The Project Gutenberg eBook of Division of Words

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Title: Division of Words

Author: Frederick W. Hamilton

Release date: November 6, 2005 [eBook #17016]
Most recently updated: December 12, 2020

Language: English

Credits: Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, Sigal Alon and
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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DIVISION OF WORDS *** 








Transcriber's Note:





1. Some examples which appear not to follow the preceding guideline are
printed thus in the original book. It looks as if sometimes the guideline is
mistaken.
  



2. Accented syllables are marked with a single quote (').
  



3. This book uses several diacritical marks for phonetics, the table below
lists the codings used: (the “x” represents a character with a diacritical
mark)


Macron (straight line) below   [x=]
2 dots (diaeresis) below       [x:]
Small capital I above          [Ix]











TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES—PART VI. NO. 35


DIVISION OF 

WORDS


RULES FOR THE DIVISION OF WORDS AT 

THE ENDS OF LINES, WITH REMARKS 

ON SPELLING, SYLLABICATION 

AND PRONUNCIATION


BY


FREDERICK W. HAMILTON, LL.D.


EDUCATIONAL DIRECTOR 

UNITED TYPOTHETÆ OF AMERICA


PUBLISHED BY THE COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION 

UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA 

1918


Copyright, 1918

United Typothetae of America

Chicago, Ill.





PREFACE


The principal purpose of this book is to give in brief
form the rules and usages governing the division of
words when the measure will not permit ending the word
and the line together. This matter is considered in its
relation to good spacing and to the legibility of the printed
page.


Leading up to the discussion will be found some consideration
of spelling, the formation of syllables, pronunciation,
and accent. This consideration is necessarily
brief, and no attempt has been made to give the rules for
spelling which are so frequently found in spelling books,
or any of them. In the writer's opinion such rules are of
very little practical value. Good spelling is not so much
the result of remembering and applying rules as it is of
observation, practice, and memory. The lists of certain
types of troublesome words may be found useful for ready
reference.


Syllable formation, pronunciation, and accent are considered
because it is hoped that the volumes of this series,
particularly those in Part VI (Correct Literary Composition)
and Part VIII (History of Printing), will contribute
something to the general education of the apprentice as
well as to his skill in the trade.




CONTENTS



[1]


DIVISION OF WORDS


The division of words when the words do not exactly
fit the register of the line has always been a source
of trouble. In the days of the manuscript makers devices
such as crowding letters, reducing their size, or omitting
them altogether were freely used and words were arbitrarily
divided when the scribes so desired. During the greater
part of the time every scribe divided as he pleased, often in
ways which seem very strange to us, like the Greek custom
of dividing always after a vowel and even dividing words
of one syllable. With the invention of printing, however,
the number of these devices was greatly diminished. It
became a matter of spacing out the line or dividing the
word. Of course that meant frequent word division and
called for a systematization of rules with regard to this
division. These rules for division are necessarily based on
spelling and syllabication.




SPELLING


The idea that there is one right way to combine the
letters representing a certain sound or group of sounds,
that is a word, and that all other ways are wrong and little
short of shameful is a comparatively new idea among us.
The English speaking folk held down to a comparatively
recent time that any group of letters which approximately
represented the sound was amply sufficient as a symbol of
the word. This sort of phonetic spelling was commonly
followed, and followed with great freedom. No obligation
was recognized to be consistent. In ordinary writing, such
as letters and the like, it is not unusual to find the same
word spelled in a variety of ways in the same document.


[2]The last century has brought about an attempt to standardize
spelling into conventional forms any departure from
which is regarded as highly derogatory to the writer. In
many cases these forms are fixed arbitrarily, and in
some there is even now disagreement among the highest
authorities. These difficulties and disagreements have
two reasons: First, English is a composite language,
drawn from many sources and at many periods; hence
purely philological and etymological influences intervene,
sometimes with marked results, while there is a difference
of opinion as to how far these influences ought to prevail.
Second, the English language uses an alphabet which fits
it very badly. Many letters have to do duty for the expression
of several sounds, and sometimes several of them have
nearly or quite the same sound. For example, there are a
number of distinct sounds of a, i, and o while g is sometimes
indistinguishable from j and c from k. This is not
always a matter of modification of sounds by the sounds of
other letters combined with them. One has to learn how
to pronounce cough, dough, enough, and plough, the ough
having four distinct sounds in these four words. Each one
of these sounds, by the way, could be exactly as well represented
by another combination of letters which would
be unmistakable, viz., coff, doe, enuff, and plow. It is
impossible to tell except by the context either the pronunciation
or the meaning of bow. If the ow is pronounced
as in low, it means a weapon. If the ow is pronounced as
in cow it may mean either an obeisance or the front end of
a boat.


This standardization of spelling is unfortunately not
quite complete, although nearly so. Concerning the vast
majority of the words in the English language there is no
difference of opinion. A few words are differently spelled
by different authorities. There are seven of these authorities
of the first rank, three English, Stormonth, the
Imperial Dictionary, and the Oxford Dictionary; and four
American, Webster's International, Worcester, the Century
Dictionary, and the Standard Dictionary. American
printers may ordinarily disregard the English authorities.


[3]Any one of the four American authorities may be safely
followed. In cases where two spellings are given in the
dictionary consulted, take the first one. Ordinarily a printing
office adopts one of the great authorities as a standard
and conforms the office style to it. All office copy will
follow it and all errors in copy from outside will be corrected
by it. Spellings differing from it will be regarded
as errors, even though supported by other authorities.


This rule, however, is subject to one very important
exception. The author has an unquestionable right to
choose his own dictionary or to use any spelling for which
there is any authority, English or American. If he has his
own ideas on the subject of spelling he should be very
careful that his manuscript is correctly spelled according to
his ideas, and clearly written or typed. He should also
indicate on the manuscript the authority he wishes used in
correcting the spelling in case of mistakes or illegible passages.
Every care should be taken to make the manuscript
copy as correct as possible and as legible as possible.
Such care may be very troublesome at first, but it will
result in great saving of expense.


In addition to the authorities named there are the rules
and “reformed” spellings adopted by the American Philological
Association and published by the United States
Government. These are followed fully in some offices,
partly in others, and in many not at all. This is a question
of the office style and the author's wish. If copy is clear
and spelled according to any authority, it is the compositor's
duty to follow it. If it is misspelled or illegible he is
to correct it according to the office style unless otherwise
directed by the author in writing. If furnished with such
a direction he is to follow it. This procedure will clear
the compositor of all blame. Any questions which then
arise lie between the author and the proofreader.


In the case of the reformed spellings, however, the
departure from the ordinary appearance of the words is
so great that the author cannot be allowed full freedom to
set aside the office style. If he is paying for the printing
he may insist on his spelling. If he is contributing to a
[4]periodical and the printing is done at the publisher's expense
it is for the publisher to determine the style of printing
to be used.


Any full consideration of the question of reformed spelling
is hardly in place in this book. The author may perhaps
be permitted one observation. Innovation in the use
of the English language would appear to be primarily the
work of scholars, and the adoption of such innovations
would seem to belong to the book printer rather than to
the commercial printer. The public mind as a whole is
conservative. It is not hospitable to changes and does
not soon become aware of them, much less familiar
with them. The commercial printer makes his appeal to
the mind of the general public. He will do well to use a
vehicle familiar, intelligible, and acceptable to it.


Correct spelling is mainly a matter of habit and observation.
To a certain extent it is a matter of careful pronunciation,
but this is not always a safe or even a possible guide.
The vowels preceding or following the one on which the
primary accent falls, sometimes called obscure vowels, are
so slurringly pronounced that even a pedantic precision will
hardly make it possible to indicate clearly which vowel is
used. The writer remembers seeing an examination paper
written by a fourth year medical student in which the word
fever was spelled fevor. A moment's thought will show
that so far as pronunciation is concerned the word might
be spelled fevar, fevir, fevor, fever, or fevur without any
appreciable difference. The correct spelling is merely a
matter of observation.


The author has on his desk at the moment of writing
these lines half a dozen good books, each containing a set
of rules for spelling. From these it would be easy to compile
a set of fairly good rules. Each of these rules, however,
has exceptions, in some cases quite numerous. To
remember these rules with their exceptions would be a
considerable mental task and to apply them would be cumbrous
and time consuming. The effort would probably
resolve itself into an actual learning of the words which
present difficulties. The best way to become a good
[5]speller is to form the habit of careful reading, observing
the form of every word as it passes before the eye and so
unconsciously fixing it in the memory. The dictionary
should be consulted whenever there is any doubt.


If you are to write a word, call up a mental picture of
it, and if the picture is not perfectly clear go to the dictionary
and fix a correct image of it in your mind. Be careful
to pronounce every word you use as correctly as possible
and you will get all the aid pronunciation can give you.
Careless speaking and careless reading are the two great
sources of incorrect spelling.


The following tables will be found useful in settling
practice with regard to certain troublesome classes of words.


I


American usage tends to the termination -ize where
English usage often sanctions -ise. Use the termination
-ise in



advertise

advise

appraise

apprise (to inform)

arise

chastise

circumcise

comprise

compromise

demise

devise

disfranchise

disguise

emprise

enfranchise

enterprise

exercise

exorcise

franchise

improvise

incise

merchandise

premise

reprise

revise

rise

supervise

surmise

surprise




Use the termination -ize or -yze in



aggrandize

agonize

analyze

anatomize

anglicize

apologize

apostrophize

apprize (to value)

authorize

baptize

brutalize

canonize

catechize

catholicize

cauterize

centralize

characterize

christianize

civilize

colonize

criticize

crystallize

demoralize

dogmatize

economize
[6]
emphasize

epitomize

equalize

eulogize

evangelize

extemporize

familiarize

fertilize

fossilize

fraternize

galvanize

generalize

gormandize

harmonize

immortalize

italicize

jeopardize

legalize

liberalize

localize

magnetize

memorialize

mesmerize

metamorphize

methodize

minimize

modernize

monopolize

moralize

nationalize

naturalize

neutralize

organize

ostracize

paralyze

particularize

pasteurize

patronize

philosophize

plagiarize

pulverize

realize

recognize

reorganize

revolutionize

satirize

scandalize

scrutinize

signalize

solemnize

soliloquize

specialize

spiritualize

standardize

stigmatize

subsidize

summarize

syllogize

symbolize

sympathize

tantalize

temporize

tranquilize

tyrannize

universalize

utilize

vaporize

vitalize

vocalize

vulcanize

vulgarize




II


Use the termination -ible in the following words:



accessible

admissible

appetible

apprehensible

audible

cessible

coercible

compatible

competible

comprehensible

compressible

conceptible

contemptible

contractible

controvertible

convertible

convincible

corrigible

corrosible

corruptible

credible

decoctible

deducible

defeasible

defensible

descendible

destructible

digestible

discernible

distensible

divisible

docible

edible

effectible
[7]
eligible

eludible

enforcible

evincible

expansible

expressible

extendible

extensible

fallible

feasible

fencible

flexible

forcible

frangible

fusible

gullible

horrible

illegible

immiscible

impassible

intelligible

irascible

legible

miscible

negligible

partible

passible (susceptible)

perceptible

permissible

persuasible

pervertible

plausible

possible

producible

reducible

reflexible

refrangible

remissible

reprehensible

resistible

responsible

reversible

revertible

risible

seducible

sensible

tangible

terrible

transmissible

visible




In all other cases use -able.


III


The following nouns end in -er.



abetter

abstracter

accepter

adapter

adviser

affirmer

aider

almoner

annoyer

arbiter

assenter

asserter

bailer

caster

censer (vessel)

concocter

condenser

conferrer

conjurer

consulter

continuer

contradicter

contriver

convener

conveyer

corrupter

covenanter

debater

defender

deliberater

deserter

desolater

deviser

discontinuer

disturber

entreater

exalter

exasperater

exciter

executer (except in law)

expecter

frequenter

granter

idolater

imposer

impugner

incenser

inflicter

insulter

interceder

interpreter

interrupter
[8]
inviter

jailer

lamenter

mortgager (except in law)

obliger

obstructer

obtruder

perfecter

perjurer

preventer

probationer

propeller

protester

recognizer

regrater

relater

respecter

sailer (ship)

sorcerer

suggester

supplanter

upholder

vender




The following nouns end in -or.



abbreviator

abductor

abettor (law)

abominator

abrogator

accelerator

acceptor

accommodator

accumulator

actor

adjudicator

adjutor

administrator

admonitor

adulator

adulterator

aggregator

aggressor

agitator

amalgamator

animator

annotator

antecessor

apparitor

appreciator

arbitrator

assassinator

assessor

benefactor

bettor

calculator

calumniator

captor

castor (oil)

censor

coadjutor

collector

competitor

compositor

conductor

confessor

conqueror

conservator

consignor

conspirator

constrictor

constructor

contaminator

contemplator

continuator

contractor

contributor

corrector

councillor

counsellor

covenantor (law)

creator

creditor

cultivator

cunctator

debtor

decorator

delator (law)

denominator

denunciator

depredator

depressor

deteriorator

detractor

dictator

dilator

director

dissector

disseizor

disseminator

distributor

divisor

dominator

donor

effector

elector

elevator

elucidator

emulator

enactor
[9]
equivocator

escheator

estimator

exactor

excavator

exceptor

executor (law)

exhibitor

explorator

expositor

expostulator

extensor

extirpator

extractor

fabricator

factor

flexor

fornicator

fumigator

generator

gladiator

governor

grantor (law)

habitator

imitator

impostor

impropriator

inaugurator

inceptor

incisor

inheritor

initiator

innovator

insinuator

institutor

instructor

interlocutor

interpolator

interrogator

inventor

investor

juror

lector

legator

legislator

lessor

mediator

modulator

monitor

mortgagor (law)

multiplicator

narrator

navigator

negotiator

nonjuror

numerator

objector

obligor (law)

observator

operator

originator

pacificator

participator

peculator

percolator

perforator

perpetrator

persecutor

perturbator

possessor

preceptor

precursor

predecessor

predictor

prevaricator

procrastinator

procreator

procurator

professor

progenitor

projector

prolocutor

promulgator

propagator

propitiator

proprietor

prosecutor

protector

protractor

purveyor

recognizor (law)

recriminator

reflector

regenerator

regulator

relator (law)

rotator

sacrificator

sailor (seaman)

scrutator

sculptor

sectator

selector

senator

separator

sequestrator

servitor

solicitor

spectator

spoliator

sponsor

successor

suitor

supervisor

suppressor

surveyor

survivor
[10]
testator

tormentor

traitor

transgressor

translator

valuator

vendor (law)

venerator

ventilator

vindicator

violator

visitor




IV


Words which in their shortest form end in -d, -de, -ge,
-unit, -rt, -se, -sr, take the ending -sion; e.g., abscind,
abscission; include, inclusion; emerge, emersion; remit, remission;
infuse, infusion; repress, repression.


All others take the ending -tion.


The following are irregularities:



adhesion

assertion

attention

coercion

cohesion

crucifixion

declension

dimension

dissension

distortion

divulsion

expulsion

impulsion

insertion

intention

occasion

propulsion

recursion

repulsion

revulsion

scansion

suspicion

tension

version




Words ending in -ance, -ence; -ancy, -ency; -ant, and
-ent, often cause confusion when carelessly written.


The following is a list of the more common words with
the e form.



abducent

abhorrence, -ent

abluent

absent, -ence

absorbent

abstergent

abstinence, -ent

adherence, -ent

advertency, -ent

affluence, -ent

antecedence, -ent

apparent

appertinent

appetence, -ency

ardent

benevolence, -ent

circumference

coexistence

coherence, -ent

coincidence, -ent

competence, -ent

concurrence, -ent

condolence
[11]
conference

confidence, -ent

confluence, -ent

consentient

consequence

consequent

consistence, -ent

consistency

constituent

continence, -ent

convenience, -ent

corpulence, -ent

correspondence, -ent

currency, -ent

deference

delinquency, -ent

dependence, -ent

deponent

descendent (adj.)

despondency, -ent

difference

diffidence, -ent

diffluent

efficiency, -ent

eminence, -ency

eminent

excellence, -ency

excellent

existence, -ent

expediency

feculence, -ent

flocculence, -ent

fluency, -ent

fraudulence, -ent

imminence, -ent

impatience, -ent

impellent

imprudence, -ent

impudence, -ent

incipience, -ent

incumbency, -ent

independence, -ent

indolence, -ent

inference

inherence, -ent

intermittent

iridescence, -ent

lambent

latency, -ent

leniency, -ent

magniloquence, -ent

malevolence, -ent

mellifluence, -ent

mollient

obedience, -ent

occurrence, -ent

omniscience, -ent

opulence, -ency

opulent

patience, -ent

pendent (adj.)

pendency

penitence, -ent

permanence, -ent

permanency

pertinence, -ent

pestilence, -ent

poculent

portent

potency, -ent

precedence, -ent

preference

prescience, -ent

presence, -ent

presidency, -ent

proficiency, -ent

prominence, -ent

proponent
[12]
providence, -ent

prudence, -ent

purulence, -ent

quintessence

recurrence, -ent

reference

refluence, -ent

repellent

residence, -ency

resident

resolvent

resplendence, -ent

respondent

reverence, -ent

sentient

solvency, -ent

somnolency, -ent

subserviency, -ent

subsidence, -ency

subsistence, -ent

succulent

superintendence

superintendency

superintendent

tendence, -ency

transcendence, -ent

transcendency

transference

transient

transparency, -ent

transplendency, -ent

turbulence, -ent

vicegerency, -ent

virulence, -ent




Nearly all other words of this type take the a form.




The instructor should drill the pupils in spelling not only
these “catch” words, but a wide range of English words.
These lessons may be taken to advantage from some of the
books mentioned in the list for supplementary reading,
from any other good spelling book, or even from the pages
of any well printed book or magazine. The words should
be given out orally and written down by the pupil. A good
exercise is the reading of a paragraph from any good book,
or some stanza of poetry, the passage read to be taken
down by the pupil with care to spell, punctuate, and
capitalize properly.


A number of topics sometimes treated under the head
of spelling will be found discussed in the “Printer's Manual
of Style” (No. 41).




PRONUNCIATION


The English language is a difficult one to pronounce as
well as to spell. This arises from two causes. The
English language has some sounds not generally found in
[13]other languages, such as w and th. As has already been
pointed out, the alphabet fits the language very badly.
Careful lexicographers indicate no less than seven sounds
of a, five of e, three of i, four of o and six of u, as shown
in the following table:



ā as in āle

[Ia] as in sen[Ia]te

ă as in ăm

á as in ásk

[a:] as in [a:]ll

ä as in fäther

(a) as in fin(a)l



ē as in ēve

ĕ as in ĕnd

[Ie] as in ev[Ie]nt

ẽ as in fẽrn

(e) as in prud(e)nce



ī as in īce

[Ii] as in [Ii]dea

ĭ as in pĭn



ō as in ōld

[Io] as in [Io]pen

ŏ as in ŏdd

ô as in ôrb



ū as in ūse

[Iu] as in [Iu]nite

ŭ as in ŭp

[u:] as in r[u:]de

[u=] as in f[u=]ll

û as in ûrn




In addition to these there are diphthongs, combinations of
vowel sounds pronounced as one syllable, such as



ou as in out

oi as in oil




There are also a number of digraphs or combinations of
vowels or consonants which have but one sound, such as



ai as in rain

eo as in people

ou as in soup

ou as in soul

ph as in phalanx

ch as in chorus or chair




C has two sounds, hard before a, o, and u, as in cat, cot,
and cut, and soft before e, i, and y, as in cell, city, and cycle.


G has two sounds, hard before a, o, and u, as in gate,
gone, and gun, soft before e, i, and y, as in gem, gin, and
gyve, although it is sometimes hard before i as in girl.


Ch is sometimes soft as in chair and arch, and sometimes
hard as in choir.


[14]Th has two sounds, soft, or surd, as in thin and death,
and hard, or sonant, as in then and smooth.


S has two sounds, soft, or surd, as in soft and this, and
hard, or sonant, as in has and wise.


We have, therefore, twenty-six letters with which to
express fifty or more sounds, not counting the digraphs
and diphthongs.


Correct pronunciation depends upon three things, correct
sounding of the letters, correct division into syllables,
and correct placing of the accent.


A syllable is the smallest separately articulated, or pronounced,
element in speech, or one of the parts into which
speech is broken. It consists of a vowel alone or accompanied
by one or more consonants and separated by them,
or by a pause, from a preceding or following vowel. This
division of words into syllables is indicated in dictionaries
by the use of the hyphen thus: sub-trac-tion, co-or-din-ate.
It will be observed that in the first of these examples the
vowels are all separated by consonants, while in the second
two of them are separated by a pause only.


The English language has the further peculiarity of
using l and n as vowels in syllabication, as in middle
(mid-dl) and reck-on (reck-n).




The illustrations from this point to the end of this section on page 16 are not typographic
divisions. They concern pronunciation only.




The division of words into syllables for pronunciation
is generally, but not always, the same as that which
should be followed in case the word has to be divided
typographically. As these text-books are intended to help
the apprentice as a speaker and writer of English as well as
a printer, it is worth while to give some attention to syllabication
for pronunciation before proceeding to discuss
typographical division.


Two letters forming a diphthong or digraph are not to be
separated. Coin-age (oi diphthong) but co-in-ci-dence (oi
not a diphthong). Excess (ss digraph, pronounced practically
like a single s) gives ex-cess-es, ex-cess-ive, etc.
Whether or not the letters thus occurring together form
a diphthong or digraph will depend on the derivation of
[15]the word, thus in cat-head (verb), a nautical term, th is not
a digraph but in ca-the-dral th is a digraph, as is usually the
case with these two letters. You would not say cat-hed-ral.


Two vowels, or a vowel and a diphthong, coming
together but sounded separately belong to separate syllables.


A-or-ta, co-op-er-ate, but coop-er-age, moi-e-ty.


Do not end a syllable with


(a) c or g when soft, en-ti-cing, but dic-tion, wa-ges
but wag-on.


(b) t, s, z, c, sc, g, and d, when followed by i or e
giving the sound of sh; ra-tion-al, o-cean, re-gion,
as-cen-sion.


(c) d, s, t, and z when followed by u giving the
sound of ch, sh, zh, or j, cen-sure, sei-zure, na-ture,
ver-dure.


Do not begin a syllable with


(a) x with the sound of ks or gs, anx-ious, ex-act-ly.


(b) r preceded by a or e; par-ent, av-er-age, but by
exception, pa-rent-al.


(c) Single l, n, or v, followed by i with the sound of
y consonant; fol-io (fol-yo), gen-ius (gen-yus), sav-ior
(sav-yor).


Prefixes and suffixes are generally separated, yel-low-ish,
eat-able, pre-lude. This last word is sometimes pronounced
prel-ude and this pronunciation has some dictionary support,
but it is objectionable.


A consonant or digraph between two sounded vowels
usually joins the following vowel, rea-son, no-ti-fy, mo-ther.


When two or three consonants capable of beginning a
syllable come between two sounded vowels they may all be
joined to the following vowel.


(a) When the preceding vowel is long and accented;
en-a-bling, He-brew, i-dler.


(b) When the following vowel is an accented syllable;
o-blige, re-dress.


When two or three consonants capable of beginning a
syllable come between two sounded vowels one may be
joined to the preceding vowel.


(a) When the vowel is short; tab-let, res-cue, mus-ket.


[16](b) When the consonants are st, str, or sp, if either
the preceding or following vowel is accented; mis-tress,
aus-tere, oys-ter, sus-pect.


When a consonant is doubled (not forming a digraph)
the two are generally separated; beg-gar, bril-liant, cun-ning.


The old-fashioned method of oral spelling by syllables
m-a-s-mas-t-e-r-ter-master will be found extremely useful in
teaching correct syllabication. It is recommended that
constant use be made of it in spelling drill.




ACCENT


When a word consists of two syllables one of them
receives more stress of voice than the other. This stress
of voice is called accent. If the word consists of three or
more syllables there is usually another syllable stressed in
somewhat less degree. This is called a secondary accent.
In some cases there may even be a third accent if the word
is very long; In'-come, val-e-tu'-di-na'-ri-an. This fact arises
from the tendency natural to all human speech to take more
or less musical forms. The monotony of a series of
stressed or of unstressed sounds would be unbearable.
The pronunciation of such a series would be a highly artificial
and very difficult performance. Correct pronunciation
is very greatly concerned with the proper placing of
the accent. Indeed the meaning of a familiar word may
be quite obscured by a misplaced accent. For example,
he-red'-it-ary is a very familiar word, but when pronounced
he-red-it'-ary, as it was habitually by a friend of the author,
we have to stop and think before catching the meaning.


The placing of the accent in English is subject to two
general rules.


I The accent clings to the syllable which gives the
meaning to the word, or in technical terms, the root
syllable, re-call', in-stall', in-stal-la'-tion (accent falling
on the syllable which defines the word as a noun),
in-her'-it.


II Where the root syllable is not known the accent
falls on the first syllable, with secondary accents
following at intervals to relieve the voice.


[17]This last tendency not infrequently supersedes the other,
partly from the natural habit of the language, and partly
because the average man is not an etymologist and knows
very little about the derivation of the words he uses. For
example, in Shakespeare's time English people followed
the first rule and said re-ven'-ue, but now we say rev'-e-nue.


These two rules will serve as a good general guide to
accent. Attention should be paid to the pronunciation of
good speakers, and care taken to follow it. In case of
doubt the dictionary should be consulted and the proper
accent carefully fixed in the mind.




DIVISION OF WORDS


When the words do not fit the line what shall we do?
The early printers used only one kind of spaces. In setting
a line of type they proceeded until there was no room in
the line for the next complete word of the copy. Then
they filled out the line with spaces and began the next word
on the next line. The length of the register being known
in advance and nothing but spaces being used in setting the
line, the compositor was spared much that makes composition
at once a hard labor and a fine art. The result was
an irregular margin at the right such as we now see in
typewritten letters.


With improvements in types and typography the squaring
out of the page soon came into fashion. In many cases
this can be done by the careful use of spaces so as to bring
a certain number of words squarely out to the end of the
line. There have been printers who have insisted that this
should always be done. Their efforts have not, however,
been successful. They result in a freakish looking page
with white spots in the lines where letters or words have
been spaced out to fill the register. It would be better, on
the whole, to resort to the practice of the old masters and
leave the right-hand margin irregular.


Ordinarily the difficulty has been met by dividing words
and putting a part of a word on one line and the rest of it
on another, indicating the break by a hyphen. The
hyphen in such a case is always the closing character in the
[18]first line. Clearly this division must be so made as to assist
the reader in his task. The primary purpose of all printing
is to be read. Anything that adds to the legibility of the
printing improves it; anything that detracts from its legibility
harms it. How can we so divide words that the
legibility and intelligibility of the text will be maintained,
the line justified to register, and the beauty of the page
enhanced? These ends—legibility, intelligibility, and
beauty—are the aims of all the rules which have been
devised for the division of words. These are the things
the reader will see and by them he will judge the results.
He will probably know nothing about the rules by which
the compositor gains his results. The compositor needs
to know the rules, but to remember always that they are
only means by which to secure results.


There have been several attempts to devise systems of
division, but no one of them is thoroughly consistent or
universally adopted.


One system requires the division of a word when the
pronunciation will permit on the vowel at the end of the
syllable. It has the defect of making no provision for
syllables that end in consonants. Moreover, if rigorously
applied it would give us such divisions as ca-pa-ci-ty, cata-stro-phe,
lexi-co-gra-pher, pre-fe-rence, pro-gno-sti-cate, and
re-co-gnize.


Another system requires the division of consolidated
words at the junction of their elements, for example:



magn-animous

cata-clysm

found-ation

oceano-graphy

theo-logy

know-ledge

lexi-co-grapher

in-fer-ence

pre-judice

pro-gnos-ticate

pro-position

typo-graphy




In some cases this rule would lead to queer looking divisions.
More serious objections are that the system does
not provide for words that are long enough to be divided
but are yet not consolidated words, and, most of all, that
the average compositor is not an accomplished etymologist
and knows very little about the derivation, make up, and
compounding of the words he has to set up. He may be
[19]familiar, for example with the word rheostat, but it would
puzzle him to tell from what language it is derived, while
the word enclave would probably send him to the dictionary
for meaning as well as derivation, unless he happened to
be used to one particular kind of writing.


Another system, and probably on the whole the best
one, requires the division of the word on the accented
syllable.



theol-ogy

catas-trophe

geog-raphy

lexi-cog-rapher

pref-erence

prog-nos-ticate




It will be noted that some of these examples show division
in more than one place, that is on the syllables which
bear either the primary or the secondary accent. This rule
does not provide for the cases when the division must come
on an unaccented syllable. The cases, however, when the
division cannot be made to come on either the syllable
bearing the primary accent or one bearing a secondary
accent will be comparatively few.




RULES FOR DIVISION OF WORDS


I The general rule, then, is to divide according to pronunciation,
not according to etymology or any hard and
fast rule.


As far as possible, consistently with pronunciation
and good spacing, divide according to meaning and
derivation, where known.


un-even, not une-ven, auto-mobile, not automo-bile, en-abled,
not ena-bled.


II Divide on a vowel wherever practicable. In case a
vowel alone forms a syllable in the middle of a word it
should be run into the first line.



busi-ness

sepa-rate

criti-cism

particu-lar

colo-nies

dou-ble

pro-gress

pro-duct

noi-sy

wo-man

pa-tron

me-moir




III When two consonants meet between vowels, and the
syllable ends on one consonant, the division may properly
[20]be made between the consonants, the pronunciation determining
the place of division.



advan-tage

plain-tiff

Wil-liam

exces-sive

scur-rilous

mas-ter

gram-mar

profes-sor

moun-tain




IV When three consonants come together between
two vowels the first of which is short, the division comes
after the first consonant.



han-dle

chil-dren

frus-trate




V A single consonant between two vowels should be
joined to the first vowel, if it is short; if the first vowel is
long the consonant goes with the second.



riv-er

ri-val




VI Diphthongs should not be divided.



peo-ple

Cae-sar




VII Words compounded with a prefix should preferably
be divided on the prefix.



dis-avow

in-herit

un-concern




VIII The terminations -able, -ible, -tion, -cial, -tive, and
-ive should go over to the next line.



read-able

convert-ible

inten-tion

discuss-ion




The termination -sion ordinarily goes over as in



occa-sion

apprehen-sion

cis-sion

declen-sion




Occasionally, however, the strong emphasis needed
for the s will call for a different arrangement, as in
divis-ion.


IX The terminations -ing, -en, -ed, -er, -est, and the plural
-es go over to the next line except when the preceding
consonant is doubled, or when they follow c or g soft.



lead-ing

beat-en

larg-er, but

lat-ter

for-cing

ran-ging




X Do not end a line with j or with c or g soft.



pro-cess

ne-cessary

pre-judice

prog-eny




XI Adjectives in ical divide on the i.



physi-cal

inimi-cal




[21]XII In derivatives of words ending in -t, the division
follows the accent.


objec-tion, not object-ion, defec-tion, not defect-ion, but
respec-tively, not respect-ively and distinc-tion, not distinct-ion.


XIII Never separate c and g from the vowels e, i, and
y upon which their soft sound depends.



re-li-gion

ca-pa-ci-ty




XIV Never separate q from u, qu is a single sound.


XV Do not divide nothing.


XVI Do not divide words of four letters.


XVII Do not divide words of five or six letters if it can
be avoided. Good spacing, however, must be considered
of first importance.


XVIII In wide measures (20 ems or more) do not divide
so as to end or begin a line with a syllable of two letters. Here
again, however, good spacing is the first consideration.


XIX Do not divide words of two syllables pronounced
as one, including past participles of short words.



heaven

power

prayer

beamed

often




XX Avoid additional hyphens in hyphenated words if
possible.



object-lesson

fellow-being

poverty-stricken




XXI Do not separate a divisional mark (a), (1) from
the matter to which it pertains.


XXII Do not divide an amount stated in figures.


XXIII Do not divide proper names, especially those of
persons, if it can be avoided.


XXIV Do not divide initials or such combinations as
a.m., B.C.


XXV Do not divide the last word on a page so as to
carry a part of it to the next page.


XXVI Do not divide the last word of the last full line
of a paragraph.


XXVII More than two divisions in successive lines
should be avoided.


XXVIII Never divide at all if you can help it.


[22]


IMPORTANCE OF SPACING


It must always be remembered that good spacing is the
first consideration. Nothing is more offensive to the eye
of a good judge of printing than bad spacing. “Rivers” of
white, dark spots, crowded black text, are very serious
blemishes to a page. An ordinary book page is a study in
color, the colors employed being black and white. Proper
combination, balance, and proportion are as important here
as in places where a variety of colors is employed. Many
of the foregoing rules must be held subject to the exigencies
of proper spacing. A rigid adherence, for example, to the
rule that not more than two consecutive lines should end
with divided words will not justify a badly spaced, unsightly
line. There are many things that look worse than a hyphen
at the end of the last full line in a paragraph. Avoidance
of dividing the last word on a page, however, would justify
even bad spacing, because of the gain to the reader. In
the last resort, the interests of the reader must always have
first consideration.


Division is greatly affected by the length of the measure.
A long measure, 18 or 20 ems or more, gives greater
opportunity for arranging the spacing, but, on the other
hand, makes division on short syllables conspicuous and
out of proportion. Very short register, as in two-column
Bibles or in cases where illustrations are inserted in the
text, presents very great difficulties and often calls for
division which would not be allowable elsewhere. Such
cases often call for the exercise of the greatest care and
ingenuity.


It often happens that the author can be of great assistance
to the printer in making a handsome page. A change of
a phrase, or even of a word will avoid a difficulty which
cannot be avoided by a printer except at the cost of bad
division or bad spacing. If the author is a sensible person
he will gladly cooperate with the printer in giving his
thoughts clothing appropriate to their intrinsic beauty and
value. After the printer has exhausted his resources he
should not hesitate to carry his troubles to the author.


[23]


DIVISION IN LINES OF DISPLAY


As a rule division is never used in lines of display. In
these cases the display is the important thing. Every word
long enough to be divided is important enough to be displayed
and emphasized. Divided words are weakened
words. Lines of irregular lengths are used of set purpose.


In title pages words of bold display must never be divided.
In minor lines of display, such as subtitles and summaries,
words are often divided. A subheading of two
lines should never be divided in the first line when it is
possible to turn the full word over on to the next line. The
shortening of the first line is never a blemish, but a too
short second line following a hyphened first line is always
a fault.


There is a school of ultra-artistic composition in book
titles which affects a solid squaring up and hesitates at no
means to secure its effects. It sets a definite measure and
forces the lines into it, dividing words arbitrarily and using
no hyphen. This is a passing fancy and will pass as
eccentricities always pass. It should not be used unless
the author insists upon it. The man who pays the bills
has a right to have his work done as he pleases. The
intelligent printer, however, will not allow the peculiarities
of the individual customer to affect his general practice.


Note


The pupil is referred to the appendix to DeVinne's
“Correct Composition” for rules for the division of French,
German, and Spanish words. The same appendix contains
also a very excellent list of words which are spelled differently
by different authorities, together with divisions for
them.


[24]


SUPPLEMENTARY READING


Correct Composition. By Theodore L. DeVinne. Oswald Publishing
Co., New York.


The Writer's Desk Book. By William Dana Orcutt. Frederick
A. Stokes Co., New York.


A Manual for Writers. By John Matthews Manly and John Arthur
Powell. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago.


Worcester's New Pronouncing Spelling Book. The American
Book Company, New York.


The Art of Writing and Speaking the English Language: Dictionary
of Errors. By Sherwin Cody. The Old Greek Press, Chicago.


(This is one of a series of six very excellent but inexpensive little books bearing the same
general title and by the same author. They will be found very useful in connection with Part
VI of the Typographic Technical Series generally.)


[25]


QUESTIONS


1. Is the spelling of English standardized?


2. How long have we considered correct spelling important?


3. What two causes exist for difficulties in spelling?


4. What are the principal English authorities?


5. What are the principal American authorities?


6. How are these authorities used in printing offices?


7. What are the rights and duties of the author in the
matter of spelling?


8. What may be done in matter of “reformed” spelling?


9. What is a safe attitude for the commercial printer
toward “reformed” spelling, and why?


10. On what does correct spelling mainly depend?


11. What is the best way to become a good speller?


12. Why is English difficult to pronounce?


13. What is a diphthong?


14. What is a digraph?


15. What are the two sounds each of c, g, de, th, and s?
Give examples of each.


16. How many letters are there in the English alphabet
and how many sounds do they express?


17. Upon what does correct pronunciation depend?


18. What is a syllable, and of what does it consist?


19. What peculiar use is made of l and n in English?


20. How do we treat the parts of a diphthong or digraph?


21. How do we know whether or not these compounds
are diphthongs or digraphs?


22. What about vowel combinations?


23. With what should a syllable not end?


24. With what should a syllable not begin?


25. What is the rule regarding prefixes and suffixes?


26. How do we treat two or three consonants capable of
beginning a syllable?


[26]27. How do we treat two or three consonants capable of
ending a syllable?


28. How do we treat doubled consonants?


29. What is accent?


30. Do words ever have more than one accent, and why?


31. What are the two general rules for the placing of
accent?


32. What did the early printers do when the words did
not fit the line, and why?


33. What practice came into use later?


34. What methods of doing this have been devised?


35. What considerations govern practice in this regard?


36. Give two systems of division which have been proposed.


37. What is the general rule for division?


38. What is the rule about vowels?


39. What is the rule about two consonants?


40. What is the rule about three consonants?


41. What should you do with a single consonant between
two vowels?


42. How should you treat diphthongs?


43. What is the rule for words compounded with a
prefix?


44. What should be done with the terminations -able,
-ible, -tion, -cial, -tive, -ive, and -sion?


45. What should be done with the terminations -ing,
-en, -ed, -er, and -est, and the plural -es?


46. What letters should not end a line?


47. How are adjectives in ical treated?


48. How are derivatives of words ending in -t treated?


49. What is the special rule about c and g?


50. What is the rule about qu, and why?


51. What is the rule about nothing?


52. What is the rule about words of four letters?


53. How should you treat words of five or six letters?


54. What should be avoided in wide measures?


55. How should you treat words of two syllables pronounced
as one?


56. How should hyphenated compounds be treated?


[27]57. What should you do with divisional marks?


58. How should you treat amounts stated in figures?


59. How should you treat proper names?


60. How are initials and similar combinations treated?


61. What is the rule about the last word on a page?


62. What is the rule about the last word of the last full
line of a paragraph?


63. What is the rule about divisions in successive lines?


64. What is the rule about division generally?


65. What effect has spacing on deciding about division?


66. What effect has length of measure on division?


67. What can you do when the text presents unusual
difficulty as to spacing and division?


68. What is the rule about division in lines of display,
and what is the reason for it?


69. What is the usage with regard to division on title
pages?


70. What can you say about eccentricities in the author's
or customer's ideas about division and lay-out?




As in the other volumes of this Part, the instructor should not content
himself with having the student learn the rules. He should give
drills in spelling and pronunciation and should give problems in composition
involving the application of rules. Constant and prolonged
practice is indispensable to proficiency in all these matters.


[i]


TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES

FOR APPRENTICES


The following list of publications, comprising the Typographic
Technical Series for Apprentices, has been prepared
under the supervision of the Committee on Education of the
United Typothetae of America for use in trade classes, in course of
printing instruction, and by individuals.


Each publication has been compiled by a competent author or
group of authors, and carefully edited, the purpose being to provide
the printers of the United States—employers, journeymen,
and apprentices—with a comprehensive series of handy and
inexpensive compendiums of reliable, up-to-date information upon
the various branches and specialties of the printing craft, all
arranged in orderly fashion for progressive study.


The publications of the series are of uniform size, 5×8 inches.
Their general make-up, in typography, illustrations, etc., has
been, as far as practicable, kept in harmony throughout. A brief
synopsis of the particular contents and other chief features of each
volume will be found under each title in the following list.


Each topic is treated in a concise manner, the aim being to
embody in each publication as completely as possible all the
rudimentary information and essential facts necessary to an understanding
of the subject. Care has been taken to make all statements
accurate and clear, with the purpose of bringing essential
information within the understanding of beginners in the different
fields of study. Wherever practicable, simple and well-defined
drawings and illustrations have been used to assist in giving
additional clearness to the text.


In order that the pamphlets may be of the greatest possible
help for use in trade-school classes and for self-instruction, each
title is accompanied by a list of Review Questions covering
essential items of the subject matter. A short Glossary of technical
terms belonging to the subject or department treated is also
added to many of the books.


These are the Official Text-books of the United Typothetae of
America.


Address all orders and inquiries to Committee on Education,
United Typothetae of America, Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A.


[ii]


PART I—Types, Tools, Machines, and Materials


[iii]


PART II—Hand and Machine Composition



PART III—Imposition and Stonework[iv]



PART IV—Presswork



PART V—Pamphlet and Book Binding



PART VI—Correct Literary Composition


[v]


PART VII—Design, Color, and Lettering


[vi]


PART VIII—History of Printing



[vii]
PART IX—Cost Finding and Accounting



PART X—Miscellaneous



[viii]


ACKNOWLEDGMENT


This series of Typographic Text-books is the result of the
splendid co-operation of a large number of firms and individuals
engaged in the printing business and its allied industries
in the United States of America.


The Committee on Education of the United Typothetae of
America, under whose auspices the books have been prepared and
published, acknowledges its indebtedness for the generous assistance
rendered by the many authors, printers, and others identified
with this work.


While due acknowledgment is made on the title and copyright
pages of those contributing to each book, the Committee nevertheless
felt that a group list of co-operating firms would be of
interest.


The following list is not complete, as it includes only those who
have co-operated in the production of a portion of the volumes,
constituting the first printing. As soon as the entire list of books
comprising the Typographic Technical Series has been completed
(which the Committee hopes will be at an early date), the full list
will be printed in each volume.


The Committee also desires to acknowledge its indebtedness to
the many subscribers to this Series who have patiently awaited its
publication.



Committee on Education,

United Typothetae of America.



Henry P. Porter, Chairman,

E. Lawrence Fell,

A.M. Glossbrenner,

J. Clyde Oswald,

Toby Rubovits.





Frederick W. Hamilton, Education Director.




[ix]


CONTRIBUTORS


For Composition and Electrotypes



Isaac H. Blanchard Company, New York, N.Y.

S.H. Burbank & Co., Philadelphia, Pa.

J.S. Cushing & Co., Norwood, Mass.

The DeVinne Press, New York, N.Y.

R.R. Donnelley & Sons Co., Chicago, Ill.

Geo. H. Ellis Co., Boston, Mass.

Evans-Winter-Hebb, Detroit, Mich.

Franklin Printing Company, Philadelphia, Pa.

F.H. Gilson Company, Boston, Mass.

Stephen Greene & Co., Philadelphia, Pa.

W.F. Hall Printing Co., Chicago, Ill.

J.B. Lippincott Co., Philadelphia, Pa.

McCalla & Co. Inc., Philadelphia, Pa.

The Patteson Press, New York, New York

The Plimpton Press, Norwood, Mass.

Poole Bros., Chicago, Ill.

Edward Stern & Co., Philadelphia, Pa.

The Stone Printing & Mfg. Co., Roanoke, Va.

C.D. Traphagen, Lincoln, Neb.

The University Press, Cambridge, Mass.




For Composition



Boston Typothetae School of Printing, Boston, Mass.

William F. Fell Co., Philadelphia, Pa.

The Kalkhoff Company, New York, N.Y.

Oxford-Print, Boston, Mass.

Toby Rubovits, Chicago, Ill.




For Electrotypes



Blomgren Brothers Co., Chicago, Ill.

Flower Steel Electrotyping Co., New York, N.Y.

C.J. Peters & Son Co., Boston, Mass.

Royal Electrotype Co., Philadelphia, Pa.

H.C. Whitcomb & Co., Boston, Mass.




For Engravings



American Type Founders Co., Boston, Mass.

C.B. Cottrell & Sons Co., Westerly, R.I.

Golding Manufacturing Co., Franklin, Mass.

Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.

Inland Printer Co., Chicago, Ill.

Lanston Monotype Machine Company, Philadelphia, Pa.

Mergenthaler Linotype Company, New York, N.Y.

Geo. H. Morrill Co., Norwood, Mass.

Oswald Publishing Co., New York, N.Y.

The Printing Art, Cambridge, Mass.

B.D. Rising Paper Company, Housatonic, Mass.

The Vandercook Press, Chicago, Ill.




For Book Paper



American Writing Paper Co., Holyoke, Mass.

West Virginia Pulp & Paper Co., Mechanicville, N.Y.