted to the brickwork is utilized by passing through the recuperator, and thus superheating, the steam required for the next steaming operation. In many cases, principally where no carburetting is practised, the blowing-up gas is simply burned at the mouth of the producer, and is thus altogether lost; and in no case can it be utilized without great waste. A very important improvement in this respect was effected by C. Dellwik and E. Fleischer. They found that the view that it is unavoidable to burn the carbon to monoxide during the blowing-up holds good only for the pressure of blast formerly applied. This did not much exceed that which is required for overcoming the frictional resistance within the producer. If, however, the pressure is considerably increased, and the height of the column of fuel reduced, both of these conditions being strictly regulated in accordance with the result desired, it is easy to attain a combustion of the carbon to dioxide, with only traces of monoxide, in spite of the high temperature. Evidently the excess of oxygen coming into contact with each particle of carbon in a given unit of time produces other conditions of chemical equilibrium than those existing at lower pressures. At any rate, experience has shown that by this process, in which the full heat-value of carbon is utilized during the blowing-up stage, the time of heating-up can be reduced from 10 to 1½ or 2 minutes, and the steaming can be prolonged from 4 or 5 to 8 or 10 minutes, with the result that twice the quantity of water gas is obtained, viz. upwards of 2 cub. metres from 1 kilogram of carbon.

The application of water gas as a fuel mainly depends upon the high temperatures which it is possible to attain by its aid, and these are principally due to the circumstance that it forms a much smaller flame than coal gas, not to speak of Siemens gas, which contains at most 33% of combustible matter against 90% or more in water gas. The latter circumstance also allows the gas to be conducted and distributed in pipes of moderate dimensions. Its application, apart from its use as an illuminant (with which we are not concerned here), was formerly retarded by its high cost in comparison with Siemens gas and other sources of heat, but as this state of affairs has been changed by the modern improvements, its use is rapidly extending, especially for metallurgical purposes.

C. Mixed Gas (Semi-Water Gas).—This class is sometimes called Dowson gas, irrespective of its method of production, although it was made and extensively used a long time before J.E. Dowson constructed his apparatus for generating such a gas principally for driving gas-engines. By a combination of the processes for generating Siemens gas and water gas, it is produced by injecting into a gas-producer at the same time a certain quantity of air and a corresponding quantity of steam, the latter never exceeding the amount which can be decomposed by the heat-absorbing reaction, C + H2O = CO + H2, at the expense of the heat generated by the action of the air in the reaction C + O = CO. Such gas used to be frequently obtained in an accidental way by introducing liquid water or steam into an ordinary gas-producer for the purpose of facilitating its working by avoiding an excessive temperature, such as might cause the rapid destruction of the brickwork and the fusion of the ashes of the fuel into troublesome cakes. It was soon found that by proceeding in this way a certain advantage could be gained in regard to the consumption of fuel, as the heat abstracted by the steam from the brickwork and the fuel itself was usefully employed for decomposing water, its energy thus reappearing in the shape of a combustible gas. It is hardly necessary to mention explicitly that the total heat obtained by any such process from a given quantity of carbon (or hydrogen) can in no case exceed that which is generated by direct combustion; some inventors, however, whether inadvertently or intentionally, have actually represented this to be possible, in manifest violation of the law of the conservation of energy.

Roughly speaking, this gas may be said to be produced by the combination of the reactions, described sub A and B, to the joint reaction: 2C + O + H2O = 2CO + H2. The decomposition of H2O (applied in the shape of steam) absorbs 57.6 gram calories, the formation of 2CO produces 59 gram calories; hence there is a small positive excess of 1.4 calories at disposal. This in reality would not be sufficient to cover the loss by radiation, &c.; hence rather more free oxygen (i.e. atmospheric air) must be employed than is represented by the above equation. All this free oxygen is, of course, accompanied by nearly four times its volume of nitrogen.

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The mixed gas thus obtained differs very much in composition, but is always much richer in hydrogen (of which it contains sometimes as much as 20%) and poorer in carbon monoxide (sometimes down to 20%) than Siemens gas; generally it contains more of CO2 than the latter. The proportion of nitrogen is always less, about 50%. It is therefore a more concentrated fuel than Siemens gas, and better adapted to the driving of gas-engines. It scarcely costs more to make than ordinary Siemens gas, except where the steam is generated and superheated in special apparatus, as is done in the Dowson producer, which, on the other hand, yields a correspondingly better gas. As is natural, its properties are some way between those of Siemens gas and of water gas; but they approach more nearly the former, both as to costs and as to fuel-value, and also as to the temperatures reached in combustion. This is easily understood if we consider that gas of just the same description can be obtained by mixing one volume of real water gas with the four volumes of Siemens gas made during the blowing-up stage—an operation which is certainly too expensive for practical use.

A modification of this gas is the Mond gas, which is made, according to Mond’s patent, by means of such an excess of steam that most of the nitrogen of the coke is converted into ammonia (Grouven’s reaction). Of course much of this steam passes on undecomposed, and the quantity of the gas is greatly increased by the reaction C + 2H2O = CO2 + 2H2; hence the fuel-value of this gas is less than that of semi-water gas made in other ways. Against this loss must be set the gain of ammonia which is recovered by means of an arrangement of coolers and scrubbers, and, except at very low prices of ammonia, the profit thus made is probably more than sufficient to cover the extra cost. But as the process requires very large and expensive plant, and its profits would vanish in the case of the value of ammonia becoming much lower (a result which would very probably follow if it were somewhat generally introduced), it cannot be expected to supplant the other descriptions of gaseous fuel to more than a limited extent.

Semi-water gas is especially adapted for the purpose of driving gas-engines on the explosive principle (gas-motors). Ordinary producer-gas is too poor for this purpose in respect of heating power; moreover, owing to the prevalence of carbon monoxide, it does not light quickly enough. These defects are sufficiently overcome in semi-water gas by the larger proportion of hydrogen contained in it. For the purpose in question the gas should be purified from tar and ashes, and should also be cooled down before entering the gas-engine. The Dowson apparatus and others are constructed on this principle.

Air Gas.—By forcing air over or through volatile inflammable liquids a gaseous mixture can be obtained which burns with a bright flame and which can be used for illumination. Its employment for heating purposes is quite exceptional, e.g. in chemical laboratories, and we abstain, therefore, from describing any of the numerous appliances, some of them bearing very fanciful names, which have been devised for its manufacture.

FUENTE OVEJUNA [Fuenteovejuna], a town of Spain, in the province of Cordova; near the sources of the river Guadiato, and on the Fuente del Arco-Belmez-Cordova railway. Pop. (1900) 11,777. Fuente Ovejuna is built on a hill, in a well-irrigated district, which, besides producing an abundance of wheat, wine, fruit and honey, also contains argentiferous lead mines and stone quarries. Cattle-breeding is an important local industry, and leather, preserved meat, soap and flour are manufactured. The parish church formerly belonged to the knights of Calatrava (c. 1163-1486).

FUENTERRABIA (formerly sometimes written Fontarabia; Lat. Fons Rapidus), a town of northern Spain, in the province of Guipúzcoa; on the San Sebastian-Bayonne railway; near the Bay of Biscay and on the French frontier. Pop. (1870) about 750; (1900) 4345. Fuenterrabia stands on the slope of a hill on the left bank of the river Bidassoa, and near the point where its estuary begins. Towards the close of the 19th century the town became popular as a summer resort for visitors from the interior of Spain, and, in consequence, its appearance underwent many changes and much of its early prosperity returned. Hotels and villas were built in the new part of the town that sprang up outside the picturesque walled fortress, and there is quite a contrast between the part inside the heavy, half-ruined ramparts, with its narrow, steep streets and curious gable-roofed houses, its fine old church and castle and its massive town hall, and the new suburbs and fishermen’s quarter facing the estuary of the Bidassoa. Many industries flourish on the outskirts of the town, including rope and net manufactures, flour mills, saw mills, mining railways, paper mills.

Fuenterrabia formerly possessed considerable strategic importance, and it has frequently been taken and retaken in wars between France and Spain. The rout of Charlemagne in 778, which has been associated with Fontarabia, by Milton (Paradise Lost, i. 587), is generally understood to have taken place not here but at Roncesvalles (q.v.), which is nearly 40 m. E.S.E. Unsuccessful attempts to seize Fuenterrabia were made by the French troops in 1476 and again in 1503. In a subsequent campaign (1521) these were more successful, but the fortress was retaken in 1524. The prince of Condé sustained a severe repulse under its walls in 1638, and it was on this occasion that the town received from Philip IV. the rank of city (muy noble, muy leal, y muy valerosa ciudad, “most noble, most loyal, and most valiant city”), a privilege which involved some measure of autonomy. After a severe siege, Fuenterrabia surrendered to the duke of Berwick and his French troops in 1719; and in 1794 it again fell into the hands of the French, who so dismantled it that it has never since been reckoned by the Spaniards among their fortified places. It was by the ford opposite Fuenterrabia that the duke of Wellington, on the 8th of October 1813, successfully forced a passage into France in the face of an opposing army commanded by Marshal Soult. Severe fighting also took place here during the Carlist War in 1837.

FUERO, a Spanish term, derived from the Latin forum. The Castillan use of the word in the sense of a right, privilege or charter is most probably to be traced to the Roman conventus juridici, otherwise known as jurisdictiones or fora, which in Pliny’s time were already numerous in the Iberian peninsula. In each of these provincial fora the Roman magistrate, as is well known, was accustomed to pay all possible deference to the previously established common law of the district; and it was the privilege of every free subject to demand that he should be judged in accordance with the customs and usages of his proper forum. This was especially true in the case of the inhabitants of those towns which were in possession of the jus italicum. It is not, indeed, demonstrable, but there are many presumptions, besides some fragments of direct evidence, which make it more than probable that the old administrative arrangements both of the provinces and of the towns, but especially of the latter, remained practically undisturbed at the period of the Gothic occupation of Spain.1 The Theodosian Code and the Breviary of Alaric alike seem to imply a continuance of the municipal system which had been established by the Romans; nor does the later Lex Visigothorum, though avowedly designed in some points to supersede the Roman law, appear to have contemplated any marked interference with the former fora, which were still to a large extent left to be regulated in the administration of justice by unwritten, immemorial, local custom. Little is known of the condition of the subject populations of the peninsula during the Arab occupation; but we are informed that the Christians were, sometimes at least, judged according to their own laws in separate tribunals presided over by Christian judges;2 and the mere fact of the preservation of the name alcalde, an official whose functions corresponded so closely to those of the judex or defensor civitatis, is fitted to suggest that the old municipal fora, if much impaired, were not even then in all cases wholly destroyed. At all events when the word forum3 begins to appear for the first time in documents of the 10th century in the sense of a liberty or 287 privilege, it is generally implied that the thing so named is nothing new. The earliest extant written fuero is probably that which was granted to the province and town of Leon by Alphonso V. in 1020. It emanated from the king in a general council of the kingdom of Leon and Castile, and consisted of two separate parts; in the first 19 chapters were contained a series of statutes which were to be valid for the kingdom at large, while the rest of the document was simply a municipal charter.4 But in neither portion does it in any sense mark a new legislative departure, unless in so far as it marks the beginning of the era of written charters for towns. The “fuero general” does not profess to supersede the consuetudines antiquorum jurium or Chindaswint’s codification of these in the Lex Visigothorum; the “fuero municipal” is really for the most part but a resuscitation of usages formerly established, a recognition and definition of liberties and privileges that had long before been conceded or taken for granted. The right of the burgesses to self-government and self-taxation is acknowledged and confirmed, they, on the other hand, being held bound to a constitutional obedience and subjection to the sovereign, particularly to the payment of definite imperial taxes, and the rendering of a certain amount of military service (as the ancient municipia had been). Almost contemporaneous with this fuero of Leon was that granted to Najera (Naxera) by Sancho el Mayor of Navarre (ob. 1035), and confirmed, in 1076, by Alphonso VI.5 Traces of others of perhaps even an earlier date are occasionally to be met with. In the fuero of Cardeña, for example, granted by Ferdinand I. in 1039, reference is made to a previous forum Burgense (Burgos), which, however, has not been preserved, if, indeed, it ever had been reduced to writing at all. The phraseology of that of Sepulveda (1076) in like manner points back to an indefinitely remote antiquity.6 Among the later fueros of the 11th century, the most important are those of Jaca (1064) and of Logroño (1095). The former of these, which was distinguished by the unusual largeness of its concessions, and by the careful minuteness of its details, rapidly extended to many places in the neighbourhood, while the latter charter was given also to Miranda by Alphonso VI., and was further extended in 1181 by Sancho el Sabio of Navarre to Vitoria, thus constituting one of the earliest written fora of the “Provincias Vascongadas.” In the course of the 12th and 13th centuries the number of such documents increased very rapidly; that of Toledo especially, granted to the Mozarabic population in 1101, but greatly enlarged and extended by Alphonso VII. (1118) and succeeding sovereigns, was used as a basis for many other Castilian fueros. Latterly the word fuero came to be used in Castile in a wider sense than before, as meaning a general code of laws; thus about the time of Saint Ferdinand the old Lex Visigothorum, then translated for the first time into the vernacular, was called the Fuero Juzgo, a name which was soon retranslated into the barbarous Latin of the period as Forum Judicum;7 and among the compilations of Alphonso the Learned in like manner were an Espejo de Fueros and also the Fuero de las leyes, better known perhaps as the Fuero Real. The famous code known as the Ordenamiento Real de Alcalá, or Fuero Viejo de Castilla, dates from a still later period. As the power of the Spanish crown was gradually concentrated and consolidated, royal pragmaticas began to take the place of constitutional laws; the local fueros of the various districts slowly yielded before the superior force of imperialism; and only those of Navarre and the Basque provinces (see Basques) have had sufficient vitality to enable them to survive to comparatively modern times. While actually owning the lordship of the Castilian crown since about the middle of the 14th century, these provinces rigidly insisted upon compliance with their consuetudinary law, and especially with that which provided that the señor, before assuming the government, should personally appear before the assembly and swear to maintain the ancient constitutions. Each of the provinces mentioned had distinct sets of fueros, codified at different periods, and varying considerably as to details; the main features, however, were the same in all. Their rights, after having been recognized by successive Spanish sovereigns from Ferdinand the Catholic to Ferdinand VII., were, at the death of the latter in 1833, set aside by the government of Castaños. The result was a civil war, which terminated in a renewed acknowledgment of the fueros by Isabel II. (1839). The provisional government of 1868 also promised to respect them, and similar pledges were given by the governments which succeeded. In consequence, however, of the Carlist rising of 1873-1876, the Basque fueros were finally extinguished in 1876. The history of the Foraes of the Portuguese towns, and of the Fors du Béarn, is precisely analogous to that of the fueros of Castile.

FUERTEVENTURA, an island in the Atlantic Ocean, forming part of the Spanish archipelago of the Canary Islands (q.v.). Pop. (1900) 11,669; area 665 sq. m. Fuerteventura lies between Lanzarote and Grand Canary. It has a length of 52 m., and an average width of 12 m. Though less mountainous than the other islands, its aspect is barren. There are only two springs of fresh water, and these are confined to one valley. Lava streams and other signs of volcanic action abound, but there has been no igneous activity since the Spaniards took possession. At each extremity of the island are high mountains, which send off branches along the coast so as to enclose a large arid plain. The highest peak reaches 2500 ft. In external appearance, climate and productions, Fuerteventura greatly resembles Lanzarote. An interval of three years without rain has been known. Oliva (pop. 1900, 2464) is the largest town. A smaller place in the centre of the island named Betancuria (586) is the administrative capital. Cabras (1000) on the eastern coast is the chief port. Dromedaries are bred here.

FUGGER, the name of a famous German family of merchants and bankers. The founder of the family was Johann Fugger, a weaver at Graben, near Augsburg, whose son, Johann, settled in Augsburg probably in 1367. The younger Johann added the business of a merchant to that of a weaver, and through his marriage with Clara Widolph became a citizen of Augsburg. After a successful career he died in 1408, leaving two sons, Andreas and Jakob, who greatly extended the business which they inherited from their father. Andreas, called the “rich Fugger,” had several sons, among them being Lukas, who was very prominent in the municipal politics of Augsburg and who was very wealthy until he was ruined by the repudiation by the town of Louvain of a great debt owing to him, and Jakob, who was granted the right to bear arms in 1452, and who founded the family of Fugger vom Reh—so called from the first arms of the Fuggers, a roe (Reh) or on a field azure—which became extinct on the death of his great-grandson, Ulrich, in 1583. Johann Fugger’s son, Jakob, died in 1469, and three of his seven sons, Ulrich (1441-1510), Georg (1453-1506) and Jakob (1459-1525), men of great resource and industry, inherited the family business and added enormously to the family wealth. In 1473 Ulrich obtained from the emperor Frederick III. the right to bear arms for himself and his brothers, and about the same time he began 288 to act as the banker of the Habsburgs, a connexion destined to bring fame and fortune to his house. Under the lead of Jakob, who had been trained for business in Venice, the Fuggers were interested in silver mines in Tirol and copper mines in Hungary, while their trade in spices, wool and silk extended to almost all parts of Europe. Their wealth enabled them to make large loans to the German king, Maximilian I., who pledged to them the county of Kirchberg, the lordship of Weissenhorn and other lands, and bestowed various privileges upon them. Jakob built the castle of Fuggerau in Tirol, and erected the Fuggerei at Augsburg, a collection of 106 dwellings, which were let at low rents to poor people and which still exist. Jakob Fugger and his two nephews, Ulrich (d. 1525) and Hieronymus (d. 1536), the sons of Ulrich, died without direct heirs, and the family was continued by Georg’s sons, Raimund (1489-1535) and Anton (1493-1560), under whom the Fuggers attained the summit of their wealth and influence.

Jakob Fugger’s florins had contributed largely to the election of Charles V. to the imperial throne in 1519, and his nephews and heirs maintained close and friendly relations with the great emperor. In addition to lending him large sums of money, they farmed his valuable quicksilver mines at Almaden, his silver mines at Guadalcanal, the great estates of the military orders which had passed into his hands, and other parts of his revenue as king of Spain; receiving in return several tokens of the emperor’s favour. In 1530 Raimund and Anton were granted the imperial dignity of counts of Kirchberg and Weissenhorn, and obtained full possession of these mortgaged properties; in 1534 they were given the right of coining money; and in 1541 received rights of jurisdiction over their lands. During the diet of Augsburg in 1530 Charles V. was the guest of Anton Fugger at his house in the Weinmarkt, and the story relates how the merchant astonished the emperor by lighting a fire of cinnamon with an imperial bond for money due to him. This incident forms the subject of a picture by Carl Becker which is in the National Gallery at Berlin. Continuing their mercantile career, the Fuggers brought the new world within the sphere of their operations, and also carried on an extensive and lucrative business in farming indulgences. Moreover, both brothers found time to acquire landed property, and were munificent patrons of literature and art. When Anton died he is said to have been worth 6,000,000 florins, besides a vast amount of property in Europe, Asia and America; and before this time the total wealth of the family had been estimated at 63,000,000 florins. The Fuggers were devotedly attached to the Roman Catholic Church, which benefited from their liberality. Jakob had been made a count palatine (Pfalzgraf) and had received other marks of favour from Pope Leo X., and several members of the family had entered the church; one, Raimund’s son, Sigmund, becoming bishop of Regensburg.

In addition to the bishop, three of Raimund Fugger’s sons attained some degree of celebrity. Johann Jakob (1516-1575), was the author of Wahrhaftigen Beschreibung des österreichischen und habsburgischen Nahmens, which was largely used by S. von Bircken in his Spiegel der Ehren des Erzhauses Österreich (Nuremberg, 1668), and of a Geheim Ernbuch des Fuggerischen Geschlechtes. He was also a patron of art, and a distinguished counsellor of Duke Albert IV. of Bavaria. After the death of his son Konstantin, in 1627, this branch of the family was divided into three lines, which became extinct in 1738, 1795 and 1846 respectively. Another of Raimund’s sons was Ulrich (1526-1584), who, after serving Pope Paul III. at Rome, became a Protestant. Hated on this account by the other members of his family, he took refuge in the Rhenish Palatinate; greatly interested in the Greek classics, he occupied himself in collecting valuable manuscripts, which he bequeathed to the university of Heidelberg. Raimund’s other son was Georg (d. 1579), who inherited the countships of Kirchberg and Weissenhorn, and founded a branch of the family which still exists, its present head being Georg, Count Fugger of Kirchberg and Weissenhorn (b. 1850).

Anton Fugger left three sons, Marcus (1529-1597), Johann (d. 1598) and Jakob (d. 1598), all of whom left male issue. Marcus was the author of a book on horse-breeding, Wie und wo man ein Gestüt von guten edeln Kriegsrossen aufrichten soll (1578), and of a German translation of the Historia ecclesiastica of Nicephorus Callistus. He founded the Nordendorf branch of the family, which became extinct on the death of his grandson, Nicolaus, in 1676. Another grandson of Marcus was Franz Fugger (1612-1664), who served under Wallenstein during the Thirty Years’ War, and was afterwards governor of Ingolstadt. He was killed at the battle of St Gotthard on the 1st of August 1664.

Johann Fugger had three sons, Christoph (d. 1615) and Marcus (d. 1614), who founded the families of Fugger-Glött and Fugger-Kirchheim respectively, and Jakob, bishop of Constance from 1604 until his death in 1626. Christoph’s son, Otto Heinrich (1592-1644), was a soldier of some distinction and a knight of the order of the Golden Fleece. He was one of the most active of the Bavarian generals during the Thirty Years’ War, and acted as governor of Augsburg, where his rule aroused much discontent. The family of Kirchheim died out in 1672. That of Glött was divided into several branches by the sons of Otto Heinrich and of his brother Johann Ernst (d. 1628). These lines, however, have gradually become extinct except the eldest line, represented in 1909 by Karl Ernst, Count Fugger of Glött (b. 1859). Anton Fugger’s third son Jakob, the founder of the family of Wellenburg, had two sons who left issue, but in 1777 the possessions of this branch of the family were again united by Anselm Joseph (d. 1793), Count Fugger of Babenhausen. In 1803 Anselm’s son, Anselm Maria (d. 1821), was made a prince of the Holy Roman Empire, the title of Prince Fugger of Babenhausen being borne by his direct descendant Karl (b. 1861). On the fall of the empire in 1806 the lands of the Fuggers, which were held directly of the empire, were mediatized under Bavaria and Württemberg. The heads of the three existing branches of the Fuggers are all hereditary members of the Bavarian Upper House.

Augsburg has many interesting mementoes of the Fuggers, including the family burial-chapel in the church of St Anna; the Fugger chapel in the church of St Ulrich and St Afra; the Fuggerhaus, still in the possession of one branch of the family; and a statue of Johann Jakob Fugger.

FUGITIVE SLAVE LAWS, a term applied in the United States to the Statutes passed by Congress in 1793 and 1850 to provide for the return of negro slaves who escaped from one state into another or into a public territory. A fugitive slave clause was inserted in the Articles of Confederation of the New England Confederation of 1643, providing for the return of the fugitive upon the certificate of one magistrate in the jurisdiction out of which the said servant fled—no trial by jury being provided for. This seems to have been the only instance of an inter-colonial provision for the return of fugitive slaves; there were, indeed, not infrequent escapes by slaves from one colony to another, but it was not until after the growth of anti-slavery sentiment and the acquisition of western territory, that it became necessary to adopt a uniform method for the return of fugitive slaves. Such provision was made in the Ordinance of 1787 (for the Northwest Territory), which in Article VI. provided that in the case of “any person escaping into the same [the Northwest Territory] from whom labor or service is lawfully claimed in any one of the original states, such fugitive may be lawfully reclaimed and conveyed to the person claiming his or her labor or service as aforesaid.” An agreement of the sort was 289 necessary to persuade the slave-holding states to union, and in the Federal Constitution, Article IV., Section II., it is provided that “no person held to service or labor in one state, under the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labour may be due.”

The first specific legislation on the subject was enacted on the 12th of February 1793, and like the Ordinance for the Northwest Territory and the section of the Constitution quoted above, did not contain the word “slave”; by its provisions any Federal district or circuit judge or any state magistrate was authorized to decide finally and without a jury trial the status of an alleged fugitive. The measure soon met with strong opposition in the northern states, and Personal Liberty Laws were passed to hamper officials in the execution of the law; Indiana in 1824 and Connecticut in 1828 providing jury trial for fugitives who appealed from an original decision against them. In 1840 New York and Vermont extended the right of trial by jury to fugitives and provided them with attorneys. As early as the first decade of the 19th century individual dissatisfaction with the law of 1793 had taken the form of systematic assistance rendered to negroes escaping from the South to Canada or New England—the so-called “Underground Railroad.”1 The decision of the Supreme Court of the United States in the case of Prigg v. Pennsylvania in 1842 (16 Peters 539), that state authorities could not be forced to act in fugitive slave cases, but that national authorities must carry out the national law, was followed by legislation in Massachusetts (1843), Vermont (1843), Pennsylvania (1847) and Rhode Island (1848), forbidding state officials to help enforce the law and refusing the use of state gaols for fugitive slaves. The demand from the South for more effective Federal legislation was voiced in the second fugitive slave law, drafted by Senator J.M. Mason of Virginia, and enacted on the 18th of September 1850 as a part of the Compromise Measures of that year. Special commissioners were to have concurrent jurisdiction with the U.S. circuit and district courts and the inferior courts of Territories in enforcing the law; fugitives could not testify in their own behalf; no trial by jury was provided; penalties were imposed upon marshals who refused to enforce the law or from whom a fugitive should escape, and upon individuals who aided negroes to escape; the marshal might raise a posse comitatus; a fee of $10 was paid to the commissioner when his decision favoured the claimant and only $5 when it favoured the fugitive; and both the fact of the escape and the identity of the fugitive were to be determined on purely ex parte testimony. The severity of this measure led to gross abuses and defeated its purpose; the number of abolitionists increased, the operations of the Underground Railroad became more efficient, and new Personal Liberty Laws were enacted in Vermont (1850), Connecticut (1854), Rhode Island (1854), Massachusetts (1855), Michigan (1855), Maine (1855 and 1857), Kansas (1858) and Wisconsin (1858). These Personal Liberty Laws forbade justices and judges to take cognizance of claims, extended the habeas corpus act and the privilege of jury trial to fugitives, and punished false testimony severely. The supreme court of Wisconsin went so far (1859) as to declare the Fugitive Slave Law unconstitutional. These state laws were one of the grievances officially referred to by South Carolina (in Dec. 1860) as justifying her secession from the Union. Attempts to carry into effect the law of 1850 aroused much bitterness. The arrests of Sims and of Shadrach in Boston in 1851; of “Jerry” M’Henry, in Syracuse, New York, in the same year; of Anthony Burns in 1854, in Boston; and of the two Garner families in 1856, in Cincinnati, with other cases arising under the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850, probably had as much to do with bringing on the Civil War as did the controversy over slavery in the Territories.

With the beginning of the Civil War the legal status of the slave was changed by his master’s being in arms. General B.F. Butler, in May 1861, declared negro slaves contraband of war. A confiscation bill was passed in August 1861 discharging from his service or labour any slave employed in aiding or promoting any insurrection against the government of the United States. By an act of the 17th of July 1862 any slave of a disloyal master who was in territory occupied by northern troops was declared ipso facto free. But for some time the Fugitive Slave Law was considered still to hold in the case of fugitives from masters in the border states who were loyal to the Union government, and it was not until the 28th of June 1864 that the Act of 1850 was repealed.

FUGLEMAN (from the Ger. Flügelmann, the man on the Flügel or wing), properly a military term for a soldier who is selected to act as “guide,” and posted generally on the flanks with the duty of directing the march in the required line, or of giving the time, &c., to the remainder of the unit, which conforms to his movements, in any military exercise. The word is then applied to a ringleader or one who takes the lead in any movement or concerted movement.

FUGUE (Lat. fuga, flight), in music, the mutual “pursuit” of voices or parts. It was, up to the end of the 16th century, if not later, the name applied to two art-forms. (A) Fuga ligata was the exact reproduction by one or more voices of the statement of a leading part. The reproducing voice (comes) was seldom if ever written out, for all differences between it and the dux were rigidly systematic; e.g. it was an exact inversion, or exactly twice as slow, or to be sung backwards, &c. &c. Hence, a rule or canon was given, often in enigmatic form, by which the comes was deduced from the dux: and so the term canon became the appropriate name for the form itself, and is still retained. (B) A composition in which the canonic style was cultivated without canonic restriction was, in the 16th century, called fuga ricercata or simply a ricercare, a term which is still used by Bach as a title for the fugues in Das musikalische Opfer.

The whole conception of fugue, rightly understood, is one of the most important in music, and the reasons why some contrapuntal compositions are called fugues, while others are not, are so trivial, technically as well as aesthetically, that we have 290 preferred to treat the subject separately under the general heading of Contrapuntal Forms, reserving only technical terms for definition here.

(i.) If in the beginning or “exposition” the material with which the opening voice accompanies the answer is faithfully reproduced as the accompaniment to subsequent entries of the subject, it is called a countersubject (see Counterpoint, under sub-heading Double Counterpoint). Obviously the process may be carried further, the first countersubject going on to a second when the subject enters in the third part and so on. The term is also applied to new subjects appearing later in the fugue in combination (immediate or destined) with the original subject. Cherubini, holding the doctrine that a fugue cannot have more than one subject, insists on applying the term to the less prominent of the subjects of what are commonly called double fugues, i.e. fugues which begin with two parts and two subjects simultaneously, and so also with triple and quadruple fugues.

(ii.) Episodes are passages separating the entries of the subject.1 Episodes are usually developed from the material of the subject and countersubjects; they are very rarely independent, but then conspicuously so.

(iii.) Stretto, the overlapping of subject and answer, is a resource the possibilities of which may be exemplified by the setting of the words omnes generationes in Bach’s Magnificat (see Bach).

(iv.) The distinction between real and tonal fugue, which is still sometimes treated as a thing of great historical and technical importance, is really a mere detail resulting from the fact that a violent oscillation between the keys of tonic and dominant is no part of the function of a fugal exposition, so that the answer is (especially in its first notes and in points that tend to shift the key) not so much a transposition of the subject to the key of the dominant as an adaptation of it from the tonic part to the dominant part of the scale, or vice versa; in short, the answer is as far as possible on the dominant, not in the dominant. The modifications this principle produces in the answer (which have been happily described as resembling “fore-shortening”) are the only distinctive marks of tonal fugue; and the text-books are half filled with the attempt to reduce them from matters of ear to rules of thumb, which rules, however, have the merit (unusual in those of the academic fugue) of being founded on observation of the practice of great masters. But the same principle as often as not produces answers that are exact transpositions of the subject; and so the only kind of real fugue (i.e. fugue with an exact answer) that could rightly be contrasted with tonal fugue would be that in which the answer ought to be tonal but is not. It must be admitted that tonal answers are rare in the modal music of the 16th century, though their melodic principles are of yet earlier date; still, though tonal fugue does not become usual until well on in the 17th century, the idea that it is a separate species is manifestly absurd, unless the term simply means “fugue in modern tonality or key,” whatever the answer may be.

The term “answer” is usually reserved for those entries of the subject that are placed in what may be called the “complementary” position of the scale, whether they are “tonally” modified or not. Thus the order of entries in the exposition of the first fugue of the Wohltemp. Klav. is subject, answer, answer, subject; a departure from the usual rule according to which subject and answer are strictly alternate in the exposition.

In conclusion we may remind the reader of the most accurate as well as the most vivid description ever given of the essentials of a fugue, in the famous lines in Paradise Lost, book xi.

It is hard to realize that this description of organ-music was written in no classical period of instrumental polyphony, but just half-way between the death of Frescobaldi and the birth of Bach. Every word is a definition, both retrospective and prophetic; and in “transverse” we see all that Sir Frederick Gore Ouseley expresses in his popular distinction between the “perpendicular” or homophonic style in which harmony is built up in chords, and the “horizontal” or polyphonic style in which it is woven in threads of independent melody.

FÜHRICH, JOSEPH VON (1800-1876), Austrian painter, was born at Kratzau in Bohemia on the 9th of February 1800. Deeply impressed as a boy by rude pictures adorning the wayside chapels of his native country, his first attempt at composition was a sketch of the Nativity for the festival of Christmas in his father’s house. He lived to see the day when, becoming celebrated as a composer of scriptural episodes, his sacred subjects were transferred in numberless repetitions to the roadside churches of the Austrian state, where humble peasants thus learnt to admire modern art reviving the models of earlier ages. Führich has been fairly described as a “Nazarene,” a romantic religious artist whose pencil did more than any other to restore the old spirit of Dürer and give new shape to countless incidents of the gospel and scriptural legends. Without the power of Cornelius or the grace of Overbeck, he composed with great skill, especially in outline. His mastery of distribution, form, movement and expression was considerable. In its peculiar way his drapery was perfectly cast. Essentially creative as a landscape draughtsman, he had still no feeling for colour; and when he produced monumental pictures he was not nearly so successful as when designing subjects for woodcuts. Führich’s fame extended far beyond the walls of the Austrian capital, and his illustrations to Tieck’s Genofeva, the Lord’s Prayer, the Triumph of Christ, the Road to Bethlehem, the Succession of Christ according to Thomas à Kempis, the Prodigal Son, and the verses of the Psalter, became well known. His Prodigal Son, especially, is remarkable for the fancy with which the spirit of evil is embodied in a figure constantly recurring, and like that of Mephistopheles exhibiting temptation in a human yet demoniacal shape. Führich became a pupil at the Academy of Prague in 1816. His first inspiration was derived from the prints of Dürer and the Faust of Cornelius, and the first fruit of this turn of study was the Genofeva series. In 1826 he went to Rome, where he added three frescoes to those executed by Cornelius and Overbeck in the Palazzo Massimi. His subjects were taken from the life of Tasso, and are almost solitary examples of his talent in this class of composition. In 1831 he finished the Triumph of Christ now in the Raczynski palace at Berlin. In 1834 he was made custos and in 1841 professor of composition in the Academy of Vienna. After this he completed the monumental pictures of the church of St Nepomuk, and in 1854-1861 the vast series of wall paintings which cover the inside of the Lerchenfeld church at Vienna. In 1872 he was pensioned and made a knight of the order of Franz Joseph; 1875 is the date of his illustrations to the Psalms. He died on the 13th of March 1876.

FUJI (Fuji-san, Fujiyama, Fusiyama), a celebrated mountain of Japan, standing W.S.W. of Tokyo, its base being about 70 m. by rail from that city. It rises to a height of 12,395 ft. and its southern slopes reach the shore of Suruga Bay. It is a cone of beautifully simple form, the more striking to view because it stands isolated; but its summit is not conical, being broken by a crater some 2000 ft. in diameter, for Fuji is a quiescent volcano. Small outbursts of steam are still to be observed at some points. An eruption is recorded so lately as the first decade of the 18th century. The mountain is the resort of great numbers of pilgrims (see also Japan).

FU-KIEN (formerly Min), a south-eastern province of China, bounded N. by the province of Cheh-kiang, S. by that of Kwang-tung, W. by that of Kiang-si and E. by the sea. It occupies an area of 53,480 sq. m. and its population is estimated at 20,000,000. The provincial capital is Fuchow Fu, and it is divided into eleven prefectures, besides that ruled over by the prefect of the capital city. Fu-kien is generally mountainous, being overspread by the Nan-shan ranges, which run a general course of N.E. and S.W. 291 The principal river is the Min, which is formed by the junction, in the neighbourhood of the city of Yen-p’ing Fu, of three rivers, namely, the Nui-si, which takes its rise in the mountains on the western frontier in the prefecture of Kien-ning Fu, the Fuh-tun Ki, the source of which is found in the district of Kwang-tsih in the north-west of the province, and the Ta-shi-ki (Shao Ki), which rises in the mountains in the western district of Ning-hwa. From Yen-p’ing Fu the river takes a south-easterly course, and after passing along the south face of the city of Fuchow Fu, empties itself into the sea about 30 m. below that town. Its upper course is narrow and rocky and abounds in rapids, but as it approaches Fuchow Fu the channel widens and the current becomes slow and even. Its depth is very irregular, and it is navigable only by native boats of a small class. Two other rivers flow into the sea near Amoy, neither of which, however, is navigable for any distance from its mouth owing to the shallows and rapids with which they abound. Thirty-five miles inland from Amoy stands the city of Chang Chow, famous for the bridge which there spans the Kin-lung river. This bridge is 800 ft. long, and consists of granite monoliths stretching from one abutment to another. The soil of the province is, as its name, “Happy Establishment,” indicates, very productive, and the scenery is of a rich and varied character. Most of the hills are covered with verdure, and the less rugged are laid out in terraces. The principal products of the province are tea, of which the best kind is that known as Bohea, which takes its name, by a mispronunciation, from the Wu-e Mountains, in the prefecture of Kien-ning Fu, where it is grown; grains of various kinds, oranges, plantins, lichis, bamboo, ginger, gold, silver, lead, tin, iron, salt (both marine and rock), deers’ horns, beeswax, sugar, fish, birds’ nests, medicine, paper, cloth, timber, &c. Fu-kien has three open ports, Fuchow Fu opened in 1842, Amoy opened to trade in the same year and Funing. The latter port was only opened to foreign trade in 1898, but in 1904 it imported and exported goods to the value of £7668 and £278,160 respectively.

FUKUI, a town of Japan in the province of Echizen, Nippon, near the west coast, 20 m. N. by E. of Wakasa Bay. It lies in a volcanic district much exposed to earthquakes, and suffered severely during the disturbances of 1891-1892, when a chasm over 40 m. long was opened across the Neo valley from Fukui to Katabira. But Fukui subsequently revived, and is now in a flourishing condition, with several local industries, especially the manufacture of paper, and an increasing population exceeding 50,000. Fukui has railway communication. There are ruins of a castle of the Daimios of Echizen.

FUKUOKA, a town on the north-west coast of the island of Kiushiu, Japan, in the province of Chikuzen, 90 m. N.N.E. of Nagasaki by rail. Pop. about 72,000. With Hakata, on the opposite side of a small coast stream, it forms a large centre of population, with an increasing export trade and several local industries. Of these the most important is silk-weaving, and Hakata especially is noted for its durable silk fabrics. Fukuoka was formerly the residence of the powerful daimio of Chikuzen, and played a conspicuous part in the medieval history of Japan; the renowned temple of Yeiyas in the district was destroyed by fire during the revolution of 1868. There are several other places of this name in Japan, the most important being Fukuoka in the province of Mutsu, North Nippon, a railway station on the main line from Tokyo to Aimori Ura Bay. Pop. about 5000.

FULA (Fulbe, Fellatah or Peuls), a numerous and powerful African people, spread over an immense region from Senegal nearly to Darfur. Strictly they have no country of their own, and nowhere form the whole of the population, though nearly always the dominant native race. They are most numerous in Upper Senegal and in the countries under French sway immediately south of Senegambia, notably Futa Jallon. Farther east they rule, subject to the control of the French, Segu and Massena, countries on both banks of the upper Niger, to the south-west of Timbuktu. The districts within the great bend of the Niger have a large Fula population. East of that river Sokoto and its tributary emirates are ruled by Fula princes, subject to the control of the British Nigerian administration. Fula are settled in Bornu, Bagirmi, Wadai and the upper Nile Valley,1 but have no political power in those countries. Their most southerly emirate is Adamawa, the country on both sides of the upper Benue. In this vast region of distribution the Fula populations are most dense towards the west and north, most scattered towards the east and south. Originally herdsmen in the western and central Sudan, they extended their sway east of the Niger, under the leadership of Othman Dan Fodio, during the early years of the 19th century, and having subdued the Hausa states, founded the empire of Sokoto with the vassal emirates of Kano, Gando, Nupe, Adamawa, &c.

The question of the ethnic affinities of the Fula has given rise to an enormous amount of speculation, but the most reasonable theory is that they are a mixture of Berber and Negro. This is now the most generally accepted theory. Certainly there is no reason to connect them with the ancient Egyptians. In the district of Senegal known as Fuladugu or “Fula Land,” where the purest types of the race are found, the people are of a reddish brown or light chestnut colour, with oval faces, ringlety or even smooth hair, never woolly, straight and even aquiline noses, delicately shaped lips and regular features quite differentiating them from the Negro type. Like most conquering races the Fula are, however, not of uniform physique, in many districts approximating to the local type. They nevertheless maintain throughout their widespread territory a certain national solidarity, thanks to common speech, traditions and usages. The ruling caste of the Fula differs widely in character from the herdsmen of the western Sudan. The latter are peaceable, inoffensive and abstemious. They are mainly monogamous, and by rigidly abstaining from foreign marriages have preserved racial purity. The ruling caste in Nigeria, on the other hand, despise their pastoral brethren, and through generations of polygamy with the conquered tribes have become more Negroid in type, black, burly and coarse featured. Love of luxury, pomp and finery is their chief characteristic. Taken as a whole, the Fula race is distinguished by great intelligence, frankness of disposition and strength of character. As soldiers they are renowned almost exclusively as cavalry; and the race has produced several leaders possessed of much strategical skill. Besides the ordinary Negro weapons, they use iron spears with leatherbound handles and swords. They are generally excellent rulers, stern but patient and just. The Nigerian emirs acquired, however, an evil reputation during the 19th century as slave raiders. They have long been devout Mahommedans, and mosques and schools exist in almost all their towns. Tradition says that of old every Fula boy and girl was a scholar; but during the decadence of their power towards the close of the 19th century education was not highly valued. Power seems to have somewhat spoilt this virile race, but such authorities as Sir Frederick Lugard believe them still capable of a great future.

The Fula language has as yet found no place in any African linguistic family. In its rudiments it is akin to the Hamito-Semitic group. It possesses two grammatical genders, not masculine and feminine, but the human and the non-human; the adjective agrees in assonance with its noun, and euphony plays a great part in verbal and nominal inflections. In some ways resembling the Negro dialects, it betrays non-Negroid influences in the use of suffixes. The name of the people has many variations. Fulbe or Fula (sing. Pullo, Peul) is the Mandingan name, Follani the Hausa, Fellatah the Kanuri, Fullan the Arab, and Fulde on the Benue. Like the name Abate, “white,” given them in Kororofa, all these seem to refer to their light reddish hue.

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FULCHER (or Foucher) OF CHARTRES (1058-c. 1130), French chronicler, was a priest who was present at the council of Clermont in 1095, and accompanied Robert II., duke of Normandy, on the first crusade in 1096. Having spent some time in Italy and taken part in the fighting on the way to the Holy Land, he became chaplain to Baldwin, who was chosen king of Jerusalem in 1100, and lived with Baldwin at Edessa and then at Jerusalem. He accompanied this king on several warlike expeditions, but won more lasting fame by writing his Historia Hierosolymitana or Gesta Francorum Jerusalem expugnantium, one of the most trustworthy sources for the history of the first crusade. In its final form it is divided into three books, and covers the period between the council of Clermont and 1127, and the author only gives details of events which he himself had witnessed. It was used by William of Tyre. Fulcher died after 1127, probably at Jerusalem. He has been confused with Foucher of Mongervillier (d. 1171), abbot of St-Père-en-Vallée at Chartres, and also with another person of the same name who distinguished himself at the siege of Antioch in 1098.

FULDA, a town and episcopal see of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, between the Rhön and the Vogel-Gebirge, 69 m. N.E. from Frankfort-on-Main on the railway to Bebra. Although irregularly built the town is pleasantly situated, and contains two fine squares, on one of which stands a fine statue of St Boniface. The present cathedral was built at the beginning of the 18th century on the model of St Peter’s at Rome, but it has an ancient crypt, which contains the bones of St Boniface and was restored in 1892. Opposite the cathedral is the former monastery of St Michael, now the episcopal palace. The Michaelskirche, attached to it, is a small round church built, in imitation of the Holy Sepulchre, in 822 and restored in 1853. Of other buildings may be mentioned the Library, with upwards of 80,000 printed books and many valuable MSS., the stately palace with its gardens and orangery, the former Benedictine nunnery (founded 1625, and now used as a seminary), and the Minorite friary (1238) now used as a furniture warehouse. Among the secular buildings are the fine Schloss, the Bibliothek, the town hall and the post office. There are several schools, a hospital founded in the 13th century, and some new artillery barracks. Many industries are carried on in Fulda. These include weaving and dyeing, the manufacture of linen, plush and other textiles and brewing. There are also railway works in the town. A large trade is done in cattle and grain, many markets being held here. Fine views are obtained from several hills in the neighbourhood, among these being the Frauenberg, the Petersberg and the Kalvarienberg.

Fulda owes its existence to its famous abbey. It became a town in 1208, and during the middle ages there were many struggles between the abbots and the townsfolk. During the Peasants’ War it was captured by the rebels and during the Seven Years’ War by the Hanoverians. It came finally into the possession of Prussia in 1866. From 1734 to 1804 Fulda was the seat of a university, and latterly many assemblies of German bishops have been held in the town.

The great Benedictine abbey of Fulda occupies the place in the ecclesiastical history of Germany which Monte Cassino holds in Italy, St Gall in South Germany, Corvey in Saxony, Tours in France and Iona in Scotland. Founded in 744 at the instigation of St Boniface by his pupil Sturm, who was the first abbot, it became the centre of a great missionary work. It was liberally endowed with land by the princes of the Carolingian house and others, and soon became one of the most famous and wealthy establishments of its kind. About 968 the pope declared that its abbot was primate of all the abbots in Germany and Gaul, and later he became a prince of the Empire. Fulda was specially famous for its school, which was the centre of the theological learning of the early middle ages. Among the teachers here were Alcuin, Hrabanus Maurus, who was abbot from 822 to 842, and Walafrid Strabo. Early in the 10th century the monastery was reformed by introducing monks from Scotland, who were responsible for restoring in its old strictness the Benedictine rule. Later the abbey lost some of its lands and also its high position, and some time before the Reformation the days of its glory were over. Johann von Henneberg, who was abbot from 1529 to 1541, showed some sympathy with the teaching of the reformers, but the Counter-Reformation made great progress here under Abbot Balthasar von Dernbach. Gustavus Adolphus gave the abbey as a principality to William, landgrave of Hesse, but William’s rule only lasted for ten years. In 1752 the abbot was raised to the rank of a bishop, and Fulda ranked as a prince-bishopric. This was secularized in 1802, and in quick succession it belonged to the prince of Orange, the king of France and the grand-duchy of Frankfort. In 1816 the greater part of the principality was ceded by Prussia to Hesse-Cassel, a smaller portion being united with Bavaria. Sharing the fate of Hesse-Cassel, this larger portion was annexed by Prussia in 1866. In 1829 a new bishopric was founded at Fulda.

FULGENTIUS, FABIUS PLANCIADES, Latin grammarian, a native of Africa, flourished in the first half of the 6th (or the last part of the 5th) century A.D. He is to be distinguished from Fulgentius, bishop of Ruspe (468-533), to whom he was probably related, and also from the bishop’s pupil and biographer, Fulgentius Ferrandus. Four extant works are attributed to him. (1) Mythologiarum libri iii., dedicated to a certain Catus, a presbyter of Carthage, containing 75 myths briefly told, and then explained in the mystical and allegorical manner of the Stoics and Neoplatonists. For this purpose the author generally invokes the aid of etymologies which, borrowed from the philosophers, are highly absurd. As a Christian, Fulgentius sometimes (but less frequently than might have been expected) quotes the Bible by the side of the philosophers, to give a Christian colouring to the moral lesson. (2) Expositio Vergilianae continentiae (continentia = contents), a sort of appendix to (1), dedicated to Catus. The poet himself appears to the author and explains the twelve books of the Aeneid as a picture of human life. The three words arma (= virtus), vir (= sapientia), primus (= princeps) in the first line represent respectively substantia corporalis, sensualis, ornans. Book i. symbolizes the birth and early childhood of man (the shipwreck of Aeneas denotes the peril of birth), book vi. the plunge into the depths of wisdom. (3) Expositio sermonum antiquorum, explanations of 63 rare and obsolete words, supported by quotations (sometimes from authors and works that never existed). It is much inferior to the similar work of Nonius, with which it is often edited. (4) Liber absque litteris de aetatibus mundi et hominis. In the MS. heading of this work, the name of the author is given as Fabius Claudius Gordianus Fulgentius (Claudius is the name of the father, and Gordianus that of the grandfather of the bishop, to whom some attribute the work). The title Absque litteris indicates that one letter of the alphabet is wholly omitted in each successive book (A in bk. i., B in bk. ii.). Only 14 books are preserved. The matter is chiefly taken from sacred history. In addition to these, Fulgentius speaks of early poetical attempts after the manner of Anacreon, and of a work called Physiologus, dealing with medical questions, and including a discussion of the mystical signification of the numbers 7 and 9. Fulgentius is a representative of the so-called late African style, taking for his models Apuleius, Tertullian and Martianus Capella. His language is bombastic, affected and incorrect, while the lengthy and elaborate periods make it difficult to understand his meaning.

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FULGINIAE (mod. Foligno), an ancient town of Umbria, Italy, on the later line of the Via Flaminia, 15 m. S. of Nuceria. It appears to have been of comparatively late origin, inasmuch as it had no city walls, but, in imperial times especially, owing to its position on the new line of the Via Flaminia, it must have increased in importance as being the point of departure of roads to Perusia and to Picenum over the pass of Plestia. It appears to have had an amphitheatre, and three bridges over the Topino are attributed to the Roman period. Three miles to the N. lies the independent community of Forum Flaminii, the site of which is marked by the church of S. Giovanni Profiamma, at or near which the newer line of the Via Flaminia rejoined the older. It was no doubt founded by the builder of the road, C. Flaminius, consul in 220 B.C. (See Foligno and Flaminia, Via.)

FULGURITE (from Lat. fulgur, lightning), in petrology, the name given to rocks which have been fused on the surface by lightning, and to the characteristic holes in rocks formed by the same agency. When lightning strikes the naked surfaces of rocks, the sudden rise of temperature may produce a certain amount of fusion, especially when the rocks are dry and the electricity is not readily conducted away. Instances of this have been observed on Ararat and on several mountains in the Alps, Pyrenees, &c. A thin glassy crust, resembling a coat of varnish, is formed; its thickness is usually not more than one-eighth of an inch, and it may be colourless, white or yellow. When examined under the microscope, it usually shows no crystallization, and contains minute bubbles due to the expansion of air or other gases in the fused pellicle. Occasionally small microliths may appear, but this is uncommon because so thin a film would cool with extreme rapidity. The minerals of the rock beneath are in some cases partly fused, but the more refractory often appear quite unaffected. The glass has arisen from the melting of the most fusible ingredients alone.

Another type of fulgurite is commonest in dry sands and takes the shape of vertical tubes which may be nearly half an inch in diameter. Generally they are elliptical in cross section, or flattened by the pressure exerted by the surrounding sand on the fulgurite at a time when it was still very hot and plastic. These tubes are often vertical and may run downwards for several feet through the sand, branching and lessening as they descend. Tubular perforations in hard rocks have been noted also, but these are short and probably follow original cracks. The glassy material contains grains of sand and many small round or elliptical cavities, the long axes of which are radial. Minerals like felspar and mica are fused more readily than quartz, but analysis shows that some fulgurite glasses are very rich in silica, which perhaps was dissolved in the glass rather than simply fused. The central cavity of the tube and the bubbles in its walls point to the expansion of the gases (air, water, &c.) in the sand by sudden and extreme heating. Very fine threads of glass project from the surface of the tube as if fused droplets had been projected outwards with considerable force. Where the quartz grains have been greatly heated but not melted they become white and semi-opaque, but where they are in contact with the glass they usually show partial solution. Occasionally crystallization has begun before the glass solidified, and small microliths, the nature of which is undeterminable, occur in streams and wisps in the clear hyaline matrix.

FULHAM, a western metropolitan borough of London, England, bounded N.W. by Hammersmith, N.E. by Kensington, E. by Chelsea, and S.E., S. and S.W. by the river Thames. Pop. (1901) 137,289. The principal thoroughfares are Fulham Palace Road running S. from Hammersmith, Fulham Road and King’s Road, W. from Chelsea, converging and leading to Putney Bridge over the Thames; North End Road between Hammersmith and Fulham Roads; Lillie Road between South Kensington and Fulham Palace Road; and Wandsworth Bridge Road leading S. from New King’s Road to Wandsworth Bridge. In the north Fulham includes the residential district known as West Kensington, and farther south that of Walham Green. The manor house or palace of the bishops of London stands in grounds, beautifully planted and surrounded by a moat, believed to be a Danish work, near the river west of Putney Bridge. Its oldest portion is the picturesque western quadrangle, built by Bishop Fitzjames (1506-1522). The parish church of All Saints, between the bridge and the grounds, was erected in 1881 from designs by Sir Arthur Blomfield. The fine old monuments from the former building, dating from the 16th to the 18th centuries, are mostly preserved, and in the churchyard are the memorials of several bishops of London and of Theodore Hook (1841). The public recreation grounds include the embankment and gardens between the river and the palace grounds, and there are also two well-known enclosures used for sports within the borough. Of these Hurlingham Park is the headquarters of the Hurlingham Polo Club and a fashionable resort; and Queen’s Club, West Kensington, has tennis and other courts for the use of members, and is also the scene of important football matches, and of the athletic meetings between Oxford and Cambridge Universities, and those between the English and American Universities held in England. In Seagrave Road is the Western fever hospital. The parliamentary borough of Fulham returns one member. The borough council consists of a mayor, 6 aldermen and 36 councillors. Area, 1703.5 acres.

Fulham, or in its earliest form Fullanham, is uncertainly stated to signify “the place” either “of fowls” or “of dirt.” The manor is said to have been given to Bishop Erkenwald about the year 691 for himself and his successors in the see of London, and Holinshed relates that the Bishop of London was lodging in his manor place in 1141 when Geoffrey de Mandeville, riding out from the Tower of London, took him prisoner. At the Commonwealth the manor was temporarily out of the bishops’ hands, being sold to Colonel Edmund Harvey. There is no record of the first erection of a parish church, but the first known rector was appointed in 1242, and a church probably existed a century before this. The earliest part of the church demolished in 1881, however, did not date farther back than the 15th century. In 879 Danish invaders, sailing up the Thames, wintered at Fulham and Hammersmith. Near the former wooden Putney Bridge, built in 1729 and replaced in 1886, the earl of Essex threw a bridge of boats across the river in 1642 in order to march his army in pursuit of Charles I., who thereupon fell back on Oxford. Margravine Road recalls the existence of Bradenburg House, a riverside mansion built by Sir Nicholas Crispe in the time of Charles I., used as the headquarters of General Fairfax in 1647 during the civil wars, and occupied in 1792 by the margrave of Bradenburg-Anspach and Bayreuth and his wife, and in 1820 by Caroline, consort of George IV.

FULK, king of Jerusalem (b. 1092), was the son of Fulk IV., count of Anjou, and his wife Bertrada (who ultimately deserted her husband and became the mistress of Philip I. of France). He became count of Anjou in 1109, and considerably added to the prestige of his house. In particular he showed himself a doughty opponent to Henry I. of England, against whom he continually supported Louis VI. of France, until in 1127 Henry won him over by betrothing his daughter Matilda to Fulk’s son Geoffrey Plantagenet. Already in 1120 Fulk had visited the Holy Land, and become a close friend of the Templars. On his return he assigned to the order of the Templars an annual subsidy, while he also maintained two knights in the Holy Land for a year. In 1128 he was preparing to return to the East, when he received an embassy from Baldwin II., king of Jerusalem, who had no male heir to succeed him, offering his daughter Melisinda in marriage, with the right of eventual succession to the kingdom. Fulk readily accepted the offer; and in 1129 he came and was married to Melisinda, receiving the towns of 294 Acre and Tyre as her dower. In 1131, at the age of thirty-nine, he became king of Jerusalem. His reign is not marked by any considerable events: the kingdom which had reached its zenith under Baldwin II., and did not begin to decline till the capture of Edessa in the reign of Baldwin III., was quietly prosperous under his rule. In the beginning of his reign he had to act as regent of Antioch, and to provide a husband, Raymund of Poitou, for the infant heiress Constance. But the great problem with which he had to deal was the progress of the atabeg Zengi of Mosul. In 1137 he was beaten near Barin, and escaping into the fort was surrounded and forced to capitulate. A little later, however, he greatly improved his position by strengthening his alliance with the vizier of Damascus, who also had to fear the progress of Zengi (1140); and in this way he was able to capture the fort of Banias, to the N. of Lake Tiberias. Fulk also strengthened the kingdom on the south; while his butler, Paganus, planted the fortress of Krak to the south of the Dead Sea, and helped to give the kingdom an access towards the Red Sea, he himself constructed Blanche Garde and other forts on the S.W. to overawe the garrison of Ascalon, which was still held by the Mahommedans, and to clear the road towards Egypt. Twice in Fulk’s reign the eastern emperor, John Comnenus, appeared in northern Syria (1137 and 1142); but his coming did not affect the king, who was able to decline politely a visit which the emperor proposed to make to Jerusalem. In 1143 he died, leaving two sons, who both became kings, as Baldwin III. and Amalric I.

Fulk continued the tradition of good statesmanship and sound churchmanship which Baldwin I. and Baldwin II. had begun. William of Tyre speaks of him as a fine soldier, an able politician, and a good son of the church, and only blames him for partiality to his friends, and a forgetfulness of names and faces, which placed him at a disadvantage and made him too dependent on his immediate intimates. Little, perhaps, need be made of these censures: the real fault of Fulk was his neglect to envisage the needs of the northern principalities, and to head a combined resistance to the rising power of Zengi of Mosul.

FULK (d. 900), archbishop of Reims, and partisan of Charles the Simple in his struggle with Odo, count of Paris, was elected to the see as archbishop in 883 upon the death of Hincmar. In 887 he was engaged in a struggle with the Normans who invaded his territories. Upon the deposition of Charles the Fat he sided with Charles the Simple in his contest for the West Frankish dominions against Count Odo of Paris, and crowned him king in his own metropolitan church at Reims after most of the nobles had gone over to Odo (893). Upon the death of Odo he succeeded in having Charles recognized as king by a majority of the West Frankish nobility. In 892 he obtained special privileges for his province from Pope Formosus, who promised that thereafter, when the archbishopric became vacant, the revenues should not be enjoyed by anyone while the vacancy existed, but should be reserved for the new incumbent, provided the election took place within the canonical limit of three months. From 898 until his death he held the office of chancellor, which for some time afterwards was regularly filled by the archbishop of Reims. In his efforts to keep the wealthy abbeys and benefices of the church out of the hands of the nobles, he incurred the hatred of Baldwin, count of Flanders, who secured his assassination on the 17th of June 900, a crime which the weak Carolingian monarch left unpunished.

FULKE, WILLIAM (1538-1589), Puritan divine, was born in London and educated at Cambridge. After studying law for six years, he became a fellow at St John’s College, Cambridge, in 1564. He took a leading part in the “vestiarian” controversy, and persuaded the college to discard the surplice. In consequence he was expelled from St. John’s for a time, but in 1567 he became Hebrew lecturer and preacher there. After standing unsuccessfully for the headship of the college in 1569, he became chaplain to the earl of Leicester, and received from him the livings of Warley, in Essex, and Dennington in Suffolk. In 1578 he was elected master of Pembroke Hall, Cambridge. As a Puritan controversialist he was remarkably active; in 1580 the bishop of Ely appointed him to defend puritanism against the Roman Catholics, Thomas Watson, ex-bishop of Lincoln (1513-1584), and John Feckenham, formerly abbot of Westminster, and in 1581 he was one of the disputants with the Jesuit, Edmund Campion, while in 1582 he was among the clergy selected by the privy council to argue against any papist. His numerous polemical writings include A Defense of the sincere true Translations of the holie Scriptures into the English tong (London, 1583), and confutations of Thomas Stapleton (1535-1598), Cardinal Allen and other Roman Catholic controversialists.

FULK NERRA (c. 970-1040), count of Anjou, eldest son of Count Geoffrey I., “Grisegonelle” (Grey Tunic) and Adela of Vermandois, was born about 970 and succeeded his father in the countship of Anjou on the 21st of July 987. He was successful in repelling the attacks of the count of Rennes and laying the foundations of the conquest of Touraine (see Anjou). In this connexion he built a great number of strong castles, which has led in modern times to his being called “the great builder.” He also founded several religious houses, among them the abbeys of Beaulieu, near Loches (c. 1007), of Saint-Nicholas at Angers (1020) and of Ronceray at Angers (1028), and, in order to expiate his crimes of violence, made three pilgrimages to the Holy Land (in 1002-1003, c. 1008 and in 1039). On his return from the third of these journeys he died at Metz in Lorraine on the 21st of June 1040. By his first marriage, with Elizabeth, daughter of Bouchard le Vénérable, count of Vendôme, he had a daughter, Adela, who married Boon of Nevers and transmitted to her children the countship of Vendôme. Elizabeth having died in 1000, Fulk married Hildegarde of Lorraine, by whom he had a son, Geoffrey Martel (q.v.), and a daughter Ermengarde, who married Geoffrey, count of Gâtinais, and was the mother of Geoffrey “le Barbu” (the Bearded) and of Fulk “le Réchin” (see Anjou).

FÜLLEBORN, GEORG GUSTAV (1769-1803), German philosopher, philologist and miscellaneous writer, was born at Glogau, Silesia, on the 2nd of March 1769, and died at Breslau on the 6th of February 1803. He was educated at the University of Halle, and was made doctor of philosophy in recognition of his thesis De Xenophane, Zenone et Gorgia. He took diaconal orders in 1791, but almost immediately became professor of classics at Breslau. His philosophical works include annotations to Garve’s translation of the Politics of Aristotle (1799-1800), and a large share in the Beiträge zur Geschichte der Philosophie (published in twelve parts between 1791 and 1799), in which he collaborated with Forberg, Reinhold and Niethammer. In philology he wrote Encyclopaedia philologica sive primae lineae Isagoges in antiquorum studia (1798; 2nd ed., 1805); Kurze Theorie des lateinischen Stils (1793); Leitfaden der Rhetorik (1802); and an annotated edition of the Satires of Persius. Under the pseudonym “Edelwald Justus” he published several collections of popular tales—Bunte Blätter (1795); Kleine Schriften zur Unterhaltung (1798); Nebenstunden (1799). After his death were published Taschenbuch für Brunnengäste (1806) and Kanzelreden (1807). He was a frequent contributor to the press, where his writings were very popular.

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FULLER, ANDREW (1754-1815), English Baptist divine, was born on the 6th of February 1754, at Wicken in Cambridgeshire. In his boyhood and youth he worked on his father’s farm. In his seventeenth year he became a member of the Baptist church at Soham, and his gifts as an exhorter met with so much approval that, in the spring of 1775, he was called and ordained as pastor of that congregation. In 1782 he removed to Kettering in Northamptonshire, where he became friendly with some of the most eminent ministers of the denomination. Before leaving Soham he had written the substance of a treatise in which he had sought to counteract the prevailing Baptist hyper-Calvinism which, “admitting nothing spiritually good to be the duty of the unregenerate, and nothing to be addressed to them in a way of exhortation excepting what related to external obedience,” had long perplexed his own mind. This work he published, under the title The Gospel worthy of all Acceptation, soon after his settlement in Kettering; and although it immediately involved him in a somewhat bitter controversy which lasted for nearly twenty years, it was ultimately successful in considerably modifying the views prevalent among English dissenters. In 1793 he published a treatise, The Calvinistic and Socinian systems examined and compared as to their moral tendency, in which he rebutted the accusation of antinomianism levelled by the Socinians against those who over-emphasized the doctrines of free grace. This work, along with another against Deism, entitled The Gospel its own Witness, is regarded as the production on which his reputation as a theologian mainly rests. Fuller also published an admirable Memoir of the Rev. Samuel Pearce, of Birmingham, and a volume of Expository Lectures in Genesis, besides a considerable number of smaller pieces, chiefly sermons and pamphlets, which were issued in a collected form after his death. He was a man of forceful character, more prominent on the practical side of religion than on the devotional, and accordingly not pre-eminently successful in his local ministry. His great work was done in connexion with the Baptist Missionary Society, formed at Kettering in 1792, of which he was secretary until his death on the 7th of May 1815. Both Princeton and Yale, U.S.A., conferred on him the degree of D. D., but he never used it.

FULLER, GEORGE (1822-1884), American figure and portrait painter, was born at Deerfield, Massachusetts, in 1822. At the age of twenty he entered the studio of the sculptor H.K. Brown, at Albany, New York, where he drew from the cast and modelled heads. Having attained some proficiency he went about the country painting portraits, settling at length in Boston, where he studied the works of the earlier Americans, Stuart, Copley and Allston. After three years in that city, and twelve in New York, where in 1857 he was elected a member of the National Academy of Design, he went to Europe for a brief visit and for study. During all this time his work had received little recognition and practically no financial encouragement, and on his return he settled on the family farm at Deerfield, where he continued to work in his own way with no thought of the outside world. In 1876, however, he was forced by pressing needs to dispose of his work, and he sent some pictures to a dealer in Boston, where he met with immediate success, financial and artistic, and for the remaining eight years of his life he never lacked patrons. He died in Boston on the 21st of March 1884. He was a poetic painter, and a dreamer of delicate fancies and quaint, intangible phases of nature, his canvases being usually enveloped in a brown mist that renders the outlines vague. Among his noteworthy canvases are: “The Turkey Pasture,” “Romany Girl,” “And she was a Witch,” “Nydia,” “Winifred Dysart” and “The Quadroon.”

FULLER, MARGARET, Marchioness Ossoli (1810-1850), American authoress, eldest child of Timothy Fuller (1778-1835), a lawyer and politician of some eminence, was born at Cambridgeport, Massachusetts, on the 23rd of May 1810. Her education was conducted by her father, who, she states, made the mistake of thinking to “gain time by bringing forward the intellect as early as possible,” the consequence being “a premature development of brain that made her a youthful prodigy by day, and by night a victim of spectral illusions, nightmare and somnambulism.” At six years she began to read Latin, and at a very early age she had selected as her favourite authors Shakespeare, Cervantes and Molière. Soon the great amount of study exacted of her ceased to be a burden, and reading became a habit and a passion. Having made herself familiar with the masterpieces of French, Italian and Spanish literature, she in 1833 began the study of German, and within the year had read some of the masterpieces of Goethe, Körner, Novalis and Schiller.

After her father’s death in 1835 she went to Boston to teach languages, and in 1837 she was chosen principal teacher in the Green Street school, Providence, Rhode Island, where she remained till 1839. From this year until 1844 she stayed at different places in the immediate neighbourhood of Boston, forming an intimate acquaintance with the colonists of Brook Farm, and numbering among her closest friends R.W. Emerson, Nathaniel Hawthorne and W.H. Channing. In 1839 she published a translation of Eckermann’s Conversations with Goethe, which was followed in 1842 by a translation of the correspondence between Karoline von Günderode and Bettina von Arnim, entitled Günderode. Aided by R.W. Emerson and George Ripley, she in 1840 started The Dial, a poetical and philosophical magazine representing the opinions and aims of the New England Transcendentalists. This journal she continued to edit for two years, and while in Boston she also conducted conversation classes for ladies in which philosophical and social subjects were discussed with a somewhat over-accentuated earnestness. These meetings may be regarded as perhaps the beginning of the modern movement in behalf of women’s rights. R.W. Emerson, who had met her as early as 1836, thus describes her appearance: “She was then twenty-six years old. She had a face and frame that would indicate fulness and tenacity of life. She was rather under the middle height; her complexion was fair, with strong fair hair. She was then, as always, carefully and becomingly dressed, and of ladylike self-possession. For the rest her appearance had nothing prepossessing. Her extreme plainness, a trick of incessantly opening and shutting her eyelids, the nasal tone of her voice, all repelled; and I said to myself we shall never get far.” On better acquaintance this unprepossessing exterior seemed, however, to melt away, and her inordinate self-esteem to be lost in the depth and universality of her sympathy. She possessed an almost irresistible power of winning the intellectual and moral confidence of those with whom she came in contact, and “applied herself to her companion as the sponge applies itself to water.” She obtained from each the best they had to give. It was indeed more as a conversationalist than as a writer that she earned the title of the Priestess of Transcendentalism. It was her intimate friends who admired her most. Smart and pungent though she is as a writer, the apparent originality of her views depends more on eccentricity than either intellectual depth or imaginative vigour. In 1844 she removed to New York at the desire of Horace Greeley to write literary criticism for The Tribune, and in 1846 she published a selection from her articles on contemporary authors in Europe and America, under the title Papers on Literature and Art. The same year she paid a visit to Europe, passing some time in England and France, and finally taking up her residence in Italy. There she was married in December 1847 to the marquis Giovanni Angelo Ossoli, a friend of Mazzini. During 1848-1849 she was present with her husband in Rome, and when the city was besieged she, at the request of Mazzini, took charge of one of the two hospitals while her husband fought on the walls. In May 1850, along with her husband and infant son, she embarked at Leghorn for America, but when they had all but reached their destination the vessel was wrecked on Fire 296 Island beach on the 16th of June, and the Ossolis were among the passengers who perished.

FULLER, MELVILLE WESTON (1833-1910), American jurist, chief justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, was born at Augusta, Maine, on the 11th of February 1833. After graduating at Bowdoin College in 1853 he spent a year at the Harvard Law School, and in 1855 began the practice of law at Augusta, where he was an associate-editor of a Democratic paper, The Age, and served in the city council and as city attorney. In 1856 he removed to Chicago, Illinois, where he continued to practise until 1888, rising to a high position at the bar of the Northwest. For some years he was active in Democratic politics, being a member of the Illinois Constitutional Convention in 1862 and of the State House of Representatives from 1863 to 1865. He was a delegate to various National conventions of his party, and in that of 1876 placed Thomas A. Hendricks in nomination for the presidency. In 1888, by President Cleveland’s appointment, he succeeded Morrison R. Waite as chief-justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. In 1899 he was appointed by President McKinley a member of the arbitration commission at Paris to settle the Venezuela-British Guiana boundary dispute.

FULLER, THOMAS (1608-1661), English divine and historian, eldest son of Thomas Fuller, rector of Aldwincle St Peter’s, Northamptonshire, was born at his father’s rectory and was baptized on the 19th of June 1608. Dr John Davenant, bishop of Salisbury, was his uncle and godfather. According to Aubrey, Fuller was “a boy of pregnant wit.” At thirteen he was admitted to Queens’ College, Cambridge, then presided over by Dr John Davenant. His cousin, Edward Davenant, was a tutor in the same college. He was apt and quick in study; and in Lent 1624-1625 he became B.A. and in July 1628 M.A. Being overlooked in an election of fellows of his college, he was removed by Bishop Davenant to Sidney Sussex College, November 1628. In 1630 he received from Corpus Christi College the curacy of St Benet’s, Cambridge.

Fuller’s quaint and humorous oratory soon attracted attention. He published in 1631 a poem on the subject of David and Bathsheba, entitled David’s Hainous Sinne, Heartie Repentance, Heavie Punishment. In June of the same year his uncle gave him a prebend in Salisbury, where his father, who died in the following year, held a canonry. The rectory of Broadwindsor, Dorsetshire, then in the diocese of Bristol, was his next preferment (1634); and on the 11th of June 1635 he proceeded B.D. At Broadwindsor he compiled The Historie of the Holy Warre (1639), a history of the crusades, and The Holy State and the Prophane State (1642). This work describes the holy state as existing in the family and in public life, gives rules of conduct, model “characters” for the various professions and profane biographies. It was perhaps the most popular of all his writings. He was in 1640 elected proctor for Bristol in the memorable convocation of Canterbury, which assembled with the Short Parliament. On the sudden dissolution of the latter he joined those who urged that convocation should likewise dissolve as usual. That opinion was overruled; and the assembly continued to sit by virtue of a royal writ. Fuller has left in his Church History a valuable account of the proceedings of this synod, for sitting in which he was fined £200, which, however, was never exacted. His first published volume of sermons appeared in 1640 under the title of Joseph’s party-coloured Coat, which contains many of his quaint utterances and odd conceits. His grosser mannerisms of style, derived from the divines of the former generation, disappeared for the most part in his subsequent discourses.

About 1640 he had married Eleanor, daughter of Hugh Grove of Chisenbury, Wiltshire. She died in 1641. Their eldest child, John, baptized at Broadwindsor by his father, 6th June 1641, was afterwards rector of Sidney Sussex College, edited the Worthies of England, 1662, and became rector of Great Wakering, Essex, where he died in 1687.

At Broadwindsor, early in the year 1641, Thomas Fuller, his curate Henry Sanders, the church wardens, and others, nine persons altogether, certified that their parish, represented by 242 grown-up male persons, had taken the Protestation ordered by the speaker of the Long Parliament. Fuller was not formally dispossessed of his living and prebend on the triumph of the Presbyterian party, but he relinquished both preferments about this time. For a short time he preached with success at the Inns of Court, and thence removed, at the invitation of the master of the Savoy (Dr Balcanqual) and the brotherhood of that foundation, to be lecturer at their chapel of St Mary Savoy. Some of the best discourses of the witty preacher were delivered at the Savoy to audiences which extended into the chapel-yard. In one he set forth with searching and truthful minuteness the hindrances to peace, and urged the signing of petitions to the king at Oxford, and to the parliament, to continue their care in advancing an accommodation. In his Appeal of Injured Innocence Fuller says that he was once deputed to carry a petition to the king at Oxford. This has been identified with a petition entrusted to Sir Edward Wardour, clerk of the pells, Dr Dukeson, “Dr Fuller,” and four or five others from the city of Westminster and the parishes contiguous to the Savoy. A pass was granted by the House of Lords, on the 2nd of January 1643, for an equipage of two coaches, four or six horses and eight or ten attendants. On the arrival of the deputation at Uxbridge, on the 4th of January, officers of the Parliamentary army stopped the coaches and searched the gentlemen; and they found upon the latter “two scandalous books arraigning the proceedings of the House,” and letters with ciphers to Lord Viscount Falkland and the Lord Spencer. Ultimately a joint order of both Houses remanded the party; and Fuller and his friends suffered a brief imprisonment. The Westminster Petition, notwithstanding, reached the king’s hands; and it was published with the royal reply (see J.E. Bailey, Life of Thomas Fuller, pp. 245 et seq.). When it was expected, three months later, that a favourable result would attend the negotiations at Oxford, Fuller preached a sermon at Westminster Abbey, on the 27th of March 1643, on the anniversary of Charles I.’s accession, on the text, “Yea, let him take all, so my Lord the King return in peace.” On Wednesday, the 26th of July, he preached on church reformation, satirizing the religious reformers, and maintaining that only the Supreme Power could initiate reforms.

He was now obliged to leave London, and in August 1643 he joined the king at Oxford. He lived in a hired chamber at Lincoln College for 17 weeks. Thence he put forth a witty and effective reply to John Saltmarsh, who had attacked his views on ecclesiastical reform. Fuller subsequently published by royal request a sermon preached on the 10th of May 1644, at St Mary’s, Oxford, before the king and Prince Charles, called Jacob’s Vow.

The spirit of Fuller’s preaching, always characterized by calmness and moderation, gave offence to the high royalists, who charged him with lukewarmness in their cause. To silence unjust censures he became chaplain to the regiment of Sir Ralph Hopton. For the first five years of the war, as he said, when excusing the non-appearance of his Church History, “I had little list or leisure to write, fearing to be made a history, and shifting daily for my safety. All that time I could not live to study, who did only study to live.” After the defeat of Hopton at Cheriton Down, Fuller retreated to Basing House. He took an active part in its defence, and his life with the troops caused him to be afterwards regarded as one of “the great cavalier parsons.” In his marches with his regiment round about Oxford and in the west, he devoted much time to the collection of details, 297 from churches, old buildings, and the conversation of ancient gossips, for his Church-History and Worthies of England. He compiled in 1645 a small volume of prayers and meditations,—the Good Thoughts in Bad Times,—which, set up and printed in the besieged city of Exeter, whither he had retired, was called by himself “the first fruits of Exeter press.” It was inscribed to Lady Dalkeith, governess to the infant princess, Henrietta Anne (b. 1644), to whose household he was attached as chaplain. The corporation gave him the Bodleian lectureship on the 21st of March 1645/6, and he held it until the 17th of June following, soon after the surrender of the city to the parliament. The Fear of losing the Old Light (1646) was his farewell discourse to his Exeter friends. Under the Articles of Surrender Fuller made his composition with the government at London, his “delinquency” being that he had been present in the king’s garrisons. In Andronicus, or the Unfortunate Politician (1646), partly authentic and partly fictitious, he satirized the leaders of the Revolution; and for the comfort of sufferers by the war he issued (1647) a second devotional manual, entitled Good Thoughts in Worse Times, abounding in fervent aspirations, and drawing moral lessons in beautiful language out of the events of his life or the circumstances of the time. In grief over his losses, which included his library and manuscripts (his “upper and nether millstone”), and over the calamities of the country, he wrote his work on the Cause and Cure of a Wounded Conscience (1647). It was prepared at Boughton House in his native county, where he and his son were entertained by Edward Lord Montagu, who had been one of his contemporaries at the university and had taken the side of the parliament.

For the next few years of his life Fuller was mainly dependent upon his dealings with booksellers, of whom he asserted that none had ever lost by him. He made considerable progress in an English translation from the MS. of the Annales of his friend Archbishop Ussher. Amongst his benefactors it is curious to find Sir John Danvers of Chelsea, the regicide. Fuller in 1647 began to preach at St Clement’s, Eastcheap, and elsewhere in the capacity of lecturer. While at St Clement’s he was suspended; but speedily recovering his freedom, he preached wherever he was invited. At Chelsea, where also he occasionally officiated, he covertly preached a sermon on the death of Charles I., but he did not break with his Roundhead patrons. James Hay, 2nd earl of Carlisle, made him his chaplain, and presented him in 1648 or 1649 to the curacy of Waltham Abbey. His possession of the living was in jeopardy on the appointment of Cromwell’s “Tryers”; but he evaded their inquisitorial questions by his ready wit. He was not disturbed at Waltham in 1655, when the Protector’s edict prohibited the adherents of the late king from preaching. Lionel, 3rd earl of Middlesex, who lived at Copt Hall, near Waltham, gave him what remained of the books of the lord treasurer his father; and through the good offices of the marchioness of Hertford, part of his own pillaged library was restored to him. Fuller was thus able to prosecute his literary labours, producing successively his descriptive geography of the Holy Land, called A Pisgah-Sight of Palestine (1650), and his Church-History of Britain (1655), from the birth of Jesus Christ until the year 1648. With the Church-History was printed The History of the University of Cambridge since the Conquest and The History of Waltham Abbey. These works were furthered in no slight degree by his connexion with Sion College, London, where he had a chamber, as well for the convenience of the press as of his city lectureships. The Church-History was angrily attacked by Dr P. Heylyn, who, in the spirit of High-Churchmanship, wished, as he said, to vindicate the truth, the church and the injured clergy. About 1652 Fuller married his second wife, Mary Roper, youngest sister of Thomas, Viscount Baltinglass, by whom he had several children. At the Oxford Act of 1657, Robert South, who was Terrae filius, lampooned Fuller, whom he described in this Oratio as living in London, ever scribbling and each year bringing forth new folia like a tree. At length, continues South, the Church-History came forth with its 166 dedications to wealthy and noble friends; and with this huge volume under one arm, and his wife (said to be little of stature) on the other, he ran up and down the streets of London, seeking at the houses of his patrons invitations to dinner, to be repaid by his dull jests at table.

His last and best patron was George Berkeley, 1st Earl Berkeley (1628-1698), of Cranford House, Middlesex, whose chaplain he was, and who gave him Cranford rectory (1658). To this nobleman Fuller’s reply to Heylyn’s Examen Historicum, called The Appeal of Injured Innocence (1659), was inscribed. At the end of the Appeal is an epistle “to my loving friend Dr Peter Heylyn,” conceived in the admirable Christian spirit which characterized all Fuller’s dealings with controversialists. “Why should Peter,” he asked, “fall out with Thomas, both being disciples to the same Lord and Master? I assure you, sir, whatever you conceive to the contrary, I am cordial to the cause of the English Church, and my hoary hairs will go down to the grave in sorrow for her sufferings.”

In An Alarum to the Counties of England and Wales (1660) Fuller argued for a free and full parliament—free from force, as he expressed it, as well as from abjurations or previous engagements. Mixt Contemplations in Better Times (1660), dedicated to Lady Monk, tendered advice in the spirit of its motto, “Let your moderation be known to all men: the Lord is at hand.” There is good reason to suppose that Fuller was at the Hague immediately before the Restoration, in the retinue of Lord Berkeley, one of the commissioners of the House of Lords, whose last service to his friend was to interest himself in obtaining him a bishopric. A Panegyrick to His Majesty on his Happy Return was the last of Fuller’s verse-efforts. On the 2nd of August, by royal letters, he was admitted D.D. at Cambridge. He resumed his lectures at the Savoy, where Samuel Pepys heard him preach; but he preferred his conversation or his books to his sermons. Fuller’s last promotion was that of chaplain in extraordinary to Charles II. In the summer of 1661 he visited the west in connexion with the business of his prebend, which had been restored to him. On Sunday, the 12th of August, while preaching at the Savoy, he was seized with typhus fever, and died at his new lodgings in Covent Garden on the 16th of August. He was buried in Cranford church, where a mural tablet was afterwards set up on the north side of the chancel, with an epitaph which contains a conceit worthy of his own pen, to the effect that while he was endeavouring (viz. in The Worthies) to give immortality to others, he himself attained it.

Fuller’s wit and vivacious good-humour made him a favourite with men of both sides, and his sense of humour kept him from extremes. Probably Heylyn and South had some excuse for their attitude towards his very moderate politics. “By his particular temper and management,” said Echard (Hist. of England, iii. 71), “he weathered the late great storm with more success than many other great men.” He was known as “a perfect walking library.” The strength of his memory was proverbial, and some amusing anecdotes are connected with it.

His writings were the product of a highly original mind. He had a fertile imagination and a happy faculty of illustration. Antithetic and axiomatic sentences abound in his pages, embodying literally the wisdom of the many in the wit of one. He was “quaint,” and something more. “Wit,” said Coleridge, in a well-known eulogy, “was the stuff and substance of Fuller’s intellect. It was the element, the earthen base, the material which he worked in; and this very circumstance has defrauded him of his due praise for the practical wisdom of the thoughts, for the beauty and variety of the truths, into which he shaped the stuff. Fuller was incomparably the most sensible, the least prejudiced, great man of an age that boasted a galaxy of great men” (Literary Remains, vol. ii. (1836), pp. 389-390). This opinion was formed after the perusal of the Church-History. That work and The History of the Worthies of England are unquestionably Fuller’s greatest efforts. They embody the collections of an entire life; and since his day they have been the delight of many readers. The Holy State has taken rank amongst the best books of “characters.” Charles Lamb made some selections from Fuller, and had a profound admiration for the “golden works” of the “dear, fine, silly old angel.” Since 298 Lamb’s time, mainly through the appreciative criticisms of S.T. Coleridge, Robert Southey and others, Fuller’s works have received much attention.

FULLER, WILLIAM (1670-c. 1717), English impostor, was born at Milton in Kent on the 20th of September 1670. His paternity is doubtful, but he was related to the family of Herbert. After 1688 he served James II.’s queen, Mary of Modena, and the Jacobites, seeking at the same time to gain favour with William III.; and after associating with Titus Oates, being imprisoned for debt and pretending to reveal Jacobite plots, the House of Commons in 1692 declared he was an “imposter, cheat and false accuser.” Having stood in the pillory he was again imprisoned until 1695, when he was released; and at this time he took the opportunity to revive the old and familiar story that Mary of Modena was not the mother of the prince of Wales. In 1701 he published his autobiographical Life of William Fuller and some Original Letters of the late King James. Unable to prove the assertions made in his writings he was put in the pillory, whipped and fined. He died, probably in prison, about 1717. Fuller’s other writings are Mr William Fuller’s trip to Bridewell, with a full account of his barbarous usage in the pillory; The sincere and hearty confession of Mr William Fuller (1704); and An humble appeal to the impartial judgment of all parties in Great Britain (1716).

FULLER’S EARTH (Ger. Walkererde, Fr. terre à foulon, argile smectique)—so named from its use by fullers as an absorbent of the grease and oil of cloth,—a clay-like substance, which from its variability is somewhat difficult to define. In colour it is most often greenish, olive-green or greenish-grey; on weathering it changes to a brown tint or it may bleach. As a rule it falls to pieces when placed in water and is not markedly plastic; when dry it adheres strongly to the tongue; since, however, these properties are possessed by many clays that do not exhibit detergent qualities, the only test of value lies in the capacity to absorb grease or clarify oil. Fuller’s earth has a specific gravity of 1.7-2.4, and a shining streak; it is usually unctuous to the touch. Microscopically, it consists of minute irregular-shaped particles of a mineral that appears to be the result of a chloritic or talcose alteration of a felspar. The small size of most of the grains, less than .07 mm., makes their determination almost impossible. Chemical analysis shows that the peculiar properties of this earth are due to its physical rather than its chemical nature.

Fuller’s earth may occur on any geological horizon; at Nutfield in Surrey, England, it is in the Cretaceous formations; at Midford near Bath it is of Jurassic age; at Bala, North Wales, it occurs in Ordovician strata; in Saxony it appears to be the decomposition product of a diabasic rock. In America it is found in California in rocks ranging from Cretaceous to Pleistocene age; in S. Dakota, Custer county and elsewhere a yellow, gritty earth of Jurassic age is worked; in Florida and Georgia occurs a brittle, whitish earth of Oligocene age. Other deposits are worked in Arkansas, Texas, Colorado, Massachusetts and South Carolina.

Fuller’s earth is either mined or dug in the open according to local circumstances. It is then dried in the sun or by artificial heat and transported in small lumps in sacks. In other cases it is ground to a fine powder after being dried; or it is first roughly ground and made into a slurry with water, which is allowed to carry off the finer from the coarser particles and deposit them in a creamy state in suitable tanks. After consolidation this fine material is dried artificially on drying floors, broken into lumps, and packed for transport. The use of fuller’s earth for cleansing wool and cloth has greatly decreased, but the demand for the material is as great or greater than it ever was. It is now used very largely in the filtration of mineral oils, and also for decolourizing certain vegetable oils. It is employed in the formation of certain soaps and cleansing preparations.

The term “Fuller’s Earth” has a special significance in geology, for it was applied by W. Smith in 1799 to certain clays in the neighbourhood of Bath, and the use of the expression is still retained by English geologists, either in this form or in the generalized “Fullonian.” The Fullonian lies at the base of the Great Oolite or Bathonian series, but its palaeontological characters place it between that series and the underlying Inferior Oolite. The zonal fossils are Perisphinctes arbustigerus and Macrocephalus subcontractus with Ostrea acuminata, Rhynchonella concinna and Goniomya angulifera. The formation is in part the equivalent of the “Vesulien” of J. Marcou (Vesoul in Haute-Saône). In Dorsetshire and Somersetshire, where it is best developed, it is represented by an Upper Fuller’s Earth Clay, the Fuller’s Earth Rock (an impersistent earthy limestone, usually fossiliferous), and the Lower Fuller’s Earth Clay. Commercial fuller’s earth has been obtained only from the Upper Clay. In eastern Gloucestershire and northern Oxfordshire the Fuller’s Earth passes downwards without break into the Inferior Oolite; northward it dies out about Chipping Norton in Oxfordshire and passes laterally into the Stonesfield Slates series; in the midland counties it may perhaps be represented by the “Upper Estuarine Series.” In parts of Dorsetshire the clays have been used for brickmaking and the limestone (rock) for local buildings.

FULLERTON, LADY GEORGIANA CHARLOTTE (1812-1885), English novelist and philanthropist, youngest daughter of the 1st Earl Granville, was born at Tixall Hall in Staffordshire on the 23rd of September 1812. In 1833 she married Alexander George Fullerton, then an Irish officer in the guards. After living in Paris for some eight years she and her husband accompanied Lord Granville to Cannes and thence to Rome. In 1843 299 her husband entered the Roman Catholic church, and in the following year Lady Georgiana Fullerton published her first novel, Ellen Middleton, which attracted W.E. Gladstone’s attention in the English Review. In 1846 she entered the Roman Catholic church. The death of her only son in 1854 plunged her in grief, and she continued to wear mourning until the end of her life. In 1856 she became one of the third order of St Francis, and thenceforward devoted herself to charitable work. In conjunction with Miss Taylor she founded the religious community known as “The Poor Servants of the Mother of God Incarnate,” and she also took an active part in bringing to England the sisters of St Vincent of Paul. Her philanthropic work is described in Mrs Augustus Craven’s work Lady Georgiana Fullerton, sa vie et ses œuvres (Paris, 1888), which was translated into English by Henry James Coleridge. She died at Bournemouth on the 19th of January 1885. Among her other novels were Grantley Manor (1847), Lady Bird (1852), and Too Strange not to be True (1864).

FULMAR, from the Gaelic Fulmaire, the Fulmarus glacialis of modern ornithologists, one of the largest of the petrels (Procellariidae) of the northern hemisphere, being about the size of the common gull (Larus canus) and not unlike it in general coloration, except that its primaries are grey instead of black. This bird, which ranges over the North Atlantic, is seldom seen on the European side below lat. 53° N., but on the American side comes habitually to lat. 45° or even lower. In the Pacific it is represented by a scarcely separable form, F. glupischa. It has been commonly believed to have two breeding-places in the British Islands, namely, St Kilda and South Barra; but, according to Robert Gray (Birds of the West of Scotland, p. 499), it has abandoned the latter since 1844, though still breeding in Skye. Northward it established itself about 1838 on Myggenaes Holm, one of the Faeroes, while it has several stations off the coast of Iceland and Spitsbergen, as well as at Bear Island. Its range towards the pole seems to be only bounded by open water, and it is the constant attendant upon all who are employed in the whale and seal fisheries, showing the greatest boldness in approaching boats and ships, and feeding on the offal obtained from them. By British seamen it is commonly called the “molly mawk”1 (corrupted from Mallemuck), and is extremely well known to them, its flight, as it skims over the waves, first with a few beats of the wings and then gliding for a long way, being very peculiar. It only visits the land to deposit its single white egg, which is laid on a rocky ledge, where a shallow nest is made in the turf and lined with a little dried grass. Many of its breeding-places are a most valuable property to those who live near them and take the eggs and young, which, from the nature of the locality, are only to be had at a hazardous risk of life. In St Kilda a large number of the young are killed in one week of August, the only time when, by the custom of the community, they are allowed to be taken. These, after the oil is extracted from them, serve the islanders with food for the winter. The oil has been chemically analysed and found to be a fish-oil, and to possess nearly all the qualities of that obtained from the liver of the cod, with a lighter specific gravity. It, however, has an extremely strong scent, which is said by those who have visited St Kilda to pervade every thing and person on the island, and is certainly retained by an egg or skin of the bird for many years. Whenever a live example is seized in the hand it ejects a considerable quantity of this oil from its mouth.

FULMINIC ACID, HCNO or H2C2N2O2, an organic acid isomeric with cyanic and cyanuric acids; its salts, termed fulminates, are very explosive and are much employed as detonators. The free acid, which is obtained by treating the salts with acids, is an oily liquid smelling like prussic acid; it is very explosive, and the vapour is poisonous to about the same degree as that of prussic acid. The first fulminate prepared was the “fulminating silver” of L.G. Brugnatelli, who found in 1798 that if silver be dissolved in nitric acid and the solution added to spirits of wine, a white, highly explosive powder was obtained. This substance is to be distinguished from the black “fulminating silver” obtained by C.L. Berthollet in 1788 by acting with ammonia on precipitated silver oxide. The next salt to be obtained was the mercuric salt, which was prepared in 1799 by Edward Charles Howard, who substituted mercury for silver in Brugnatelli’s process. A similar method is that of J. von Liebig (1823), who heated a mixture of alcohol, nitric acid and mercuric nitrate; the salt is largely manufactured by processes closely resembling the last. A laboratory method is to mix solutions of sodium nitromethane, CH2 : NO(ONa), and mercuric chloride, a yellow basic salt being formed at the same time. Mercuric fulminate is less explosive than the silver salt, and forms white needles (with ½H2O) which are tolerably soluble in water. The use of mercuric fulminate as a detonator dates from about 1814, when the explosive cap was invented. It is still the commonest detonator, but it is now usually mixed with other substances; the British service uses for percussion caps 6 parts of fulminate, 6 of potassium chlorate and 4 of antimony sulphide, and for time fuses 4 parts of fulminate, 6 of potassium chlorate and 4 of antimony sulphide, the mixture being damped with a shellac varnish; for use in blasting, a home office order of 1897 prescribes a mixture of 4 parts of fulminate and 1 of potassium chlorate. In 1900 Bielefeldt found that a fulminate placed on top of an aromatic nitro compound, such as trinitrotoluene, formed a useful detonator; this discovery has been especially taken advantage of in Germany, in which country detonators of this nature are being largely employed. Tetranitromethylaniline (tetryl) has also been employed (Brit. Pat. 13340 of 1905). It has been proposed to replace fulminate by silver azoimide (Wöhler & Matter, Brit. Pat. 4468 of 1908), and by lead azoimide (Hyronimus, Brit. Pat. 1819 of 1908).

The constitution of fulminic acid has been investigated by many experimenters, but apparently without definitive results. The researches of Liebig (1823), Liebig and Gay-Lussac (1824), and of Liebig again in 1838 showed the acid to be isomeric with cyanic acid, and probably (HCNO)2, since it gave mixed and acid salts. Kekulé, in 1858, concluded that it was nitroacetonitrile, NO2·CH2·CN, a view opposed by Steiner (1883), E. Divers and M. Kawakita (1884), R. Scholl (1890), and by J.U. Nef (1894), who proposed the formulae:

The formulae of Kekulé, Divers and Armstrong have been discarded, and it remains to be shown whether Nef’s carbonyloxime formula (or the bimolecular formula of Steiner) or Scholl’s glyoxime peroxide formula is correct. There is some doubt as to the molecular formula of fulminic acid. The existence of double salts, and the observations of L. Wöhler and K. Theodorovits (Ber., 1905, 38, p. 345), that only compounds containing two carbon atoms yielded fulminates, points to (HCNO)2; on the other hand, Wöhler (loc. cit. p. 1351) found that cryoscopic and electric conductivity measurements showed sodium fulminate to be NaCNO. Nef based his formula, which involves bivalent carbon, on many reactions; in particular, that silver fulminate with hydrochloric acid gave salts of formylchloridoxime, which with water gave hydroxylamine and formic acid, thus

and also on the production from sodium nitromethane and mercuric chloride, thus CH2 : NO·Ohg → H2O + C : NOhg(hg = ½Hg). H. Wieland and F.C. Palazzo (1907) support this formula, finding that methyl nitrolic acid, NO2·CH : N·OH, yielded under certain conditions fulminic acid, and vice versa (Palazzo, 1907). M.Z. Jowitschitsch (Ann., 1906, 347, p. 233) inclines to Scholl’s formula; he found that the synthetic silver salt of glyoxime peroxide resembled silver fulminate in yielding hydroxylamine with hydrochloric acid, but differed in being less explosive, and in being soluble in nitric acid. H. Wieland and his collaborators regard “glyoxime peroxide” as an oxide of furazane (q.v.), and have shown that a close relationship exists between the nitrile oxides, furoxane, and fulminic acid (see Ann. Rep., London Chem. Soc., 1909, p. 84). Fulminuric acid, (HCNO)3, obtained by Liebig by boiling mercuric fulminate with water, was synthesized in 1905 by C. Ulpiani and L. Bernardini (Gazetta, iii. 35, p. 7), who regard it as NO2·CH(CN)·CO·NH2. It deflagrates at 145°, and forms a characteristic cuprammonium salt.

The early history of mercuric fulminate and a critical account of its application as a detonator is given in The Rise and Progress of the British Explosives Industry (International Congress of Applied Chemistry, 1909). The manufacture and modern aspects are treated in Oscar Guttmann, The Manufacture of Explosives, and Manufacture of Explosives, Twenty Years’ Progress (1909).

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FULTON, ROBERT (1765-1815), American engineer, was born in 1765 in Little Britain (now Fulton, Lancaster county), Pa. His parents were Irish, and so poor that they could afford him only a very scanty education. At an early age he was bound apprentice to a jeweller in Philadelphia, but subsequently adopted portrait and landscape painting as his profession. In his twenty-second year, with the object of studying with his countryman, Benjamin West, he went to England, and there became acquainted with the duke of Bridgewater, Earl Stanhope and James Watt. Partly by their influence he was led to devote his attention to engineering, especially in connexion with canal construction; he obtained an English patent in 1794 for superseding canal locks by inclined planes, and in 1796 he published a Treatise on the Improvement of Canal Navigation. He then took up his residence in Paris, where he projected the first panorama ever exhibited in that city, and constructed a submarine boat, the “Nautilus,” which was tried in Brest harbour in 1801 before a commission appointed by Napoleon I., and by the aid of which he was enabled to blow up a small vessel with a torpedo. It was at Paris also in 1803 that he first succeeded in propelling a boat by steam-power, thus realizing a design which he had conceived ten years previously. Returning to America he continued his experiments with submarine explosives, but failed to convince either the English, French or United States governments of the adequacy of his methods. With steam navigation he had more success. In association with Robert R. Livingston (q.v.), who in 1798 had been granted the exclusive right to navigate the waters of New York state with steam-vessels, he constructed the “Clermont,” which, engined by Boulton & Watt of Birmingham, began to ply on the Hudson between New York and Albany in 1807. The privilege obtained by Livingston in 1798 was granted jointly to Fulton and Livingston in 1803, and by an act passed in 1808 the monopoly was secured to them and their associates for a period depending on the number of steamers constructed, but limited to a maximum of thirty years. In 1814-1815, on behalf of the United States government, he constructed the “Fulton,” a vessel of 38 tons with central paddle-wheels, which was the first steam warship. He died at New York on the 24th of February 1815. Among Fulton’s inventions were machines for spinning flax, for making ropes, and for sawing and polishing marble.

FULTON, a city and the county-seat of Callaway county, Missouri, U.S.A., 25 m. N.E. of Jefferson City. Pop. (1890) 4314; (1900) 4883 (1167 negroes); (1910) 5228. It is served by the Chicago & Alton railway. The city has an important stock market and manufactures fire-brick and pottery. At Fulton are the Westminster College (Presbyterian, founded in 1853), the Synodical College for Young Women (Pres., founded in 1871), the William Woods College for Girls (Christian Church, 1890), and the Missouri school for the deaf (1851). Here, too, is a state hospital for the insane (1847), the first institution of the kind in Missouri. The place was laid out as a town in 1825 and named Volney, but in honour of Robert Fulton the present name was adopted a little later. Fulton was incorporated in 1859.

FULTON, a city of Oswego county, New York, U.S.A., on the right bank of the Oswego river, about 10 m. S. by E. of Oswego. Pop. (1900) 5281; (1905, state census) 8847; (1910) 10,480. Fulton is served by the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western, the New York Central & Hudson River, and the New York, Ontario & Western railways, by electric railway to Oswego and Syracuse and by the Oswego Canal. The city has a Carnegie library. Ample water-power is furnished by the Oswego river, which here flows in a series of rapids, and the manufactures are many in kind. On the 3rd of July 1756, on an island (afterward called Battle Island) 4 m. N. of the present city of Fulton, a British force of about 300 under Captain John Bradstreet (1711-1774) defeated an attacking force of French and Indians (numbering about 700) under De Villiers. Soon after this, Bradstreet built a fort within the present limits of Fulton. The first civilian settler came in 1793, and the first survey (which included only a part of the subsequent village) was made in 1815. Fulton was incorporated as a village in 1835, and in April 1902 was combined with the village of Oswego Falls (pop. in 1900, 2925) and was chartered as a city.

FUM, or Funj Hwang, one of the four symbolical creatures which in Chinese mythology are believed to keep watch and ward over the Celestial Empire. It was begotten by fire, was born in the Hill of the Sun’s Halo, and its body bears inscribed on it the five cardinal virtues. It has the breast of a goose, the hindquarters of a stag, a snake’s neck, a fish’s tail, a fowl’s forehead, a duck’s down, the marks of a dragon, the back of a tortoise, the face of a swallow, the beak of a cock, is about six cubits high, and perches only on the woo-tung tree. The appearance of Fum heralds an age of universal virtue. Its figure is that which is embroidered on the dresses of some mandarins.

FUMARIC AND MALEIC ACIDS, two isomeric unsaturated acids of composition C4H4O4. Fumaric acid is found in fumitory (Fumaria officinalis), in various fungi (Agaricus piperatus, &c.), and in Iceland moss. It is obtained by heating malic acid alone to 150° C., or by heating it with hydrochloric acid (V. Dessaignes, Jahresb., 1856, p. 463) or with a large quantity of hydrobromic acids (A. Kekulé, Ann., 1864, 130, p. 21). It may also be obtained by boiling monobromsuccinic acid with water; by the action of dichloracetic acid and water on silver malonate (T. Komnenos, Ann., 1883, 218, p. 169); by the cyanide synthesis from acetylene di-iodide; and by heating maleic acid to 210° C. (Z. Skraup, Monats. f. Chemie, 1891, 12, p. 112). It crystallizes in small prisms or needles, and is practically insoluble in cold water. It sublimes to some extent at about 200° C., being partially converted into maleic anhydride and water, the reaction becoming practically quantitative if dehydrating agents be used. Reducing agents (zinc and caustic alkali, hydriodic acid, sodium amalgam, &c.) convert it into succinic acid. Bromine converts it into dibromsuccinic acid. Potassium permanganate oxidizes it to racemic acid (A. Kekulé and R. Anschutz, Ber., 1881, 14, p. 713). By long-continued heating with caustic soda at 100° C. it is converted into inactive malic acid.

Maleic acid is obtained by distilling malic or fumaric acids; by heating fumaric acid with acetyl chloride to 100° C; or by the hydrolysis of trichlorphenomalic acid (β-trichloraceto-acrylic acid) [A. Kekulé, Ann., 1884, 223, p. 185]. It crystallizes in monoclinic prisms, which are easily soluble in water, melt at 130° C., and boil at 160° C., decomposing into water and maleic anhydride. When heated with concentrated hydrobromic or hydriodic acids, it is converted into fumaric acid. It yields an anilide; oxidation converts it into mesotartaric acid. Maleic anhydride is obtained by distilling fumaric acid with phosphorus pentoxide. It forms triclinic crystals which melt at 60° C. and boil at 196° C.

Both acids are readily esterified by the action of alkyl halides on their silver salts, and the maleic ester is readily transformed into the fumaric ester by warming with iodine, the same result being obtained by esterification of maleic acid in alcoholic solution by means of hydrochloric acid. Both acids yield acetylene by the electrolysis of aqueous solutions of their alkali salts, and on reduction both yield succinic acid, whilst by the addition of hydrobromic acid they both yield monobromsuccinic acid (R. Fittig, Ann., 1877, 188, p. 98). From these results it follows that the two acids are structurally identical, and the isomerism has consequently to be explained on other grounds. This was accomplished by W. Wislicenus [”Über die räumliche Anordnung der Atome,” &c., Trans, of the Saxon Acad. of Sciences (Math. Phys. Section), 1887, p. 14] by an extension of the van’t Hoff hypothesis (see Stereo-Isomerism). The formulae of the acids are written thus:

These account for maleic acid readily yielding an anhydride, whereas fumaric acid does not, and for the behaviour of the acids towards bromine, fumaric acid yielding ordinary dibromsuccinic acid, and maleic acid the isomeric isodibromsuccinic acid.

FUMAROLE, a vent from which volcanic vapours issue, named indirectly from the Lat. fumariolum, a smoke-hole. 301 The vapours from fumaroles were studied first by R.W. Bunsen, on his visit to Iceland, and afterwards by H. Sainte-Claire Deville and other chemists and geologists in France, who examined the vapours from Santorin, Etna, &c. The hottest vapours issue from dry fumaroles, at temperatures of at least 500° C., and consist chiefly of anhydrous chlorides, notably sodium chloride. The acid fumaroles yield vapours of lower temperature (300° to 400°) containing much water vapour, with hydrogen chloride and sulphur dioxide. The alkaline fumaroles are still cooler, though above 100°, and evolve ammonium chloride with other vapours. Cold fumaroles, below 100°, discharge principally aqueous vapour, with carbon dioxide, and perhaps hydrogen sulphide. The fumaroles of Mont Pelé in Martinique during the eruption of 1902 were examined by A. Lacroix, and the vapours analysed by H. Moissan, who found that they consisted chiefly of water vapour, with hydrogen chloride, sulphur, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, methane, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and argon. These vapours issued at a temperature of about 400°. Armand Gautier has pointed out that these gases are practically of the same composition as those which he obtained on heating granite and certain other rocks. (See Volcano).

FUMIGATION (from Lat. fumigare, to smoke), the process of producing smoke or fumes, as by burning sulphur, frankincense, tobacco, &c., whether as a ceremony of incantation, or for perfuming a room, or for purposes of disinfection or destruction of vermin. In medicine the term has been used of the exposure of the body, or a portion of it, to fumes such as those of nitre, sal-ammoniac, mercury, &c.; fumigation, by the injection of tobacco smoke into the great bowel, was a recognized procedure in the 18th century for the resuscitation of the apparently drowned. “Fumigated” or “fumed” oak is oak which has been darkened by exposure to ammonia vapour.

FUMITORY, in botany, the popular name for the British species of Fumaria, a genus of small, branched, often climbing annual herbs with much-divided leaves and racemes of small flowers. The flowers are tubular with a spurred base, and in the British species are pink to purplish in colour. They are weeds of cultivation growing in fields and waste places. F. capreolata climbs by means of twisting petioles. In past times fumitory was in esteem for its reputed cholagogue and other medicinal properties; and in England, boiled in water, milk or whey, it was used as a cosmetic. The root of the allied species (Corydalis cava or tuberosa) is known as radix aristolochia, and has been used medicinally for various cutaneous and other disorders, in doses of 10 to 30 grains. Some eleven alkaloids have been isolated from it. The herbage of Fumaria officinalis and F. racemosa is used in China under the name of Tsze-hwa-ti-ting as an application for glandular swellings, carbuncles and abscesses, and was formerly valued in jaundice, and in cases of accidental swallowing of the beard of grain (see F. Porter Smith, Contrib. towards the Mat. Medica ... of China, p. 99, 1871). The name fumitory, Latin fumus terrae, has been supposed to be derived from the fact that its juice irritates the eyes like smoke (see Fuchs, De historia stirpium, p. 338, 1542); but The Grete Herball, cap. clxix., 1529, fol., following the De simplici medicina of Platearius, fo. xciii. (see in Nicolai Praepositi dispensatorium ad aromatarios, 1536), says: “It is called Fumus terre fume or smoke of the erthe bycause it is engendred of a cours fumosyte rysynge frome the erthe in grete quantyte lyke smoke: this grosse or cours fumosyte of the erthe wyndeth and wryeth out: and by workynge of the ayre and sonne it turneth into this herbe.”

FUNCHAL, the capital of the Portuguese archipelago of the Madeiras; on the south coast of Madeira, in 32° 37′ N. and 16° 54′ W. Pop. (1900) 20,850. Funchal is the see of a bishop, in the archiepiscopal province of Lisbon; it is also the administrative centre of the archipelago, and the residence of the governor and foreign consuls. The city has an attractive appearance from the sea. Its whitewashed houses, in their gardens full of tropical plants, are built along the curving shore of Funchal Bay, and on the lower slopes of an amphitheatre of mountains, which form a background 4000 ft. high. Numerous country houses (quintas), with terraced gardens, vineyards and sugar-cane plantations occupy the surrounding heights. Three mountain streams traverse the city through deep channels, which in summer are dry, owing to the diversion of the water for irrigation. A small fort, on an isolated rock off shore, guards the entrance to the bay, and a larger and more powerfully armed fort crowns an eminence inland. The chief buildings include the cathedral, Anglican and Presbyterian churches, hospitals, opera-house, museum and casino. There are small public gardens and a meteorological observatory. In the steep and narrow streets, which are lighted by electricity, wheeled traffic is impossible; sledges drawn by oxen, and other primitive conveyances are used instead (see Madeira). In winter the fine climate and scenery attract numerous invalids and other visitors, for whose accommodation there are good hotels; many foreigners engaged in the coal and wine trades also reside here permanently. The majority of these belong to the British community, which was first established here in the 18th century. Funchal is the headquarters of Madeiran industry and commerce (see Madeira). It has no docks and no facilities for landing passengers or goods; vessels are obliged to anchor in the roadstead, which, however, is sheltered from every wind except the south. Funchal is connected by cable with Carcavellos (for Lisbon), Porthcurnow (for Falmouth, England) and St Vincent in the Cape Verde Islands (for Pernambuco, Brazil).

FUNCTION,1 in mathematics, a variable number the value of which depends upon the values of one or more other variable numbers. The theory of functions is conveniently divided into (I.) Functions of Real Variables, wherein real, and only real, numbers are involved, and (II.) Functions of Complex Variables, wherein complex or imaginary numbers are involved.

I. Functions of Real Variables

1. Historical.—The word function, defined in the above sense, was introduced by Leibnitz in a short note of date 1694 concerning the construction of what we now call an “envelope” (Leibnizens mathematische Schriften, edited by C.I. Gerhardt, Bd. v. p. 306), and was there used to denote a variable length related in a defined way to a variable point of a curve. In 1698 James Bernoulli used the word in a special sense in connexion with some isoperimetric problems (Joh. Bernoulli, Opera, t. i. p. 255). He said that when it is a question of selecting from an infinite set of like curves that one which best fulfils some function, then of two curves whose intersection determines the thing sought one is always the “line of the function” (Linea functionis). In 1718 John Bernoulli (Opera, t. ii. p. 241) defined a “function of a variable magnitude” as a quantity made up in any way of this variable magnitude and constants; and in 1730 (Opera, t. iii. p. 174) he noted a distinction between “algebraic” and “transcendental” functions. By the latter he meant integrals of algebraic functions. The notation ƒ(x) for a function of a variable x was introduced by Leonhard Euler in 1734 (Comm. Acad. Petropol. t. vii. p. 186), in connexion with the theorem of the interchange of the order of differentiations. The notion of functionality or functional relation of two magnitudes was thus of geometrical origin; but a function soon came to be regarded as an analytical expression, not necessarily an algebraic expression, containing the variable or variables. Thus we may have rational integral algebraic functions such as ax² + bx + c, or rational algebraic functions which are not integral, such as

or irrational algebraic functions, such as √x, or, more generally the algebraic functions that are determined implicitly by an algebraic equation, as, for instance,

ƒn(x, y) + ƒn−1(x, y) + ... + ƒ0 = 0

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where ƒn(x, y), ... mean homogeneous expressions in x and y having constant coefficients, and having the degrees indicated by the suffixes, and ƒ0 is a constant. Or again we may have trigonometrical functions, such as sin x and tan x, or inverse trigonometrical functions, such as sin−1x, or exponential functions, such as ex and ax, or logarithmic functions, such as log x and log (1 + x). We may have these functional symbols combined in various ways, and thus there arises a great number of functions. Further we may have functions of more than one variable, as, for instance, the expression xy/(x² + y²), in which both x and y are regarded as variable. Such functions were introduced into analysis somewhat unsystematically as the need for them arose, and the later developments of analysis led to the introduction of other classes of functions.

2. Graphic Representation.—In the case of a function of one variable x, any value of x and the corresponding value y of the function can be the co-ordinates of a point in a plane. To any value of x there corresponds a point N on the axis of x, in accordance with the rule that x is the abscissa of N. The corresponding value of y determines a point P in accordance with the rule that x is the abscissa and y the ordinate of P. The ordinate y gives the value of the function which corresponds to that value of the variable x which is specified by N; and it may be described as “the value of the function at N.” Since there is a one-to-one correspondence of the points N and the numbers x, we may also describe the ordinate as “the value of the function at x.” In simple cases the aggregate of the points P which are determined by any particular function (of one variable) is a curve, called the “graph of the function” (see § 14). In like manner a function of two variables defines a surface.

3. The Variable.—Graphic methods of representation, such as those just described, enabled mathematicians to deal with irrational values of functions and variables at the time when there was no theory of irrational numbers other than Euclid’s theory of incommensurables. In that theory an irrational number was the ratio of two incommensurable geometric magnitudes. In the modern theory of number irrational numbers are defined in a purely arithmetical manner, independent of the measurement of any quantities or magnitudes, whether geometric or of any other kind. The definition is effected by means of the system of ordinal numbers (see Number). When this formal system is established, the theory of measurement may be founded upon it; and, in particular, the co-ordinates of a point are defined as numbers (not lengths), which are assigned in accordance with a rule. This rule involves the measurement of lengths. The theory of functions can be developed without any reference to graphs, or co-ordinates or lengths. The process by which analysis has been freed from any consideration of measurable quantities has been called the “arithmetization of analysis.” In the theory so developed, the variable upon which a function depends is always to be regarded as a number, and the corresponding value of the function is also a number. Any reference to points or co-ordinates is to be regarded as a picturesque mode of expression, pointing to a possible application of the theory to geometry. The development of “arithmetized analysis” in the 19th century is associated with the name of Karl Weierstrass.

All possible values of a variable are numbers. In what follows we shall confine our attention to the case where the numbers are real. When complex numbers are introduced, instead of real ones, the theory of functions receives a wide extension, which is accompanied by appropriate limitations (see below, II. Functions of Complex Variables). The set of all real numbers forms a continuum. In fact the notion of a one-dimensional continuum first becomes precise in virtue of the establishment of the system of real numbers.

4. Domain of a Variable.—Theory of Aggregates.—The notion of a “variable” is that of a number to which we may assign at pleasure any one of the values that belong to some chosen set, or aggregate, of numbers; and this set, or aggregate, is called the “domain of the variable.” This domain may be an “interval,” that is to say it may consist of two terminal numbers, all the numbers between them and no others. When this is the case the number is said to be “continuously variable.” When the domain consists of all real numbers, the variable is said to be “unrestricted.” A domain which consists of all the real numbers which exceed some fixed number may be described as an “interval unlimited towards the right”; similarly we may have an interval “unlimited towards the left.”

5. General Notion of Functionality.—A function of one variable was for a long time commonly regarded as the ordinate of a curve; and the two notions (1) that which is determined by a curve supposed drawn, and (2) that which is determined by an analytical expression supposed written down, were not for a long time clearly distinguished. It was for this reason that Fourier’s discovery that a single analytical expression is capable of representing (in different parts of an interval) what would in his time have been called different functions so profoundly struck mathematicians (§ 23). The analysts who, in the middle of the 19th century, occupied themselves with the theory of the convergence of Fourier’s series were led to impose a restriction on the character of a function in order that it should admit of such representation, and thus the door was opened for the introduction of the general notion of functional dependence. This notion may be expressed as follows: We have a variable number, y, and another variable number, x, a domain of the variable x, and a rule for assigning one or more definite values to y when x is any point in the domain; then y is said to be a “function” of the variable x, and x is called the “argument” of the function. According to this notion a function is, as it were, an indefinitely extended table, like a table of logarithms; to each point in the domain of the argument there correspond values for the function, but it remains arbitrary what values the function is to have at any such point.

6. Limits.—Let ƒ(x) be a function of a variable number x; and let a be a point such that there are points of the domain of the argument x in the neighbourhood of a for any number h, however small. If there is a number L which has the property that, after any positive number ε, however small, has been specified, it is possible to find a positive number h, so that |L − ƒ(x)| < ε for all points x of the domain (other than a) for which |x − a| < h, then L is the “limit of ƒ(x) at the point a.” The condition for the existence of L is that, after the positive number ε has been specified, it must be possible to find a positive number h, so that |ƒ(x′) − ƒ(x)| < ε for all points x and x′ of the domain (other than a) for which |x − a| < h and |x′ − a| < h.

It is a fundamental theorem that, when this condition is satisfied, there exists a perfectly definite number L which is the limit of ƒ(x) at the point a as defined above. The limit of ƒ(x) at the point a is denoted by Ltx=aƒ(x), or by limx=aƒ(x).

7. Superior and Inferior Limits; Infinities.—The value of a function at every point in the domain of its argument is finite, since, by definition, the value can be assigned, but this does not necessarily imply that there is a number N which exceeds all the values (or is less than all the values). It may happen that, however great a number N we take, there are among the values of the function numbers which exceed N (or are less than −N).

If a number can be found which is greater than every value of the function, then either (α) there is one value of the function which exceeds all the others, or (β) there is a number S which exceeds every value of the function but is such that, however small a positive number ε we take, there are values of the function which exceed S − ε. In the case (α) the function has a greatest value; in case (β) the function has a “superior limit” S, and then there must be a point a which has the property that there are points of the domain of the argument, in the neighbourhood of a for any h, at which the values of the function differ from S by less than ε. Thus S is the limit of the function at a, either for the domain of the argument or for some more restricted domain. If a is in the domain of the argument, and if, after omission of a, there is a superior limit S which is in this way the limit of the function at a, if further ƒ(a) = S, then S is the greatest value of the function: in this case the greatest value is a limit (at any rate for a restricted domain) which is attained; it may be called a “superior limit which is attained.” In like manner we may have a “smallest value” or an “inferior limit,” and a smallest value may be an “inferior limit which is attained.”

8. Increasing and Decreasing Functions.—A function ƒ(x) of one variable x, defined in the interval between a and b, is “increasing throughout the interval” if, whenever x and x′ are two numbers in the interval and x′ > x, then ƒ(x′) > ƒ(x); the function “never decreases throughout the interval” if, x′ and x being as before, ƒ(x′) > ƒ(x). Similarly for decreasing functions, and for functions which never increase throughout an interval. A function which either never increases or never diminishes throughout an interval is said to be “monotonous throughout” the interval. If we take in the above definition b > a, the definition may apply to a function under the restriction that x′ is not b and x is not a; such a function is “monotonous within” the interval. In this case we have the theorem that the function (if it never decreases) has a limit on the left at b and a limit on the right at a, and these are the superior and inferior limits of its values at all points within the interval (the ends excluded); the like holds mutatis mutandis if the function never increases. If the function is monotonous throughout the interval, ƒ(b) is the greatest (or least) value of ƒ(x) in the interval; and if ƒ(b) is the limit of ƒ(x) on the left at b, such a greatest (or least) value is an example of a superior (or inferior) limit which is attained. In these cases the function tends continually to its limit.

9. Continuity of Functions.—A function ƒ(x) of one variable x is said to be continuous at a point a if (1) ƒ(x) is defined in an interval containing a; (2) ƒ(x) has a limit at a; (3) ƒ(a) is equal to this limit. The limit in question must be a limit for continuous variation, not for a restricted domain. If ƒ(x) has a limit on the left at a and ƒ(a) is equal to this limit, the function may be said to be “continuous to the left” at a; similarly the function may be “continuous to the right” at a.

A function is said to be “continuous throughout an interval” when it is continuous at every point of the interval. This implies continuity to the right at the smaller end-value and continuity to the left at the greater end-value. When these conditions at the ends are not satisfied the function is said to be continuous “within” the interval. By a “continuous function” of one variable we always mean a function which is continuous throughout an interval.

10. Discontinuity of Functions.—The discontinuities of a function of one variable, defined in an interval with the possible exception of isolated points, may be classified as follows:

(1) The function may become infinite, or tend to become infinite, at a point.

(2) The function may be undefined at a point.

(3) The function may have a limit on the left and a limit on the right at the same point; these may be different from each other, and at least one of them must be different from the value of the function at the point.

(4) The function may have no limit at a point, or no limit on the left, or no limit on the right, at a point.

11. Oscillation of Functions.—The difference between the greatest and least of the numbers ƒ(a), ƒ(a + 0), ƒ(a + 0), ƒ(a − 0), ƒ(a − 0), when they are all finite, is called the “oscillation” or “fluctuation” of the function ƒ(x) at the point a. This difference is the limit for h = 0 of the difference between the superior and inferior limits of the values of the function at points in the interval between a − h and a + h. The corresponding difference for points in a finite interval is called the “oscillation of the function in the interval.” When any of the four limits of indefiniteness is infinite the oscillation is infinite in the sense explained in § 7.

12. Differentiable Function.—The idea of the differentiation of a continuous function is that of a process for measuring the rate of growth; the increment of the function is compared with the increment of the variable. If ƒ(x) is defined in an interval containing the point a, and a − k and a + k are points of the interval, the expression

represents a function of h, which we may call φ(h), defined at all points of an interval for h between −k and k except the point 0. Thus the four limits φ(+0), φ(+0), φ(−0), φ(−0) exist, and two or more of them may be equal. When the first two are equal either of them is the “progressive differential coefficient” of ƒ(x) at the point a; when the last two are equal either of them is the “regressive differential coefficient” of ƒ(x) at a; when all four are equal the function is said to be “differentiable” at a, and either of them is the “differential coefficient” of ƒ(x) at a, or the “first derived function” of ƒ(x) at a. It is denoted by dƒ(x) / dx or by ƒ′(x). In this case φ(h) has a definite limit at h = 0, or is determinately infinite at h = 0 (§ 7). The four limits here in question are called, after Dini, the “four derivates” of ƒ(x) at a. In accordance with the notation for derived functions they may be denoted by

ƒ′ + (a), ƒ′ + (a), ƒ′ − (a), ƒ′ − (a).

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13. Analytic Function.—If ƒ(x) and its first n differential coefficients, denoted byƒ′(x), ƒ″(x), ... ƒ(n) (x), are continuous in the interval between a and a + h, then

where Rn may have various forms, some of which are given in the article Infinitesimal Calculus. This result is known as “Taylor’s theorem.”

When Taylor's theorem leads to a representation of the function by means of an infinite series, the function is said to be “analytic” (cf. § 21).

14. Ordinary Function.—The idea of a curve representing a continuous function in an interval is that of a line which has the following properties: (1) the co-ordinates of a point of the curve are a value x of the argument and the corresponding value y of the function; (2) at every point the curve has a definite tangent; (3) the interval can be divided into a finite number of partial intervals within each of which the function is monotonous; (4) the property of monotony within partial intervals is retained after interchange of the axes of co-ordinates x and y. According to condition (2) y is a continuous and differentiable function of x, but this condition does not include conditions (3) and (4): there are continuous partially monotonous functions which are not differentiable, there are continuous differentiable functions which are not monotonous in any interval however small; and there are continuous, differentiable and monotonous functions which do not satisfy condition (4) (cf. § 24). A function which can be represented by a curve, in the sense explained above, is said to be “ordinary,” and the curve is the graph of the function (§2). All analytic functions are ordinary, but not all ordinary functions are analytic.

15. Integrable Function.—The idea of integration is twofold. We may seek the function which has a given function as its differential coefficient, or we may generalize the question of finding the area of a curve. The first inquiry leads directly to the indefinite integral, the second directly to the definite integral. Following the second method we define “the definite integral of the function ƒ(x) through the interval between a and b” to be the limit of the sum

Σn1 ƒ(x′r) (xr − xr−1)

when the interval is divided into ultimately indefinitely small partial intervals by points x1, x2, ... xn−1. Here x′r denotes any point in the rth partial interval, x0 is put for a, and xn for b. It can be shown that the limit in question is finite and independent of the mode of division into partial intervals, and of the choice of the points such as x′r, provided (1) the function is defined for all points of the interval, and does not tend to become infinite at any of them; (2) for any one mode of division of the interval into ultimately indefinitely small partial intervals, the sum of the products of the oscillation of the function in each partial interval and the difference of the end-values of that partial interval has limit zero when n is increased indefinitely. When these conditions are satisfied the function is said to be “integrable” in the interval. The numbers a and b which limit the interval are usually called the “lower and upper limits.” We shall call them the “nearer and further end-values.” The above definition of integration was introduced by Riemann in his memoir on trigonometric series (1854). A still more general definition has been given by Lebesgue. As the more general definition cannot be made intelligible without the introduction of some rather recondite notions belonging to the theory of aggregates, we shall, in what follows, adhere to Riemann’s definition.

16. Improper Definite Integrals.—We may extend the idea of integration to cases of functions which are not defined at some point, or which tend to become infinite in the neighbourhood of some point, and to cases where the domain of the argument extends to infinite values. If c is a point in the interval between a and b at which ƒ(x) is not defined, we impose a restriction on the points x′r of the definition: none of them is to be the point c. This comes to the same thing as defining ∫ ba ƒ(x)dx to be

Lt ε=0∫ c−εa ƒ(x)dx + Lt ε′=0∫ bc+ε′ ƒ(x)dx,

where, to fix ideas, b is taken > a, and ε and ε′ are positive. The same definition applies to the case where ƒ(x) becomes infinite, or tends to become infinite, at c, provided both the limits exist. This definition may be otherwise expressed by saying that a partial interval containing the point c is omitted from the interval of integration, and a limit taken by diminishing the breadth of this partial interval indefinitely; in this form it applies to the cases where c is a or b.

Again, when the interval of integration is unlimited to the right, or extends to positively infinite values, we have as a definition

∫ ∞a ƒ(x)dx = Lt h=∞∫ ha ƒ(x)dx,

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provided this limit exists. Similar definitions apply to

∫ −∞a ƒ(x)dx, and to ∫ ∞−∞ ƒ(x)dx.

All such definite integrals as the above are said to be “improper.” For example, ∫ ∞0 sin x / x dx is improper in two ways. It means

Lt h=∞ Lt ε=0 ∫ hε sinx/x dx,

in which the positive number ε is first diminished indefinitely, and the positive number h is afterwards increased indefinitely.

The “theorems of the mean” (§ 15) require modification when the integrals are improper (see Fourier’s Series).

When the improper definite integral of a function which becomes, or tends to become, infinite, exists, the integral is said to be “convergent.” If ƒ(x) tends to become infinite at a point c in the interval between a and b, and the expression (1) does not exist, then the expression ∫ ba ƒ(x)dx, which has no value, is called a “divergent integral, “and it may happen that there is a definite value for

Lt { ∫ c−εa ƒ(x) dx + ∫ bc+ε′ ƒ(x) dx }

provided that ε and ε′ are connected by some definite relation, and both, remaining positive, tend to limit zero. The value of the above limit is then called a “principal value” of the divergent integral. Cauchy’s principal value is obtained by making ε′ = ε, i.e. by taking the omitted interval so that the infinity is at its middle point. A divergent integral which has one or more principal values is sometimes described as “semi-convergent.”

17. Domain of a Set of Variables.—The numerical continuum of n dimensions (Cn) is the aggregate that is arrived at by attributing simultaneous values to each of n variables x1, x2, ... xn, these values being any real numbers. The elements of such an aggregate are called “points,” and the numbers x1, x2 ... xn the “co-ordinates” of a point. Denoting in general the points (x1, x2, ... xn) and (x′1, x′2 ... x′n) by x and x′, the sum of the differences |x1 − x′1| + |x2 − x′2| + ... + |xn − x′n| may be denoted by |x − x′| and called the “difference of the two points.” We can in various ways choose out of the continuum an aggregate of points, which may be an infinite aggregate, and any such aggregate can be the “domain” of a “variable point.” The domain is said to “extend to an infinite distance” if, after any number N, however great, has been specified, it is possible to find in the domain points of which one or more co-ordinates exceed N in absolute value. The “neighbourhood” of a point a for a (positive) number h is the aggregate constituted of all the points x, which are such that the “difference” denoted by |x − a| < h. If an infinite aggregate of points does not extend to an infinite distance, there must be at least one point a, which has the property that the points of the aggregate which are in the neighbourhood of a for any number h, however small, themselves constitute an infinite aggregate, and then the point a is called a “limiting point” of the aggregate; it may or may not be a point of the aggregate. An aggregate of points is “perfect” when all its points are limiting points of it, and all its limiting points are points of it; it is “connected” when, after taking any two points a, b of it, and choosing any positive number ε, however small, a number m and points x′, x″, ... x(m) of the aggregate can be found so that all the differences denoted by |x′ − a|, |x″ − x′|, ... |b − x(m)| are less than ε. A perfect connected aggregate is a continuum. This is G. Cantor’s definition.

18. Functions of Several Variables.—A function of several variables differs from a function of one variable in that the argument of the function consists of a set of variables, or is a variable point in a Cn when there are n variables. The function is definable by means of the domain of the argument and the rule of calculation. In the most important cases the domain of the argument is a homogeneous part Hn of Cn with the possible exception of isolated points, and the rule of calculation is that the value of the function in any assigned part of the domain of the argument is that value which is assumed at the point by an assigned analytical expression. The limit of a function at a point a is defined in the same way as in the case of a function of one variable.

19. Differentiation and Integration.—The definition of partial differentiation of a function of several variables presents no difficulty. The most important theorems concerning differentiable functions are the “theorem of the total differential,” the theorem of the interchangeability of the order of partial differentiations, and the extension of Taylor’s theorem (see Infinitesimal Calculus).

With a view to the establishment of the notion of integration through a domain, we must define the “extent” of the domain. Take first a domain consisting of the point a and all the points x for which |x − a| < ½h, where h is a chosen positive number; the extent of this domain is hn, n being the number of variables; such a domain may be described as “square,” and the number h may be called its “breadth”; it is a homogeneous part of the 307 numerical continuum of n dimensions, and its boundary consists of all the points for which |x − a| = ½h. Now the points of any domain, which does not extend to an infinite distance, may be assigned to a finite number m of square domains of finite breadths, so that every point of the domain is either within one of these square domains or on its boundary, and so that no point is within two of the square domains; also we may devise a rule by which, as the number m increases indefinitely, the breadths of all the square domains are diminished indefinitely. When this process is applied to a homogeneous part, H, of the numerical continuum Cn, then, at any stage of the process, there will be some square domains of which all the points belong to H, and there will generally be others of which some, but not all, of the points belong to H. As the number m is increased indefinitely the sums of the extents of both these categories of square domains will tend to definite limits, which cannot be negative; when the second of these limits is zero the domain H is said to be “measurable,” and the first of these limits is its “extent”; it is independent of the rule adopted for constructing the square domains and contracting their breadths. The notion thus introduced may be adapted by suitable modifications to continua of lower dimensions in Cn.

20. Representation of Functions in General.—We have seen that the notion of a function is wider than the notion of an analytical expression, and that the same function may be “represented” by one expression in one part of the domain of the argument and by some other expression in another part of the domain (§ 5). Thus there arises the general problem of the representation of functions. The function may be given by specifying the domain of the argument and the rule of calculation, or else the function may have to be determined in accordance with certain conditions; for example, it may have to satisfy in a prescribed domain an assigned differential equation. In either case the problem is to determine, when possible, a single analytical expression which shall have the same value as the function at all points in the domain of the argument. For the representation of most functions for which the problem can be solved recourse must be had to limiting processes. Thus we may utilize infinite series, or infinite products, or definite integrals; or again we may represent a function of one variable as the limit of an expression containing two variables in a domain in which one variable remains constant and another varies. An example of this process is afforded by the expression Lty = ∞xy / (x²y + 1), which represents a function of x vanishing at x = 0 and at all other values of x having the value of 1/x. The method of series falls under this more general process (cf. § 6). When the terms u1, u2, ... of a series are functions of a variable x, the sum sn of the first n terms of the series is a function of x and n; and, when the series is convergent, its sum, which is Ltn = ∞ sn, can represent a function of x. In most cases the series converges for some values of x and not for others, and the values for which it converges form the “domain of convergence.” The sum of the series represents a function in this domain.

21. Power Series.—Taylor’s theorem leads in certain cases to a representation of a function by an infinite series. We have under certain conditions (§ 13)

and this becomes

provided that (α) a positive number k can be found so that at all points in the interval between a and a + k (except these points) ƒ(x) has continuous differential coefficients of all finite orders, and at a has progressive differential coefficients of all finite orders; (β) Cauchy’s form of the remainder Rn, viz. [(x − a) / (n − 1)!] (1 − θ)n−1 ƒn {a + θ(x − a)}, has the limit zero when n increases indefinitely, for all values of θ between 0 and 1, and for all values of x in the interval between a and a + k, except possibly a + k. When these conditions are satisfied, the series (1) represents the function at all points of the interval between a and a + k, except possibly a + k, and the function is “analytic” (§ 13) in this domain. Obvious modifications admit of extension to an interval between a and a − k, or between a − k and a + k. When a series of the form (1) represents a function it is called “the Taylor’s series for the function.”

Taylor’s series is a power series, i.e. a series of the form

Σ∞n=0 an (x − a)n.

22. Uniform Convergence.—We shall suppose that the domain of convergence of an infinite series of functions is an interval with the possible exception of isolated points. Let ƒ(x) be the sum of the series at any point x of the domain, and ƒn(x) the sum of the first n + 1 terms. The condition of convergence at a point a is that, after any positive number ε, however small, has been specified, it must be possible to find a number n so that |ƒm(a) − ƒp(a)| < ε for all values of m and p which exceed n. The sum, ƒ(a), is the limit of the sequence of numbers ƒn(a) at 308 n = ∞. The convergence is said to be “uniform” in an interval if, after specification of ε, the same number n suffices at all points of the interval to make |ƒ(x) − ƒm(x)| < ε for all values of m which exceed n. The numbers n corresponding to any ε, however small, are all finite, but, when ε is less than some fixed finite number, they may have an infinite superior limit (§ 7); when this is the case there must be at least one point, a, of the interval which has the property that, whatever number N we take, ε can be taken so small that, at some point in the neighbourhood of a, n must be taken > N to make |ƒ(x) − fm(x)| < ε when m > n; then the series does not converge uniformly in the neighbourhood of a. The distinction may be otherwise expressed thus: Choose a first and ε afterwards, then the number n is finite; choose ε first and allow a to vary, then the number n becomes a function of a, which may tend to become infinite, or may remain below a fixed number; if such a fixed number exists, however small ε may be, the convergence is uniform.

As regards series whose terms represent continuous functions we have the following theorems:

(1) If the series converges uniformly in an interval it represents a function which is continuous throughout the interval.

(2) If the series represents a function which is discontinuous in an interval it cannot converge uniformly in the interval.

(3) A series which does not converge uniformly in an interval may nevertheless represent a function which is continuous throughout the interval.

(4) A power series converges uniformly in any interval contained within its domain of convergence, the end-points being excluded.

(5) If Σ∞r=0 ƒr(x) = ƒ(x) converges uniformly in the interval between a and b

∫ ba ƒ(x)dx = Σbr=0 ∫ ba ƒr(x)dx,

or a series which converges uniformly may be integrated term by term.

(6) If Σ∞r=0 ƒ′r(x) converges uniformly in an interval, then Σ∞r=0 ƒr(x) converges in the interval, and represents a continuous differentiable function, φ(x); in fact we have

φ′(x) = Σ∞r=0 ƒ′r(x),

or a series can be differentiated term by term if the series of derived functions converges uniformly.

A series whose terms represent functions which are not continuous throughout an interval may converge uniformly in the interval. If Σ∞r=0 ƒr(x) = ƒ(x), is such a series, and if all the functions ƒr(x) have limits at a, then ƒ(x) has a limit at a, which is Σ∞r=0 Lt x=a ƒr(x). A similar theorem holds for limits on the left or on the right.

23. Fourier’s Series.—An extensive class of functions admit of being represented by series of the form

and the rule for determining the coefficients an, bn of such a series, in order that it may represent a given function ƒ(x) in the interval between −c and c, was given by Fourier, viz. we have

The interval between −c and c may be called the “periodic interval,” and we may replace it by any other interval, e.g. that between 0 and 1, without any restriction of generality. When this is done the sum of the series takes the form

Lt n=∞ ∫ 10 Σr = nr = −n ƒ(z) cos {2rπ(z − x)}dz,

and this is

Fourier’s theorem is that, if the periodic interval can be divided into a finite number of partial intervals within each of which the function is ordinary (§ 14), the series represents the function within each of those partial intervals. In Fourier’s time a function of this character was regarded as completely arbitrary.

24. Representation of Continuous Functions by Series.—If the series for ƒ(x) formed by Fourier’s rule converges at the point a of the periodic interval, and if ƒ(x) is continuous at a, the sum of the series is ƒ(a); but it has been proved by P. du Bois Reymond that the function may be continuous at a, and yet the series formed by Fourier’s rule may be divergent at a. Thus some continuous functions do not admit of representation by Fourier’s series. All continuous functions, however, admit of being represented with arbitrarily close approximation in either of two forms, which may be described as “terminated Fourier’s series” and “terminated power series,” according to the two following theorems:

(1) If ƒ(x) is continuous throughout the interval between 0 and 2π, and if any positive number ε however small is specified, it is possible to find an integer n, so that the difference between the value of ƒ(x) and the sum of the first n terms of the series for ƒ(x), formed by Fourier’s rule with periodic interval from 0 to 2π, shall be less than ε at all points of the interval. This result can be extended to a function which is continuous in any given interval.

(2) If ƒ(x) is continuous throughout an interval, and any positive number ε however small is specified, it is possible to find an integer n and a polynomial in x of the nth degree, so that the difference between the value of ƒ(x) and the value of the polynomial shall be less than ε at all points of the interval.

Again it can be proved that, if ƒ(x) is continuous throughout a given interval, polynomials in x of finite degrees can be found, so as to form an infinite series of polynomials whose sum is equal to ƒ(x) at all points of the interval. Methods of representation of continuous functions by infinite series of rational fractional functions have also been devised.

25. Calculations with Divergent Series.—When the series described in (1) and (2) of § 24 diverge, they may, nevertheless, be used for the approximate numerical calculation of the values of the function, provided the calculation is not carried beyond a certain number of terms. Expansions in series which have the property of representing a function approximately when the expansion is not carried too far are called “asymptotic expansions.” Sometimes they are called “semi-convergent series”; but this term is avoided in the best modern usage, because it is often used to describe series whose convergence depends upon the order of the terms, such as the series 1 − ½ + 1⁄3 − ...

26. Interchange of the Order of Limiting Operations.—When we require to perform any limiting operation upon a function which is itself represented by the result of a limiting process, the question of the possibility of interchanging the order of the two processes always arises. In the more elementary problems of analysis it generally happens that such an interchange is possible; but in general it is not possible. In other words, the performance of the two processes in different orders may lead to two different results; or the performance of them in one of the two orders may lead to no result. The fact that the interchange is possible under suitable restrictions for a particular class of operations is a theorem to be proved.

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II—Functions of Complex Variables

In the preceding section the doctrine of functionality is discussed with respect to real quantities; in this section the theory when complex or imaginary quantities are involved receives treatment. The following abstract explains the arrangement of the subject matter: (§ 1), Complex numbers, states what a complex number is; (§ 2), Plotting of simple expressions involving complex numbers, illustrates the meaning in some simple cases, introducing the notion of conformal representation and proving that an algebraic equation has complex, if not real, roots; (§ 3), Limiting operations, defines certain simple functions of a complex variable which are obtained by passing to a limit, in particular the exponential function, and the generalized logarithm, here denoted by λ(z); (§ 4), Functions of a complex variable in general, after explaining briefly what is to be understood by a region of the complex plane and by a path, and expounding a logical principle of some importance, gives the accepted definition of a function of a complex variable, establishes the existence of a complex integral, and proves Cauchy’s theorem relating thereto; (§ 5), Applications, considers the differentiation and integration of series of functions of a complex variable, proves Laurent’s theorem, and establishes the expansion of a function of a complex variable as a power series, leading, in (§ 6), Singular points, to a definition of the region of existence and singular points of a function of a complex variable, and thence, in (§ 7), Monogenic Functions, to what the writer believes to be the simplest definition of a function of a complex variable, that of Weierstrass; (§ 8), Some elementary properties of single valued functions, first discusses the meaning of a pole, proves that a single valued function with only poles is rational, gives Mittag-Leffler’s theorem, and Weierstrass’s theorem for the primary factors of an integral function, stating generalized forms for these, leading to the theorem of (§ 9), The construction of a monogenic function with a given region of existence, with which is connected (§10), Expression of a monogenic function by rational functions in a given region, of which the method is applied in (§ 11), Expression of (1 − z)−1 by polynomials, to a definite example, used here to obtain (§ 12), An expansion of an arbitrary function by means of a series of polynomials, over a star region, also obtained in the original manner of Mittag-Leffler; (§ 13), Application of Cauchy’s theorem to the determination of definite integrals, gives two examples of this method; (§ 14), Doubly Periodic Functions, is introduced at this stage as furnishing an excellent example of the preceding principles. The reader who wishes to approach the matter from the point of view of Integral Calculus should first consult the section (§ 20) below, dealing with Elliptic Integrals; (§ 15), Potential Functions, Conformal representation in general, gives a sketch of the connexion of the theory of potential functions with the theory of conformal representation, enunciating the Schwarz-Christoffel theorem for the representation of a polygon, with the application to the case of an equilateral triangle; (§ 16), Multiple-valued Functions, Algebraic Functions, deals for the most part with algebraic functions, proving the residue theorem, and establishing that an algebraic function has a definite Order; (§ 17), Integrals of Algebraic Functions, enunciating Abel’s theorem; (§ 18), Indeterminateness of Algebraic Integrals, deals with the periods associated with an algebraic integral, establishing that for an elliptic integral the number of these is two; (§ 19), Reversion of an algebraic integral, mentions a problem considered below in detail for an elliptic integral; (§ 20), Elliptic Integrals, considers the algebraic reduction of any elliptic integral to one of three standard forms, and proves that the function obtained by reversion is single-valued; (§ 21), Modular Functions, gives a statement of some of the more elementary properties of some functions of great importance, with a definition of Automorphic Functions, and a hint of the connexion with the theory of linear differential equations; (§ 22), A property of integral functions, deduced from the theory of modular functions, proves that there cannot be more than one value not assumed by an integral function, and gives the basis of the well-known expression of the modulus of the elliptic functions in terms of the ratio of the periods; (§ 23), Geometrical applications of Elliptic Functions, shows that any plane curve of deficiency unity can be expressed by elliptic functions, and gives a geometrical proof of the addition theorem for the function ℜ(u); (§ 24), Integrals of Algebraic Functions in connexion with the theory of plane curves, discusses the generalization to curves of any deficiency; (§ 25), Monogenic Functions of several independent variables, describes briefly the beginnings of this theory, with a mention of some fundamental theorems: (§ 26), Multiply-Periodic Functions and the Theory of Surfaces, attempts to show the nature of some problems now being actively pursued.

Beside the brevity necessarily attaching to the account here given of advanced parts of the subject, some of the more elementary results are stated only, without proof, as, for instance: the monogeneity of an algebraic function, no reference being made, moreover, to the cases of differential equations whose integrals are monogenic; that a function possessing an algebraic addition theorem is necessarily an elliptic function (or a particular case of such); that any area can be conformally represented on a half plane, a theorem requiring further much more detailed consideration of the meaning of area than we have given; while the character and properties, including the connectivity, of a Riemann surface have not been referred to. The theta functions are referred to only once, and the principles of the theory of Abelian Functions have been illustrated only by the developments given for elliptic functions.

§ 1. Complex Numbers.—Complex numbers are numbers of the form x + iy, where x, y are ordinary real numbers, and i is a symbol imagined capable of combination with itself and the ordinary real numbers, by way of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, according to the ordinary commutative, associative and distributive laws; the symbol i is further such that i² = −1.

§ 2. Plotting and Properties of Simple Expressions involving a Complex Number.—If we put ζ = (z-i)/(z + i), and, putting ζ = ξ + iη, take a new plane upon which ξ, η are rectangular co-ordinates, the equations ξ= (x² + y²− 1)/[x² + (y + 1)²], η = −2xy/[x² + (y + i)²] will determine, corresponding to any point of the first plane, a point of the second plane. There is the one exception of z = −i, that is, x = 0, y = −1, of which the corresponding point is at infinity. It can now be easily proved that as z describes the real axis in its plane the point ζ describes once a circle of radius unity, with centre at ζ = 0, and that there is a definite correspondence of point to point between points in the z-plane which are above the real axis and points of the ζ-plane which are interior to this circle; in particular z = i corresponds to ζ = 0.

§ 3. Limiting Operations.—In order that a complex number ζ = ξ + iη may have a limit it is necessary and sufficient that each of ξ and η has a limit. Thus an infinite series w0 + w1 + w2 + ..., whose terms are complex numbers, is convergent if the real series formed by taking the real parts of its terms and that formed by the imaginary terms are both convergent. The series is also convergent if the real series formed by the moduli of its terms is convergent; in that case the series is said to be absolutely convergent, and it can be shown that its sum is unaltered by taking the terms in any other order. Generally the necessary and sufficient condition of convergence is that, for a given real positive ε, a number m exists such that for every n > m, and every positive p, the batch of terms wn + wn+1 + ... + wn+p is less than ε in absolute value. If the terms depend upon a complex variable z, the convergence is called uniform for a range of values of z, when the inequality holds, for the same ε and m, for all the points z of this range.

§4. Of Functions of a Complex Variable in General.—We have in what precedes shown how to generalize the ordinary rational, algebraic and logarithmic functions, and considered more general cases, of functions expressible by power series in z. With the suggestions furnished by these cases we can frame a general definition. So far our use of the plane upon which z is represented has been only illustrative, the results being capable of analytical statement. In what follows this representation is vital to the mode of expression we adopt; as then the properties of numbers cannot be ultimately based upon spatial intuitions, it is necessary to indicate what are the geometrical ideas requiring elucidation.

§ 5. Applications.—The previous results have manifold applications.

§ 6. Singular Points.—The region of existence of a differentiable function of z is an unclosed aggregate of points, each of which is an interior point of a neighbourhood consisting wholly of points of the aggregate, at every point of which the function is definite and finite and possesses a unique finite differential coefficient. Every point of the plane, not belonging to the aggregate, which is a limiting point of points of the aggregate, such, that is, that points of the aggregate lie in every neighbourhood of this, is called a singular point of the function.

§ 7. Monogenic Functions.—This suggests an entirely different way of formulating the fundamental parts of the theory of functions of a complex variable, which appears to be preferable to that so far followed here.

§ 8. Some Elementary Properties of Single Valued Functions.—A pole is a singular point of the function ƒ(z) which is not a singularity of the function 1/ƒ(z); this latter function is therefore, by the definition, capable of representation about this point, z0, by a series [ƒ(z)]−1 = Σan(z − z0)n. If herein a0 is not zero we can hence derive a representation for ƒ(z) as a power series about z0, contrary to the hypothesis that z0 is a singular point for this function. Hence a0 = 0; suppose also a1 = 0, a2 = 0, ... am−1 = 0, but am ± 0. Then [ƒ(z)]−1 = (z − z0)m[am + am+1 (z − z0) + ...], and hence (z − z0)mƒ(z) = am−1 + Σbn (z − z0)n, namely, the expression of ƒ(z) about z = z0 contains a finite number of negative powers of z − z0 and a (finite or) infinite number of positive powers. Thus a pole is always an isolated singularity.

A single valued function is said to be an integral function when it has no singular points except z = ∞. Such is, for instance, an integral polynomial, which has z = ∞ for a pole, and the functions exp (z) which has z = ∞ as an essential singularity. A function which has no singular points for finite values of z other than poles is called a meromorphic function. If it also have a pole at z = ∞ it is a rational function; for then, if a1, ... as be its finite poles, of orders m1; m2, ... ms, the product (z − a1)m1 ... (z − as) msƒ(z) is an integral function with a pole at infinity, capable therefore, for large values of z, of an expression (z−1)−m Σ r=0 ar(z−1)r; thus (z − a1)m1 ... (z − as)msƒ(z) is capable of a form Σ r=0 brzr, but z−m Σ r=0 brzr remains finite for z = ∞. Therefore br+1 = br+2 = ... = 0, andƒ(z) is a rational function.

The two theorems given above, the one, known as Mittag-Leffler’s theorem, relating to the expression as a sum of simpler functions of a function whose singular points have the point z = ∞ as their only limiting point, the other, Weierstrass’s factor theorem, giving the expression of an integral function as a product of factors each with only one zero in the finite part of the plane, may be respectively generalized as follows:—

§ 9. Construction of a Monogenic Function with a given Region of Existence.—A series of isolated points interior to a given region can be constructed in infinitely many ways whose limiting points are the boundary points of the region, or are boundary points of the region of such denseness that one of them is found in the neighbourhood of every point of the boundary, however small. Then the application of the last enunciated theorem gives rise to a function having no singularities in the interior of the region, but having a singularity in a boundary point in every small neighbourhood of every boundary point; this function has the given region as region of existence.

§ 10. Expression of a Monogenic Function by means of Rational Functions in a given Region.—Suppose that we have a region R0 of the plane, as previously explained, for all the interior or boundary points of which z is finite, and let its boundary points, consisting of one or more closed polygonal paths, no two of which have a point in common, be called C0. Further suppose that all the points of this region, including the boundary points, are interior points of another region R, whose boundary is denoted by C. Let z be restricted to be within or upon the boundary of C0; let a, b, ... be finite points upon C or outside R. Then when b is near enough to a, the fraction (a − b)/(z − b) is arbitrarily small for all positions of z; say

the rational function of the complex variable t,

in which n is a positive integer, is not infinite at t = a, but has a pole at t = b. By taking n large enough, the value of this function, for all positions z of t belonging to R0, differs as little as may be desired from (t − a)−1. By taking a sum of terms such as

we can thus build a rational function differing, in value, in R0, as little as may be desired from a given rational function

ƒ = Σ Ap(t − a)−p,

and differing, outside R or upon the boundary of R, from ƒ, in the fact that while ƒ is infinite at t = a, F is infinite only at t = b. By a succession of steps of this kind we thus have the theorem that, given a rational function of t whose poles are outside R or upon the boundary of R, and an arbitrary point c outside R or upon the boundary of R, which can be reached by a finite continuous path outside R from all the poles of the rational function, we can build another rational function differing in R0 arbitrarily little from the former, whose poles are all at the point c.

§ 11. Expression of (1 − z)−1 by means of Polynomials. Applications.—We pursue the ideas just cursorily explained in some further detail.

§ 13. Application of Cauchy’s Theorem to the Determination of Definite Integrals.—Some reference must be made to a method whereby real definite integrals may frequently be evaluated by use of the theorem of the vanishing of the integral of a function of a complex variable round a contour within which the function is single valued and non singular.

§ 14. Doubly Periodic Functions.—An excellent illustration of the preceding principles is furnished by the theory of single valued functions having in the finite part of the plane no singularities but poles, which have two periods.

We pass now to the construction of a function having two arbitrary periods ω, ω′ of unreal ratio, which has a single pole of the second order in any one of its parallelograms.

It can be shown that any single valued meromorphic function of z with ω and ω′ as periods can be expressed rationally in terms of ƒ(z) and φ(z), and that [φ(z)]2 is of the form 4[ƒ(z)]3 + Aƒ(z) + B, where A, B are constants.

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To prove that any doubly periodic function F(z) with periods ω, ω′, having poles at the points z = a1, ... z = am of a parallelogram, these being, for simplicity of explanation, supposed to be all of the first order, is rationally expressible in terms of φ(z) and ƒ(z), and we proceed as follows:—

§ 15. Potential Functions. Conformal Representation in General.—Consider a circle of radius a lying within the region of existence of a single valued monogenic function, u + iv, of the complex variable z, = x + iy, the origin z = 0 being the centre of this circle. If z = rE(iφ) = r(cosφ + i sinφ) be an internal point of this circle we have

where U + iV is the value of the function at a point of the circumference and t = aE(iθ); this is the same as

If in the above formula we replace z by the external point (a²/r) E(iφ) the corresponding contour integral will vanish, so that also

hence by subtraction we have

and a corresponding formula for v in terms of V. If O be the centre of the circle, Q be the interior point z, P the point aE(iθ) of the circumference, and ω the angle which QP makes with OQ produced, this integral is at once found to be the same as

of which the second part does not depend upon the position of z, and the equivalence of the integrals holds for every arc of integration.

§ 16. Multiple valued Functions. Algebraic Functions.—The explanations and definitions of a monogenic function hitherto given have been framed for the most part with a view to single valued functions. But starting from a power series, say in z − c, which represents a single value at all points of its circle of convergence, suppose that, by means of a derived series in z − c′, where c′ is interior to the circle of convergence, we can continue the function beyond this, and then by means of a series derived from the first derived series we can make a further continuation, and so on; it may well be that when, after a closed circuit, we again consider points in the first circle of convergence, the value represented may not agree with the original value. One example is the case z1/2, for which two values exist for any value of z; another is the generalized logarithm λ(z), for which there is an infinite number of values. In such cases, as before, the region of existence of the function consists of all points which can be reached by such continuations with power series, and the singular points, which are the limiting points of the point-aggregate constituting the region of existence, are those points in whose neighbourhood the radii of convergence of derived series have zero for limit. In this description the point z = ∞ does not occupy an exceptional position, a power series in z − c being transformed to a series in 1/z when z is near enough to c by means of z − c = c(1 − cz−1) [1 − (1 − cz−1)]−1, and a series in 1/z to a series in z − c, when z is near enough to c, by means of 1/z = 1/c [1 + (z − c / c)]−1.